Writing Rubric for W7000Task Description (Module 2 Assignment .docx

Writing Rubric for W7000
Task Description (Module 2 Assignment 2):
Critique the article by Langer provided in the DocSharing area.
Review the assignment instructions, both supplemental
documents provided in the DocSharing area, and the rubric
included below to understand the expectations clearly before
beginning the assignment. Revise and proofread carefully prior
to submission. Submit as per assignment instructions.
Criteria Explanation:
Writing Criteria
Organization = How ideas have been structured so that the
reader can understand them
Writing Style = How clear and focused is the paper
Grammar and Mechanics = How well has the paper been
presented
Comprehension and Analysis Criteria
Comprehension of subject matter = How well is knowledge
demonstrated and to what depth
Analysis = How well has the writer considered the material and
discussed it
APA Style
How well does the student submission reflect knowledge of
APA Style conventions
Unsatisfactory
(1)
Emerging

(2)
Proficient
(3)
Exemplary
(4)
Student Level
Writing Criteria
Organization
Writing is unclear and vague with little to no coherence.
Writing has limited or missing transitions. Writing frequently
tangents and/or repeats ideas unnecessarily.
Writing lacks coherence between paragraphs and ideas. Writing
has inconsistent or inappropriate transitions.
Writing is clear and coherent. Transitions are appropriate and
consistently used between paragraphs and help move from one
idea to the next.
Writing is clear, coherent, and, fluid. Writing also is recursive
in that it links ideas back to previously mentioned ideas.
Writing also contains appropriate, consistent transitions
between paragraphs and ideas help reader see the relationship
between ideas.

1 2 3 4
x2
____/8pts
Paragraph development is flawed: no clear topic sentences.
Paragraphs frequently have multiple topics. The writing has a
limited or missing introduction and/or conclusion or summary
of argument.
Paragraph development is ineffective or inappropriate for the
assignment: topic sentences are present but not well connected
to the rest of the writing. The introduction paragraph is
incomplete or underdeveloped. Conclusion argument does not
go beyond a brief repetition of points.
Paragraph development is appropriate for the topic and
assignment: topic sentences introduce or summarize the content
of the paragraph. The introduction paragraph is appropriate and
complete for the topic and assignment. Concluding argument
appropriately synthesizes key points.
Paragraphs are well developed and appropriate: there are strong
topic sentences, clear ideas that naturally lead reader through
the writing. The written piece is structured in a logical fashion
that supports the presentation of complex content, including in
the introduction and conclusion.
Comments:
Writing Style

Writing style is unfocused, wordy, inconsistent, and does not
support the purpose of the writing.
Writing style is inconsistent and/or wordy. It weakly supports
the purpose of the writing.
Writing is focused, concise, and has a consistent style that
supports the topic and purpose of the writing.
Writing style is concise, engaging, insightful, and focused. It
has clarity, depth, coherence, which strongly support the
purpose of the writing.
1 2 3 4
x2
____/8pts
Tone is inappropriate and inconsistent. Rhetoric is not
developed with consideration of the audience.
Tone is too informal for academic writing. Rhetoric attempts to
consider audience but is inconsistent or unclear.
Tone is almost always formal. Rhetoric reflects a good sense of
the audience but does notdirectly appeal to audience by using
appropriate terminology and background knowledge of the
audience.
Tone is consistently formal. Rhetoric reflects a clear
understanding of and directly appeals to audience by using
appropriate terminology and background knowledge of the
audience.
Comments:

Grammar and Mechanics
Writing contains numerous errors in spelling, grammar, and/or
sentence structure that severely interferes with readability and
comprehension.
Writing contains errors in spelling and grammar that somewhat
interfere with readability and/or comprehension.
Writing follows conventions of spelling and grammar
throughout. Errors do not interfere with readability or
comprehension.
Writing is basically error free in terms of mechanics. Grammar
and mechanics help establish a sound scholarly argument and
aid the reader in following the writer’s logic.
1 2 3 4
X 1
____/4pts
Comments:
Comprehension and Analysis Criteria
Comprehension of subject matter
· Summarized key points
· Demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation
and attribution of sources
The discussion demonstrates limited understanding of subject
matter. Little, if any, effort is made to critique information.

The discussion demonstrates poor understanding of subject
matter. Information presented is flawed or accepted uncritically.
Opinions, personal reflections, and biases dominant discussion.
The discussion demonstrates an appropriate understanding of
subject matter. Information is discussed, and an evaluation is
attempted, but thoughts are not fully fleshed out to convey the
point adequately.
The discussion demonstrates a clear and scholarly
understanding of subject matter. Information is discussed with
clear and accurate definitions of unfamiliar terms and is
thoroughly evaluated from all possible perspectives.
Score
1 2 3 4
x2
____/8pts
References from article are either inappropriately used to
support argument or are missing in spots.
References from article are either inappropriately used to
support argument or are missing in spots.
References from article are appropriately used to support
argument.
References from article are used in an effective way to fully
support the authenticity of the argument.
Comments:
Included reflection on the article, analyzing and explaining

what was new in the article, views on the way the author
conducted the research, and difficulties or frustrations faced in
completing this assignment
Different perspectives are taken at face value, showing no
reflection on or evaluation of sources.
Inappropriate or inaccurate conclusions are drawn from
analysis.
Appropriate, but simple conclusions are drawn. Conclusions are
based on single perspective; counter argument never addressed.
Conclusions clearly & accurately reflect & evaluate multiple
perspectives of an issue, while taking a clear stance. Any
evidence that may be contradictory to expected outcomes is
used to present a thorough evaluation of the issue.
Score
1 2 3 4
x2
___/8pts
Comments:
APA Style
Unacceptable use of APA Style and format. Does not utilize
proper citation formats pertinent to the article. Incorrect use of
headings.
Uneven application of APA style and format. Utilizes citations
and headings inconsistently.
Appropriate use of APA format, inclusive of citations,
references, and headings.
Infrequent errors
Correct use of APA format, inclusive of citations, references,
and correct levels of headings

Score
1 2 3 4
X 1
___/4 pts
Comments:
Total Score: 40 Points
IMPORTANT: Students must aim to demonstrate proficiency
(Level 3) in all criteria
Comments
Areas for improvement:
General Comments
REPLY 1 Please reply to discussion post with 100 words or
more.

