understanding consumer buying behaviour

1. Formation and Change

2. Consumer researchers assess attitudes by asking questions or making inferences from
behaviour. If a consumer consistently buys a specific brand and even recommends
others to buy it, then it is likely to be inferred that he possesses a positive attitude
towards that object.
.Attitudes are not directly observable but can be inferred from what people say
(opinions, intentions) or what they do.
.A whole universe of consumer behaviors—consistency of purchases, recommendations
to others, top rankings,beliefs,evaluatitions,and intentions– are related to attitudes. In a
consumer behaviour context, in fact, an attitude is a learned (acquired) predisposition
to behave in a consistent (favorably or unfavorably) way with respect to a given
(specific) object.
.The word ‘specific object’ may refer to specific consumption-or marketing related
concepts, such as product, product categoy,brand,service,possessions,product use,
causes or issues, people advertisement, internet site, price, medium, or retailer.
-Attitude is formed/acquired as a result of direct experience with the product, WOM,
exposure to mass-media, advertising, the Net, or even various forms of direct
marketing.
.It is consistent but not necessarily permanent and they do change. When consumers
are free to act as they wish it is expected that their actions will be consistent with their
attitudes.
.Attitudes may occur or correspond to a particular situation.

3. For example, consumer's preferences for various burger chains (for instance, Burger
King, McDonald's, or Wendy’s) may vary in terms of eating situations (that is lunch, or
snack, evening meal when rushed for time, or evening meal with family when not
rushed for time). A consumer’s preference may also change under certain sudden
situations (contingencies),but that does not alter his preferences that exist under usual
and normal situations. Hence, unlike contingencies usual situations do not break the
consistency between attitudes and behaviour.

4. STRUCTURAL MODELS OF ATTITUDE
There are models that try to capture the underlying dimensions of an attitude; understanding
which will help us understand the relationship between the attitude and behaviour in a better way.
TRICOMPONENT ATTITUDE MODEL
The cognitive component +The affective component +The conative component
THE COGNITIVE COMPONENT
The cognitive component represents the cognitions (knowledge and perceptions acquired through
direct experience with the specific product and related information from various sources such as
colleagues, WOM, media, web sites among others).The cognitions commonly take the form of
‘beliefs’ that the object possesses certain attributes. This belief will play a crucial role in making
the product selection.

5. Product
Brand
Attributes
POCKET DIGITAL ORGANIZERS
3 Com Palm Pilot Casio Cassiopeia
Ease
of use
Handwriting
feature
PC
backup
Other
features
Ease of
use
Hand-
writing
feature
PC
backup
Other
features
Beliefs Very
easy
to use
A little effort
to learn a
few rules
Simple
one
button
Doesn’t
have
built-in
drawing
feature
A longer
learning
curve
Easy, but
a little
learning
Some
learning
Has
drawing
and
voice-
recording
features
Evaluations ++++ +++ ++ _ + ++ ++ +++
A Consumer's Belief System for Two Brands of Pocket Digital Organizers

6. THE AFFECTIVE COMPONENT
It represents a consumer’s emotions or feelings about a product/brand. These emotions are
primarily evaluative in nature in that the individual rates a product as ‘favorable’ or
‘unfavorable’, ‘good’ or ‘bad.’
Selected Evaluative Scale Used to Gauge Consumers’Attitude toward Perfume
Compared to other brands in the same product category Dove is:
Affect-laden experiences also manifest themselves as emotionally charged states (such as
happiness,joy,shame,disgust,anger,distress,guilt ,or surprise).Such emotional states may enhance
or amplify positive or negative experiences and that later recollections of such experiences (sort
of déjà vu feelings) may further impact what comes to mind and how the individual acts. For
example, an individual with a favorable attitude towards a shopping –mall is likely to get into a
happy state of mind upon visiting it and recall his past positive experiences that may make him
indulge in shopping. He may also influence his social circle towards visiting the same place for
shopping.
Good 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bad
Positive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Negative
Pleasant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unpleasant
Appealing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unappealing