Classmates, I apologize, I am a bit belated. I want to be engaged
and respect of your time in the future, so please, I apologize.
The term that has been selected is that of globalization.
Satterlee (2009) defines globalization as “the growing
integration of economics and societies worldwide”, this
definition is furthered by the concept that globalization “has
been one of the most important topics in international business
over the past few years” (p. 4).
Makhlouf (2014) approaches the concept of globalization from a
perspective that it is bigger than simply economic dependency,
but rather incorporates perspectives of cultural identity and
sociological integrations. Makhlouf (2014) discusses these
facets of globalization by addressing whether or not
globalization has been an on-going and long-term market
formation that was inevitable. Like Satterlee (2009), Makhlouf
(2014) recognizes that globalization is heavily dependent on
how the term is defined and in which context one is viewing the
term. An important aspect of Makhlouf’s (2014) article is that
there are many pro’s and con’s to globalization, in particular the
inter-linking of markets world-wide has created some
vulnerable populations that are subjected to Wallerstein’s World
System’s theory, a geographic and sociological idea, that means
that there is always a nation or country that will be exploited
for others in globalization.
Satterlee (2009) discusses globalization in the context that it
“creates interdependencies among nations (p. 5) and has critics
who focus on a high level of dependency with a large
international profile. Sattterlee (2009) also discusses the
necessity that businesses and people understand the
“macroeconomic and microeconomic” influences that
globalization may have worldwide (p. 5). This ties strongly

into the more matter of fact and concrete examples that
Markhlouf (2014) is discussing in his article, in particular,
those who are considered “periphery” countries in World
System’s theory, might be undergoing a process of exploitation
for cheap goods. This is a re-occurring theme in discussions of
globalization, where Herrmann (2010) and Bradhan et al. (2013)
note that globalization has had an un-desirable side effect of
shifting economic and even cultural focuses, of some less
financially powerful regions of the world.
Three articles that were read:
Bardhan, P., Mookherjee, D., & Tsumagari, M. (2013).
Middlemen Margins and
Globalization. American Economic Journal:
Microeconomics, 5(4), 81-119.
doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/10.1257/mic.5.4
.81
This articles looks at the profits of middle men in some areas,
in particular focuses on how some regions have had no other
trade except as acting as middle men, thus decreasing the take-
out by local regions.
Herrmann, P. 2010. Globalisation revisited. Society and
Economy 32, no. 2: 255-275,
http://search.proquest.com/docview/1032964133?accountid=458
.
This is a discussion about whether or not globalization is truly a
modern aspect. Also, this article discusses whether or not
globalization should be viewed as a positive act due to the
significant cultural influences it has within various regions.
Makhlouf, H. 2014. Facets of globalization. International
Journal of Business and Social
Science 5, no. 1,
http://search.proquest.com/docview/1503139881?accountid=458
.

Post 2 Please reply 100 or more to this discussion post.
Discussion Board Forum 1
Historic Examples of International Trade
A.Definition: Historic Examples of International Trade: Events
throughout history during which negotiations and agreements of
trade were administered and/or prevented from occurring
between different nations, countries and communities before
and after the establishment of nation and state.
B.Summary of Article: “International Trade and Investment: A
Historical and Contemporary Survey of Research and Analysis”
by Chairman Jim Saxton (R-NJ), Joint Economic Committee,
United States Congress
a. This article surveys scholarly research in order to explain
how countries benefit from greater international trade and more
integrated economic policy. Before World War II rising trade
barriers and protectionism was predominant and increasing
throughout the Great Depression of the 1930’s. The Smoot-
Hawley tariff of 1930 increased import duties by 20%, in
attempts to protect manufacturing imports and is a prime
example of the misallocation of resources, which adversely
affected economic growth. International cooperation was scarce
and according to International Trade Economist, Douglas Irwin,
“Economic reconstruction following World War I lacked any
institutional mechanism to facilitate the reduction of trade
barriers that had arisen during the war”. In the 1940’s in order
to strengthen prosperity and peace worldwide the liberalization
of global trade was deemed necessary and the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was created in order to
lower trade barriers and help stimulate the global economy. The

European Coal and Steel Community was created in 1951 and
the European Economic Community in 1957. These were
successful regional initiatives taken toward trade liberalization.
Since its creation, GATT reduced tariffs from 40 percent to 4
percent and in 1995 became the WTO. GATT/WTO membership
has risen to 144 members and regulates more that 90% of global
trade. Study’s show, country’s that adopt policy that promotes
international trade and investment experience increased
economic growth and income.
C.Discussion:
a. During 1100 BC, Phoenicians traded precious metals and
textiles with other communities. (Satterlee, 12) This may be the
first evidenced occurrence of international trade, which is not a
new concept. Yet, in establishing or strengthening an
independent nation, whether seeking religious freedom and
equality, similar to that which was experienced during the
American revolution, a peoples values or objectives may serve
as justifiable means to restrict or eliminate trade with those who
oppose their views. These restrictions can have significant
effects on a nations economy and contribute to war and
economic hardship. The benefits of free trade outweigh the
limitations of trade barriers so long as the benefit or profit of
one nation is not used toward the domination and control of
another. Negotiations of trade have evolved as quickly as
innovations in technology and transportation could supply
demand. Free trade among the states was imperative in
establishing these United States of America and the innovation
leading to the industrial revolution. Free trade among nations
may have a similar effect on innovation in the technological era
we have entered as well. The most effective approach to
production, trade and allocation of resources can only truly be
considered on a global level considering the limited resources
of the planet as a whole rather than one nations comparative
advantage and profit in relation to another.
Citation

Cross Border Commerce, Brian Satterlee, 2009
History of International Trade, English Articles, Economy
Business and Finance, 4 July 2010
Retrieved from:
http://www.englisharticles.info /2010/07/04/history-of-
international-trade/
Annotation:
The article covers the evolution of international trade beginning
in traditional societies of peasants producing agriculture and
tools with limited transportation through the post war era and
the establishment of the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT).
International Trade and Investment: A Historical and
Contemporary Survey of Research and Analysis, Chairman Jim
Saxton (R-NJ), Joint Economic Committee, United States
Congress, May 2002
Retrieved from:
http://www.jec.senate.gov/republicans/public/?a=Files.Serve&Fi
le_id=ee48a33a-bb45-4cae-8f56-6882214bda65
Annotation:
This article utilizes Scholarly research in order to identify the
benefits of countries that adopt economic policies, which
promote international trade and investment. It is said to increase
economic growth and income, by reducing barriers and lowering
tariffs. They discuss the effects of war and lack of international
cooperation leading to the Great Depression and the
establishment of institutions, such as the WTO, which made
international trade more stable and less uncertain by creating
rules that govern international transactions.

The Most Important Trade Agreement That We Know Nothing
About: The Trans-Pacific Partnership could completely change
intellectual property law. But the details are being kept secret.
David S. Levine, 2012
Retrieve from:
http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/future_tense/2012/07/t
rans_pacific_partnership_agreement_tpp_could_radically_alter_
intellectual_property_law.1.html
Annotation:
This article is about the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TTP), which
is being negotiated, yet was kept secret until a portion of the
text was leaked in February 2011. TTP negotiations continued
over the years and may have been revised since the leak but no
updated information has been provided to the public with regard
to the details of this agreement. There was an “open and
productive forum” held in San Diego which the author attended
and shares his belief that TTP, being labeled a trade agreement
is misleading and will significantly impact everyday citizens. If
enacted the author claims there would be significant changes to
all signatory countries laws with regard to intellectual property
rights and the information available on the internet, yet there
are over 20 other chapters being negotiated from
telecommunications, customs, government procurement,
investment and financial services.
Writing a Critique of a
Journal Article

© 2008 Argosy University
Advanced Academic Study and Writing
Page 2 of 3
©2008 Argosy University Online Programs
2
Writing a Critique of a Journal Article
A critique of a journal article requires an assessment of the
journal article’s strengths and weaknesses. It
requires an understanding of the primary elements of journal
articles. It usually requires reading the article
several times, taking the time to highlight sections and/or make
notes, as well as the jotting down of
questions about any unclear concepts or confusing material. It
requires critical thinking.
Critical thinking requires the ability to analyze and evaluate. It
also includes the ability to identify and
evaluate multiple perspectives, as well as to comprehend flawed
logic or a flawed argument. As you
progress through your doctoral program at Argosy University,
you will develop your critical thinking skills to
much higher levels. Do not be surprised if, at some time during
your program, you unexpectedly find

yourself saying, “Yes, my thinking has changed!”
To become more conscious about their critical thinking, some
students become aware that they offer
opinions, rather than statements that can be supported with facts
or examples. This is also true for students
who are new to writing critiques of journal articles. It may seem
easy and concise to simply state, “This
article was excellent and well written,” or “This article was
confusing and never should have been printed.”
However, from an instructor’s perspective, feedback would
probably resemble the following: “Why did you
think it was excellent?” or “What made the article confusing?”
As stated in the first sentence of this page, an
assessment is an integral part of a critique. What differentiates
an assessment from an opinion is an
assessment can be supported by facts and/or examples, not just
feelings.
Some doctoral students approach a critique assignment with a
bias, one that may be unconscious. If an
article has been published, especially by someone who has
conducted research, can there really be a
weakness? The answer is yes, there can be weaknesses in
research. Didn’t an editor or a peer review
panel discover any weaknesses and require the author(s) to
correct any errors? The answer is that editors
and peer reviewers do not always identify weaknesses.
As mentioned earlier, it is important to understand the primary
elements of journal articles. The following list
represents the most common elements, with guiding questions:
• Research Question/Problem

� Was the research question or problem stated clearly near the
beginning of the article?
� What was the research question/problem?
• Theoretical/Conceptual Foundation
� Was a review of the literature included in the article?
� Were there sufficient and current references included?
� Did the literature review support the importance of the
research question or problem?
� Were there any gaps identified in the literature?
� Were relevant theories and/or concepts identified and
explained?
• Methodology
� Was the methodology explained in sufficient detail?

Advanced Academic Study and Writing
Page 3 of 3
©2008 Argosy University Online Programs
3
� Did the choice of methodology appear to be the best to
address the research
question/problem?
� Was the population identified as well as how the
researcher(s) selected the population?
� How was data collected? Instruments? Surveys?
Observations? Tests? Interviews?
• Results
� Were the results clearly explained?
� Did the results address the research question/problem?
� Were visuals such as charts or tables provided to aid in
understanding?
• Discussion

� How well were the results discussed?
� Were there any recommendations for further study or
research?
Hopefully, you have noticed the similarity between this list and
the primary chapters of a dissertation.
As you prepare to write a journal article critique, remember you
must write from a scholarly perspective.
This requires you to apply the correct APA style and format to
your critique and to include both a Title Page
and a References Page. Pronouns should be minimally used. For
example, do not use I, but refer to
yourself as the reviewer or the assessor. Informal phrases and
slang are not considered scholarly. Editing
and proofreading are mandatory prior to submittal.
Teaching in Higher Education, Vol. 7, No. 3, 2002
Re� ecting on Practice: using
learning journals in higher and
continuing education
ARTHUR M. LANGER
Teachers College, Columbia University in the City of New
York, 203 Lewisohn Hall,
Mail Code 4114, 2970 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA
ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to report on the use of
learning journals as vehicles for
encouraging critical re� ection among non-traditional students
and to compare variances with
studies among traditional students. An objective of the study

was to understand how adult
students in a ‘technical’ computer class responded to the
requirement for learning journals.
Qualitative research focused on whether learning journals prove
to be an effective teaching tool
in science-based, adult learning. The study was conducted at
Columbia University’s Computer
Technology programme in Continuing Education. Results
suggest that non-traditional students
are more skeptical than traditional students about using learning
journals and more likely to use
them as study tools. An implication of this study is that student
perception and skepticism of the
assignment can affect the objective of developing re� ective
thinking. This implication stresses the
need to account for student perception in studies on learning
journals and critical re� ection.
Introduction
The use of learning journals as a method for engaging
traditional students in critical
re� ection has been widely discussed in the literature. However,
their use in assisting
adult non-traditional students, particularly those who are
engaged in profession-ori-
entated educational programmes of continuing higher education
has received com-
paratively little attention. This paper focuses on the question of
how the use of
journals impacted the learning process of adult students of the
latter category and
how this impact compared to that of students of the former
category. Speci� cally,
the study focused on students attending a computer technology
class. The class,