7. In addition to using direct or global evaluative measures of an attitude-object as depicted in the
previous table, a battery of affective scales is also used that measures feelings and emotions to
construct a picture of consumers’ overall feelings about a product/service ,or ad.
Measuring Consumers’ Feelings and Emotions with Regard to Using HUL’s Dove Soap
For the past ten days you have had a chance to try Dove Soap. We’d appreciate if you would
identify how your face felt after using the product during the trial period. For each of the words
below, please mark an “X” in the box (on a five-point scale) corresponding to your experience
after applying Dove on your face.
Very much
(5)
Much
(4)
Little
(3)
Very little
(2)
Not at all ( 1
My face felt relaxed
My face felt beautiful
My face felt soft
My face felt smooth
My face felt supple
My face felt clean
My face felt refreshed
My face felt pampered
My face felt revived
My face felt renewed

8. THE CONATIVE COMPONENT
The conative component is frequently treated as an expression of the consumers’
intention/likelihood/tendency/willingness to make a purchase or behaving in a particular way. In
fact, it may include the actual behaviour itself. An ‘intention-to-buy scale measures this
tendency.Interestigly, consumers who are asked to respond to an intention-to-buy scale appear to
be more likely to make a brand purchase for positively evaluated brands as contrasted to
consumers who were not asked to respond to an intention question. This suggests that a positive
brand commitment in the form of a positive answer to an attitude intention question impacts in a
positive way on the actual brand purchase.
Two examples of intention-to –Buy Scales
Which of the following statements best describes the chance that you will buy Adidas Shoes the
next time you buy a sports shoe?
------------- I definitely will buy it.
------------- I probably will buy it.
--------------I am uncertain whether I will buy it.
-------------- I probably will not buy it.
------------- I definitely will not buy it.
How likely you are to buy Old Spice After Shave during the next three months?
---------------Very likely
--------------- Likely
----------------Unlikely
----------------Very unlikely

9. MULTIATTRIBUTE ATTITUDE MODELS
These models portray consumers’ attitudes toward specific objects (such as
product/service/direct-mail catalog, or a cause, or an issue) as a function of consumers'
perception and assessment of the key attributes or beliefs held with regard to the particular object.
A. The Attitude -Toward-Object Model
The model specially measures attitudes towards a product(or service) or specific brand.
Consumers generally have favorable attitude towards those brands that they believe have an
adequate level of attributes that they evaluate as positive and have opposite attitude towards those
they feel do not have the desired attributes or have too many negative attributes. Context: core
product features, generic, expected, augmented and potential product features. However, what
consumers will purchase is a function of how much they know, what they feel are the important
features for them, and their awareness as to whether particular brands possess(or lack) these
valued attributes.
B.The Attitude -Toward-Behaviour Model
The model deals with an individual’s attitude towards behaving or acting with respect to an
object (i.e., his prospects for purchasing that object), rather than the attitude towards the object
itself. This seems logical ,for a consumer might have a positive attitude towards an expensive
BMW,but a negative attitude as to his prospects for purchasing such an expensive vehicle.

10. C. Theory-of Reasoned-Action Model (Source:Ajzen and Fishbein, Understanding
Attitudes and Predicting Social behaviour , PHInc. ,1980)
Attitude toward the
behaviour
Evaluation of the
outcomes
Beliefs that specific
referents think that I
should or should not
perform the behaviour
Behaviour
(prospects
for
purchase)
Normative beliefs that
the individual attributes
to relevant others &
Motivation to comply
with the specific referent
Subjective
norms
Beliefs that the
behaviour leads to
certain outcomes
Intention

11. THEORY OF TRYING TO CONSUME
The model reflects consumer’s attempts to consume (or purchase) but there could be
cases where the action or outcomes ( purchase, possession,use,or action) are not certain
owing to many ‘personal impediments’ and/or ‘environmental impediments.’
A list of potential impediments that might impact on trying
Personal Impediments
-“I want to adorn this beautiful bridal dress but I wonder whether my pimples will go away by the
time of my wedding”
-“ I want to try to loose fifteen pounds by next summer but I love desserts”
- “ I want to buy a Mini Cooper but that is too expensive for my budget”
Environmental Impediments
-“ The first ten people to call in will receive a free T-shirt”
- “Sorry, your shoes did not come in this shipment from Italy”
- “Sorry, we have to close the restaurant for now as there is a problem with the oven”
Researchers have also tried studying situations where consumers do not try to consume—that is
failing to try to consume. In this case, consumers appear to 1) fail to see or are too ignorant of
their options; and (2) make a conscious effort not to consume; that is, they might seek to self-
sacrifice or defer gratification to some future time.