Computer Architecture, is a required course in an 18-month
computer technology
certi� cation programme at Columbia University. The courses
in this certi� cation
programme are designed for adult students interested in
changing their careers. The
curriculum focuses on real-world topics that are essential to the
effective technology
practitioner in the workplace. The instructor for the course
required the submission
of a weekly learning journal from each student during the 15-
week course. Students
were asked to be re� ective about new career opportunities and
how to apply
technology to the workplace.
ISSN 1356-2517 (print)/ISSN 1470-1294 (online)/02/030337-15
Ó 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/13562510220144824
338 A. M. Langer
For the purposes of the study, a select number of journals were
reviewed from
three successive semesters of the same class; each had over 100
students. Sub-
sequent to the class, students were interviewed to provide
further elucidation of the
data supplied in the journals. The purpose of the study was to
understand the
immediate and extended impact of journals as a learning tool
for working with adult
students, and for promoting critical re� ection. The � ndings of
this study raise

questions about the pedagogical assumption, expressed in the
literature, that jour-
nals provide a tool for learning (e.g. DeAcosta, 1995) and that
critical re� ection can
be assessed in student journals independently of non-re� ective
considerations or
factors (i.e. Kember et al., 1999). An implication that follows
from this study
stresses the need to check theoretical frameworks, built around
such pedagogical
assumptions, against actual student responses: in this case,
against the impact of the
journal-writing requirement.
The Concept of Re� ection in Learning
The use of journals as a learning tool in the development of
critical re� ection poses
a basic question about the role of re� ection in learning. Re�
ection has received a
number of de� nitions from different sources in the literature.
Depending on the
emphasis on theory or practice, literature de� nitions vary from
philosophical articu-
lation, as in John Dewey and Jurgen Habermas, to formulations
from practice-based
perspectives, such as the research-in-action constructs
developed by Schön (1983),
or Kolb’s (1984) use of re� ection in the experiential learning
cycle. With speci� c
respect to teacher training, Morrison (1996) referred to re�
ection as a ‘conceptual
and methodological portmanteau’. According to Morrison, the
manner in which
re� ection is commonly used has shuttled between the process
of learning and the

representation of that learning.
With respect to the process of learning, Moon (2000) suggested
that individual s
re� ect on something in order to consider it in more detail.
Dewey (1933) and
Hull� sh & Smith (1978) suggested that the use of re� ection
supports an implied
purpose: individual s re� ect for a purpose that leads to the
processing of a useful
outcome. With respect to the role of re� ection in learning,
therefore, ability and
process are also individual . While many people re� ect, it is in
being re� ective that
people bring about ‘an orientation to their everyday lives. For
others re� ection
comes about when conditions in the learning environment are
appropriate’ (Moon,
2000, p. 186). Engendering the appropriate learning
environment is the pedagogical
task. Journal writing represents a formal tool for developing
re� ective thinking.
Holly (1989) referred to the metacognitive effect of journal
writing, and its ability to
enable self-enquiry and facilitate critical consciousness. Indeed,
the literature offers
evidence that students, regardless of the course topic, improve
their learning by
keeping journals. Abbas & Gilmer (1997) explored the use of
learning journals as an
interaction between student and instructor, designed to
stimulate active learning.
Their research promoted the role of the instructor as active
facilitator in the
journal-writing process. Taggart & Wilson (1998) expanded this
concept by suggest-

ing strategies to enhance a student’s re� ective capabilities
while writing journals.
Re� ecting on Practice 339
Verifying re� ective thinking in journal writing became the
subsequent question to
consider, one taken up by Kember et al. (1999). Their study
adapted Mezirow’s
(1991) categorisation scheme for codifying evidence of re�
ective thinking in journal
writing. The current study engages, directly and by implication,
some of the
above-mentioned pedagogical practices and assumptions
surrounding critical
re� ection and its relation to the use of learning journals.
The Use of Learning Journals
This section provides an analysis of the existing literature on
learning journals in
higher education and summarises common themes about their
use as learning tools.
This section also focuses on the three major areas of research on
learning journals
that form a basis for the current study. They are:
· the value that journals bring to the student learning process
and the concern for
how journals can be used by instructors to facilitate student
cognitive develop-
ment in the � elds of science, engineering, and mathematics;
· learning journals and the transition from theory to practice;

· the various types of learning journals that have been used to
facilitate critical
re� ection in student learning.
The Value of Learning Journals in Science, Engineering and
Mathematics
A review of how learning journals have been applied in the �
elds of science,
engineering, and mathematics is important in the context of the
current study in a
computer technology curriculum. This group of � elds may not,
at � rst, appear to
provide an applicable environment to support journal writing
because of its special-
ized set of knowledge criteria: knowledge based on axioms and
demonstrable proof.
However, Moon (2000) suggested that while there are relatively
few accounts in the
literature, there are clear indications of the manner in which
learning journals have
been used to facilitate learning in these disciplines. For
example, in the � eld of
science research it has been shown that learning journals force
students to replicate
ideas and facts (Powell, 1997; Chatel, 1997; Meese, 1987).
Harmelink (1998) found
that science students who kept journals improved their learning
and communication
skills. Perhaps the most signi� cant research, done by Selfe et
al. (1986), has been on
the question of how journal writing assisted mathematics
students. Their study
showed that while learning journals did not necessarily assist
students with earning

higher grades on tests, journals did assist students in developing
abstract thinking
that in turn allowed them to better conceptualise the meaning of
technical
de� nitions. In addition, students appeared to develop better
strategies in problem
solving through writing as compared to just memorising
calculations. Their � ndings
are further supported by research from BeMiller (1987). Selfe &
Arbabi (1986)
studied responses to journal writing among physics students,
requiring them to write
at least one page each week on their experiments. Although
most students initially
responded negatively to the exercise, 90% of them eventually
admitted that the
340 A. M. Langer
journals helped them clarify their ideas and thoughts.
Grumbacher (1987) examined
physics students and found that through the use of journals they
were better able to
synthesise their knowledge, and re� ect upon its impact on their
learning and
personal experiences. Signi� cantly, and corroborated by the
current study, the
research on learning journals in these ‘technical’ disciplines
appears also to suggest
that students do not initially understand how and why journals
can help them. This
suggestion was especially evident in the initially negative
responses that students
reported in the Selfe and Arbabi study.

Learning Journals and the Transition from Theory to Practice
This section focuses on how learning journals can be used to
relate classroom theory
to situations of practice outside the classroom. The importance
of moving from
theory to practice is relevant to the current study in that its
subjects are adult
students seeking new careers. Indeed, the process of taking
material learned in the
classroom and understanding its application in the workplace is
signi� cant for
student success in their new careers.
Dart et al. (1998) conducted a study on how graduate teachers
in training used
journals to relate theory to practice. These researchers found
that students were
better able to link theory to practice and vice versa in the latter
parts of the course,
thus supporting their claim that the use of journals provided a
new method of
learning and re� ection. In the � eld of nursing, Johns (1994)
discusses ‘in� uencing
factors’ in re� ective writing and how they can guide learning
from experience. Heath
(1998) used ‘double entry’ journals, which require secondary
(subsequent)
re� ection on initial entries, to provide guidance for students in
understanding how
to link theory to practice and back to theory. Morrison (1996)
based his research on
Schön’s (1983) concepts of ‘re� ection-in-action’ and ‘re�
ection-on-action’; like
Heath, he posed questions to students that required them to

consider relationships
among personal, academic, and professional activities, thus
expanding their vision
and developing re� ective activity.
Also linked to adult education theory is the challenge that
learners face when
attempting to overcome their biases (Mezirow, 1990); Rainer
(1978) used journal
activities to enhance a sense of perspective that over time
affected student attitudes
and behavior. With respect to personal experience, a useful
section in a journal can
be the ‘period log’, in which a period of life is reviewed and a
common theme or
direction is considered.
Types of Learning Journals
Journals can be created in different shapes, sizes and forms.
However, whether a
journal is recorded in an audio, video or word processing
medium, the signi� cant
organizing concept is in its design and structure. Listed below
are three types and
formats that have been used.
An unstructured journal allows students to produce their own
format. Using their
own design, students tend to use a free writing format, open to a
range of content

and structure of design. Unstructured journals often resemble a
diary format.
Unfortunately, the unstructured nature of this type of journal
makes it dif� cult to
compare with other formats used by students in the same class,
and thus makes it
dif� cult to ascertain how students are re� ecting and learning
as a group.
A structured journal carries an imposed form of constraint
regarding the manner
in which it is written. Its purpose is to bene� t both instructor
and student. The
instructor obtains value by receiving information in a speci� c
format or range of
formats. This allows the instructor to compare student responses
and re� ections and
obtain feedback on speci� c discussions and lectures. Students,
for their part, are
able to follow a template, which serves to provide guidance to
students on approach-
ing and developing journals (Johns, 1994).
The development of dialogue journals, which can be used
methodologically to
train student expression and re� ection, was explored by
Garmon (1998) and Peyton
(1993). Peyton’s model resembled a mentor/mentee relationship
requiring a consist-
ent one-on-one interface and a dialogue journal as the vehicle
for communication.
Staton et al. (1988) de� ned dialogue journals as a method to
encourage the
exchange and development of ideas between two or more
writers. Lukinsky (1990)
provided guidance to instructors on the development and use of

different types of
learning journals, and discussed the bene� ts of each type for
the distinct purpose of
increasing re� ective capacity in student writing. Thus, the
literature suggests that
students bene� t more from the guidance and formal instruction
of a teacher in
developing self-re� ective critical thinking than without this
guidance.
In summary, the existing literature on the use of learning
journals in higher
education indicates that it can be an effective learning
instrument. Students initially
tend to � nd the use of journals uncomfortable or have dif�
culty understanding why
it is being requested. There is evidence that the use of learning
journals facilitates
critical re� ection, particularly as it assists students in
conceptualising abstract
meaning and relating it to practice. Research on the use of
learning journals in
technology � elds in higher education among non-traditional
students, however, is
lacking.
Research Methods
A review of the literature on learning journals for students in
higher education, as
summarised above, provides theoretical and contextual
grounding for the current
study and informs its two principle modes of inquiry:
· an evaluative review of the learning journals submitted by
students; and

· an interview of selected students who completed the course.
Review of Learning Journals Submitted by Students
Students were required to submit learning journals each week
referencing the prior
week’s lecture. The format used varied from student to student;
however, the
instructor provided sample formats so that students would
receive guidance on what
342 A. M. Langer
a journal could look like. Students were required to submit two
copies of their
journals: one copy was returned to the student the following
week with comments
from the instructor; the second copy was kept for analysis.
Thus, the instructor used
a dialogue journal format to facilitate critical re� ection.
Learning journals from 20
students were selected for study. There were three components
to the selection
process:
· equal representation by student gender;
· 10 students from each of the two sessions of the course;
· an equal distribution of students from the three different
departments of study
(or study major).
The actual selection was made by sequentially selecting every
tenth student in