12. ATTITUDE-TOWARD-THE -AD MODELS [Source: Edell and Burke, The Power of
feelings in Understanding Advertising Effects, J. of Consumer Research 14 , Dec,1987]
It appears that for a novel product, like “contact lens for pets” the consumers’ attitude toward the
ad has a strong impact on brand attitude and purchase intentions than for a familiar product such
as ‘pet food.’ The same research found that beliefs about a brand (brand cognition) that result
from ad exposure plays a much stronger role in determining attitudes towards the brand for a
familiar product. That means in assessing the potential impact of advertising exposure
considering the nature of the attitude object is important.[Cox and Locander,JoA,16(1987)]
Attitude
towards the
brand
Exposure to an Ad
Beliefs about the
brand (brand
cognition)
Judgments about
the Ad
Attitude
towards the
Ad
Feelings
from the Ad

13.  Old Brand–Old Product
Ads keep highlighting and reinforcing the existing cognitive
beliefs and emotional appeal with respect to the familiar
Brand and familiar product (already existing in the mind
of the customers).
e.g. - Brooke Bond (HUL) – Tea
Apple – iPods, phones, laptops
Potential impact of Advertising Exposure Considering the
Nature of the Attitude Object

14.  Old Brand–Old Product
(Example)

15.  Old Brand – New Product
The sale of new product will depend on the basis of existing product’s brand image in the
mind of the customers . Hence, ads try leverage the same trust and image factor of the
existing brand for marketing new products.
e.g. – Ferrari - Roller Coaster

16. Old Brand – New Product
(Example)

17.  New Brand – New Product
Ads play key role in such cases. Since both product and
brand are unfamiliar hence, the sale of the new product and
brand depends largely on the basis of quality of advertising
and the image of the brand-ambassador. The aura (image)
and trust factor of the brand-ambassador must be in sync
with the type of product and brand being advertised.
e.g. - Honey Well – Air Purifier

19. New Brand – New Product
Friday, November 25,
2022
https://www.honeywell.com/en-
us/global/en-in
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20. • New Brand- Old product
Since product is familiar and brand is new hence, ads must highlight the key product attributes
that the customer holds significant in their mind. Play with cognitive belief about the familiar
product type and use a familiar brand-ambassador to endorse that.
e.g., -Vivo phones

21. THE ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL
According to ELM there are two routes to altering attitudes; first the central route to
persuasion and second the peripheral route. The former is feasible when the
consumer’s motivation and /or ability is high enough to explore, learn and evaluate
about the object directly. He needs no secondary inducements. Whereas the latter is
resorted when the consumer’s involvement is low owing to his low ability and/or low
motivation. In that case his learning is induced through promo tools, free samples,
attractive showroom, or background scenery, great package, star campaigners, eye
catching models among others. However, as per researches in conditions where both
routes are undertaken initially and that may also evoke similar attitudes, it is the central
inducement that has the greatest ‘staying power’ in the consumers’ mind.

22. BEHAVIOUR CAN PRECEDE OR FOLLOW ATTITUDE FORMATION
The discussion on attitude formation and change is based on the assumption that attitude precedes
behaviour i.e., consumers develop or have a favorable/unfavorable attitude before taking a
corresponding action (knowing what are going to do before you finally do it).But there are also
alternative perspectives that stress the opposite that behaviour precedes attitude or attitude
follows behaviour which is as much rational and logical.
PERSPECTIVE ONE: COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY
Dissonance or discomfort occurs when a consumer holds conflicting thoughts about an object.
For example, in case of booking an expensive item by paying some advance but failing to take
into account some important attributes at the time of placing the order or after making the
purchase decision if the consumer feels that he is required to make some ‘compromise’ that may
leave him with an uneasy feeling about his prior beliefs or actions (called post purchase
dissonance) – a feeling that he tends to resolve by changing his attitudes to make it consonant
with his actual purchase behaviour. Thus in case of post purchase dissonance attitude change
occurs as a consequence of behavior (doing leads to revising the knowing).
Since dissonance propels consumers to reduce their unpleasant feelings created by rival thoughts,
marketers use a variety of tactics to reduce their post purchase dissonance. They prompt
consumers to rationalize their decisions as being wise, seek out for ads that support the choice,
make them ‘sell’ friends on the positive features of the brand, or look to known satisfied owners
for reassurance. In addition, marketers relieve consumers’ dissonance by complimenting their
wisdom offering stronger warranties or guarantees, increasing the number and effectiveness of its
services(augmented product),or proving detailed communication on the better product usage.
Beyond these dissonance-reducing programs, marketers are increasingly developing CRM
programs (MORPHMARKETING) to reward good customers and build customer loyalty and
satisfaction. Airline ,Hotel, Car rental co’s generously employ such programs.