alphabetical order by last name. Journals were � led in
sequential order by last name.
If the gender and study major were not equally represented, then
the researcher
continued the cycle of selection by starting with the second � le
� rst and reviewing
every third folder. This process was continued until the sample
selection was
satis� ed. Each student set of learning journals consisted of up
to 15 journals, or
one for each class session. Therefore, up to 300 physical
learning journals were
read.
Three researchers read each student set of learning journals in
the sample with
the aim of identifying information about the content, formatting
style and subject
matter they contained. Researchers also read for indications of
critical re� ection.
The review focused on the overall value that the student
reported from the lectures.
Notes from this review were then summarised. Common themes
and concerns were
extracted so that questions could be developed for an interview
guide (Appendix I),
which was used with a select number of students who had
completed the course.
Interviews with Selected Students
Two researchers solicited 10 student volunteers to be
interviewed 6 months after
completing the course. Their objective was to gain an
understanding of student
perceptions of the journal-writing assignment and of the

extended effects of learning
journals on students. These students were approached during a
subsequent course
in the curriculum in which the instructor announced that
volunteers were being
sought. The volunteers signed a consent form agreeing that their
interview data
would be used for research purposes and reported in aggregate
only. Four of the 10
students were male.
The interview guide (Appendix I) was developed to facilitate
organisation,
consistency and coverage of the questions—objectives discussed
in Patton (1990).
This interview guide was not supplied to interviewees; it was
used by two researchers
as a checklist to ensure that interviews touched on relevant
topics. Each interview
lasted approximately 30 minutes. While the interviewees did not
receive a copy of
the questions, the researchers initially provided them with an
idea of the topics that
were the focus of the study.
Results of the Study
This section presents the results of the study in terms of an
analysis, and two
summaries of data collected from the journals and interviews; it
compares the data
to related literature on the use of learning journals in higher

education.
Learning Journal Analysis
While students were encouraged to be creative in formatting
journals, 90% of the
journals appeared in the format provided as a sample with the
syllabus. This
outcome suggests that in spite of the encouragement toward
independent format-
ting, students were concerned with using a format that appeared
to be preferred by
the teacher. Possible reasons for this type of response,
according to Kerka (1996),
include the following: ‘lack of pro� ciency with re� ective
writing, fear resulting from
open-ended writing requirements, privacy issues, and unequal
balance of power
between teacher and students’. Fisher (1996) and Abbas &
Gilmer (1997) also cited
concerns related to this type of student response. They
considered the student–
teacher interaction through various interpretive concepts: e.g. as
challenges, bonds
or ‘non-threatening’ modes of learning encountered and
encouraged through the use
of journals. This response can also be cited as an instance in
which the opportunity
for self-re� ective response—in the matter of formatting—was
bypassed in favour of
following a given model.
Secondly, with respect to content, 55% of the students
submitted journals that
seemed to become more self-re� ective in the latter part of the
course. The criterion

for self-re� ection was based on written indication about how
the student assessed
content from class lectures in relation to their work or their
experiences in life. For
example, one student concluded: ‘I return to work the next day
feeling empowered
and much more knowledgeable. I think about what I had known
instinctively before
the class [which] is now backed up with concrete knowledge
and how much more
I need to learn if I wish to stay in this � eld’. The increase in
self-re� ection, noted
as an increase in the frequency of such assessments, while
moderate, could be
attributed to two intervening factors. First, the instructor
provided weekly written
feedback on the journals, often encouraging students to discuss
how they relate the
lectures to other areas of interest. Thus, students were prompted
to be more
re� ective. This interactive dimension of the writing process
compares to the function
and, hence, bene� ts, of the dialog journal described in Peyton
(1993). Garmon
(1998) speci� cally identi� es the dialog journal as a tool that
promotes re� ection.
The current study adds the dialogic dimension to the two
general claims that
learning journals facilitate interaction between students and
instructor (Abbas &
Gilmer, 1998) and encourage re� ection (Kerka, 1996).
A second factor contributing to the incremental development of
critical thought
during the latter part of the course may be the natural
progression of cumulative

experience and practice. Indeed, less than 5% of the students
admitted having
previous experience with learning journals. The implication
from these facts sup-
ports De Acosta’s (1995) claim that student journals provide
opportunities for
344 A. M. Langer
students to learn how to re� ect. Other researchers have identi�
ed the use of journals
as a technique for enhancing re� ective thinking and facilitating
self-discovery (Tag-
gart & Wilson, 1998; Fisher, 1996). The remaining 45% of
students submitted
journals that did not demonstrate an incremental development in
critical re� ection.
This comparative lack suggests unwillingness or inability to
explore the material in
ways extending outside its technical content. The literature
provides a number of
reasons why students might � nd journal writing challenging
and dif� cult. Francis
(1995) found that some students resist because they cannot see
relevance in the
exercise of writing journals to their current interests. Other
students feel re� ection
is overemphasized (James & Denley, 1993). Canning (1991)
reported that some
students have study habits that let tasks build up over time until
delivery or
examination is necessary. Such habits are at odds with
incremental progressions of
learning possible through weekly journal writing.

Twenty-� ve per cent of the journals addressed questions to the
instructor.
These questions typically requested clari� cation of an issue
discussed in class or
covered in assigned readings. The relative lack of questions
could be attributed to a
number of factors, some relating to those introduced by Kerka
(1996), cited above.
One factor could be that students felt uncomfortable with
submitting written
questions to their instructor. Another might be related to
stigmatisation associated
with submitting, in essence, written evidence of a student’s
limited comprehension:
a privacy issue. In other instances, the problem becomes more
signi� cant for
students who come from cultures that de� ne this interrogative
type of communi-
cation as inappropriate or disrespectful to the teacher.
Furthermore, students might
feel more comfortable with simply asking questions in class,
which to them might
result in a better and more immediate response. Finally,
students might feel
incapable of articulating a technical question in a format with
which they are
otherwise comfortable; i.e. they may have a limited ability to
articulate questions in
writing.
Summary of the Interviews
Researchers followed the interview guide in each of the 10
sessions. The demo-
graphics of the 10 students are shown in Table 1.

Results from the interview allowed researchers to further assess
the signi� cance
and relative successes of the student journals. Their
heterogeneous responses are
summarised under the question headings that follow.
1. What was your initial reaction to being required to use a
learning journal? Students’
initial reactions were mixed, and sometimes prejudicial toward
journal writing. One
student felt ‘insulted at � rst to be required to use something
that seemed better
suited for children’. Another student was not upset, but had
reservations about how
to do a journal and ‘whether there was enough information to �
ll-up the journal’.
Yet one student was glad and felt comfortable writing the
journals.
TABLE I. Demographics of the 10 students
Gender Race Current profession Columbia Major
Male Caucasian Sales Information systems
Male Caucasian Finance Information systems
Male African American Banking Information systems
Male Asian Manufacturing Database
Female Asian (Indian) Advertising Database
Female African American Clerical Information systems
Female Caucasian Teacher Information systems
Female Latino Sales Information systems

Female Caucasian Graphic artist Information systems
Female Caucasian Law Information systems
2. How did you use the learning journals during the course?
Students used journals as
transcripts; that is, they used them to verify their understanding
of material that was
discussed in class and in readings. Two students used the
journal as a way of
studying for exams and by using them as they would session
handouts (which were
not supplied to the class by the instructor). Four students used
the journals as a
means of balancing their learning style with the instructor’s
style of teaching. In this
case, the teacher’s lecture style was noted as being ‘at odds
with the way I preferred
to learn’. The learning journal, therefore, allowed this student
to mediate the
teacher’s style into a form that facilitated a knowledge transfer.
3. What were the bene� ts of doing learning journals? Students
responded that knowl-
edge transfer was the most bene� cial aspect of their learning
journals. The process
of having to articulate in writing the meanings of technical
terms was reported as a
particularly effective learning experience. Six students felt that
a key bene� t to using
journals was that it forced a discipline on them to review class
discussion. One
student stated: ‘it forced me to do the work, and I did not have
to redo my notes;
it simply was a great study device’. Students saw the bene� ts
of the learning journal
as a vehicle to con� rm their understanding of the material.

4. What were the downsides or disadvantages of using learning
journals? Students
unanimously felt that the time requirement to do journals was
the biggest disadvan-
tage of using them. Students also stated that their lack of
experience with using
learning journals delayed its effectiveness as a learning tool. In
essence, the process
of learning how to best write and use journals was an initial
impediment that was
perceived as wasted time. Five students found that producing
learning journals on
a weekly basis was dif� cult and unnecessary. These students
preferred to summarise
their learning according to subject sections as opposed to a
perceived arti� cial cutoff
imposed by a class schedule. Finally, one student stated that
hand-written notes
were just as effective in learning as submitting a journal in a
typed and formal
presentation. Hand-written learning journals, according to this
student, are more
natural, challenge students to take better notes and are much
more time ef� cient.
346 A. M. Langer
5. Did producing learning journals change your learning
process? One student felt that
the journals helped him to perform better academically. Another
suggested that the
process helped her understand the ‘real-world’ aspects of the
course material. She

stated: ‘it also made me more critical of the material as well as
my instructor’.
Another student felt that the experience of using journals had a
permanent impact
on him professionally. Speci� cally, the journals have instilled
good habits in taking
notes during professional meetings and conversations.
6. Have you continued using learning journals in other courses
or in other situations? Five
of the 10 students continue to use journals in other classes even
though they are not
required to do so. Three students stated that, while they did not
‘journalize’ their
notes, the experience of using learning journals had signi�
cantly improved their note
taking abilities. None of the students complained that other
instructors did not
collect and respond to the journals. This continued practice
suggests that the
journals have value to these students notwithstanding any
collaboration with an
instructor.
7. Do you think that learning journals can be used for all types
of courses? All of the
students felt that learning journals were not for every course.
They speci� cally stated
that courses held in computer laboratories would not be
conducive to journal
writing. It appears from the responses that learning journals are
better suited for
lecture and discussion classes as opposed to hands-on computer
application courses.
8. Did you use the learning journal as a way of collaborating

with your instructor?
Students used their learning journals to ask questions of the
instructor or to suggest
that the instructor review certain topics. The students did not
use the journals to
communicate or explore concepts with the instructor or to
question his approaches
to the class syllabus. Thus, collaboration was simpli� ed and
limited to a formal
question and answer format.
9. Did the journals assist in critical re� ection? Students were
puzzled by the concept of
critical re� ection and struggled with why it would be
important in journal writing.
After the concept of critical re� ection had been explained,
students still felt that
there was not enough time to delve into a self-analysis or re�
ective process. Students
showed an interest in the concept, but not an understanding of
how to approach
doing it.
Summary of Common Themes
Several common themes emerged from a review of the journal
readings and
interview responses.
· Students had initial concerns about their ability to handle the
journal. Writing
journals caused over half the students in the sample to feel
anxiety, especially
those who were coming back to school after a long absence.

· Some students initially felt insulted by the requirement to
produce learning
journals. They felt that journals were better suited for children
than for adults.
· Students have dif� culty designing their own presentation
formats; they need
guidance in the format of the learning journal. Less than 5% of
the students had
prior experience with producing journals.
· Students used the journals mainly to list and summarise
material covered in
class, rather than as vehicles of communication with the
instructor.
· Only 50% of the journals were submitted on a weekly basis.
This statistic
suggests that it is dif� cult for adult students to take the time or
discipline to
complete journals weekly.
· The use of learning journals may not be for all types of
classes, speci� cally those
that require hands-on laboratory work.
· Students may not understand the concept of critical re�
ection. Instructors need
to teach key concepts before expecting students to understand
the value of
learning journals and how to use them.
Implications: factoring student perceptions