23. PERSPECTIVE TWO: ATTRIBUTION THEORY (Edward Jones et al.,1972)
According to the theory attitude formation and change is an outgrowth of people’s speculation as
to their own behaviour(self-perception) and experiences. As per the self-perception theory (one
of the various perspectives on the attribution theory) attribution comes into play when an
individual draws inferences or makes judgments as to the causes of his own behaviour. According
to the principle of defensive attribution consumers attribute their positive and successful
experiences internally (called internal attribution) while attribute their failures or negative
experiences as well as the successful experiences of others externally (called external
attribution; for example, on the program instructions, beginner’s luck etc).That’s why marketers
must learn as to how to add more and more EOU features (Fred Davis,1992) to the product
besides quality so that even an inexperienced (a non-innovator and non-visionary) customer may
find the product ‘easy to use’ and attribute his satisfactory experiences internally i.e., caused due
to his own competence and ability. Thus a customer with a positive experience and satisfied
behaviour is quite likely to have a positive attitude towards the brand and repeat his purchases in
order to maximize his past gratifying experiences. Examples of EOU features that may induce
satisfaction through self-attribution include Windows OS,GUI front end/menu driven
applications, voice operated systems, remote controls (wireless operations),touch screen
(Samsung’s AMOLED),hands-free systems, auto-gear driven vehicles, artificially intelligent
machines among others. These positive experiences would further reinforce in him repeat
purchases and turn him into a satisfied regular user/brand loyal and brand spokesperson. It is
also recommended that the inexperienced and non-users must be encouraged using such
reassuring stimuli even through the promotion-mix, that products are pretty easy to handle, needs
no prior exposure or technical background and will not let you down instead leave you with a
sense of accomplishment and after-taste.

24. Self-perception theorists have further explored the foot-in-door-technique that compliance with
minor requests (called the foot-in-door) leads to substantial requests later as an individual looks
at his prior behavior and concludes that he is approached by others because others perceive him
as the kind of person who is expected to say ‘yes’ to such requests (a behaviour/act he attributes
to himself). For example, a person who agrees to make a small charity/contribution initially is
likely to make a greater charity/contribution subsequently ,when approached properly due to this
particular psychological phenomenon.
This technique has a unique marketing application with respect to the varying amounts of
peripheral inducements (discounts, incentives, promo tools) and their impact on consumer
attitude and subsequent purchase behavior.
As per researches consumers who buy products primarily due to high-involvement and self-
inducement (without any secondary inducements) have a greater sense of satisfaction (due to
self-attribution or internal attribution) and therefore their satisfied behavior is likely to result into
a more positive attitude towards the brand. Whereas if a customer bites into a product due to
secondary/external/peripheral inducements (free sample, cash rebate etc) he is less committed to
forming or changing his attitude towards the brand. Still worse, if customers are offered greater
incentives, they tend to externalize the cause of their behaviour to the incentives (failure to make
the purchase themselves are externalized) and are therefore less likely to form or change their
attitude towards the brand favorably and make future purchases.However,of the two, the former
is the better tactics (the less the better) since purchases due to low external inducements lead to
greater internal attribution than the latter.
Therefore, a ‘moderate amount of secondary inducements’ is recommended which is big enough
to stimulate the initial purchase but still small enough to encourage consumers to internalize their
positive usage experiences and allow a positive change to occur (Leslie Kanuk,1974).

25. Attributions towards others and products
A customer may attribute rationally or irrationally depending upon his experiences in different
situations. He may appreciate a product and give credit to the manufacturer also to himself for
having bought it. He may blame a company for the delay in shipment or may exonerate it by
attributing the delay externally on the transporters’ strike.

26. FINIS