The literature review in the preceding section reveals the
prevailing assumption that
student journals can provide an opportunity for expression and
development of
critical re� ection. (Other interpretive concepts proposed and
examined in the
literature include promoting, prompting, facilitating and
enhancing critical
re� ection.) This terminology underscores the basic pedagogical
assumption that
continues to warrant the assignment of learning journals in adult
college courses
today. The assumption, justi� able or not, motivates the
administration of the journal
assignment; that is to say, it falls properly within the
instructor’s domain of
assumptions. It informs the instructor’s perception
(expectations, value and utility)
of the journal assignment. The goal of promoting critical re�
ection through the use
of student journals is based on the perception of what the
journal assignment can
accomplish: that it can provide the opportunity for exercising
critical thinking.
Unfactored into this unilaterally motivated assignment,
however, is an awareness or
appreciation of the student’s domain of assumptions: how
student goals, expecta-
tions, and perceptions of the same assignment can impact the
pedagogical goal of
achieving critical re� ection.
Kember et al. (1999) proposed that the success of student
journals in producing
re� ective thinking is to be determined by assessing whether

re� ective thinking can be
identi� ed in the journals themselves. While their proposed
model is useful in very
speci� c ways, it remains a unilateral project that is
unconcerned, by schematic
design, with taking into account the student’s perception of the
assignment itself:
how students respond to the requirement of such an assignment,
and their sense of
its practical utility and educational worth. In fact, if these types
of concerns were to
be identi� ed in a student journal, according to the model of
Kember et al., they
would most likely be coded as introspective—a non-re� ective
activity. The current
research investigated several aspects of this introspective
activity to better under-
stand student reception and perception of the journal assignment
in terms of its
348 A. M. Langer
practicality and value. The results of this study demonstrate
several ways in which
student reception/perception of the learning journal assignment
can impact the
practical outcome of an assignment whose purpose is to promote
re� ective thinking.
An implication suggested by the � ndings of this study point to
an inextricability
between re� ective and affective dimensions in the process of
developing critical
re� ection through the use of student journals.

The Kember et al. model represents an attempt to develop an
objective method
for testing re� ective thinking. The question may be raised,
however, whether the
attempt to formalise such an objective method is appropriate to
the testing of a
phenomenon that involves and derives from an interactive
relationship between the
tester and the testee—whether the testor, a factor by virtue of
being a reader,
assigner and grader in the course of the journal writing process,
can be objectively
factored out of an analysis of what is essentially an interactive
exchange. The
fundamental question that arises is whether critical re� ection
can be properly
studied in isolation of the surrounding, contextualising, and in�
uencing factors that
contribute to its relative success or failure.
The current study shows that feelings of anxiety and insult,
feelings that the
journal requirement is inappropriate to the adult student’s sense
of maturity and
real-life time constraints, and feelings of inadequate preparation
or knowledge to
master the journal assignment have been expressed by students
in relation to the
process of journal writing and the objective of critical re�
ection. In the Kember et al.
model, these considerations would be categorised as affective
responses, more
appropriate to introspection than critical re� ection.
Nevertheless, affective factors
assert in� uence on the practice of journal writing and, hence,
the demonstrations of

critical re� ection they may or may not contribute to. If
students show a lack of
re� ective thinking in journal writing, it could mean that they
have not been properly
exposed to a learning environment that focuses on re� ective
skills, or to produce the
written evidence of re� ective thinking.
The current study suggests that the production of re� ective
thinking is affected
by student attitudes and pre-conceptions about the vehicle
itself, the learning
journal. A study that simply demonstrates a lack of re� ective
thinking in student
journals can leave the researcher at an empirical dead-end. A
demonstrable lack of
re� ective thinking can suggest no pedagogical course of
action. Learning about
student reaction and responses, however, can suggest and
identify arenas of concern
traditionally addressed through pedagogical courses of action.
Furthermore, study-
ing student responses at the affective level reveals the in�
uences and practical
inextricabilities, of so-called non-re� ective activity, such as
introspection, in the
production of re� ective thinking. It also points to a theoretical
idealism in the
distinction made between these realms of thinking—the
philosophical idealism of
freeing thoughts from feelings and their cultural sources—as
well as revealing the
impulse to impose hierarchical classi� cations on student
thinking in the form of
schematic divisions.

What does it mean to separate affective from re� ective
thinking? To abstract
any kind of thinking from its worldly context of personal and
social complexities?
And to classify students (via an interpretation of their writing)
according to a schema
whose classi� catory criteria are not necessarily explained or
understood by the
students? The goal of determining the level of re� ective
thinking is a project that
bypasses the question of determining whether the assignment of
journal writing does
or does not in practice encourage re� ective thinking, and
bypasses the question of
how the requirement of this assignment can impact the
opportunities to think
re� ectively.
The Kember et al. model can be used to classify statements as
demonstrating
an occasion or lack of indicators assumed to evince re� ective
thinking in student
journals, but it cannot con� rm anything more than a perceived
presence or lack of
signs of re� ective thinking in student writing. Given that
writing is not all there is to
thinking, we need to augment our understanding about the
complexities of critical
re� ection when we draw conclusions about one type of activity
by citing evidence of
a phenomenologically different activity.

To begin to assess the potential for re� ective thinking as a
practice engendered
in the use of learning journals, one can begin by assessing
student perceptions and
uses of the vehicle itself. What students feel about the required
assignment can affect
their performance in ful� lling the aim of achieving critical re�
ection. How they
understand and perceive this aim cannot be underestimated as a
factor that affects
the qualitative production of re� ective writing. When the aim
of a writing assign-
ment is to promote critical thinking, it is reasonable to take into
account factors that
can in� uence (enhance or inhibit) its production.
Conclusions
The responses among non-traditional students, demonstrated in
the � ndings of this
study, speak to the need to consider student reception and
perceptions of the journal
writing assignment in order to evaluate its usefulness as a tool
for developing critical
re� ection among traditional as well as non-traditional students.
Some results of the
study support the existing literature. For instance, the study was
consistent with the
literature in demonstrating that learning journals can improve
knowledge transfer for
students. This heuristic effect was supported in the feedback
received from the 300
journals that were read, the feedback received from student
interviews and the
comparative analysis of this data with results assessed from

other studies concentrat-
ing on students in science-related courses. On the other hand,
some of the results of
this research are at variance with those of the literature. In
comparison to indications
in the literature, a smaller percentage of students demonstrated
critical re� ection in
their journal writings, and among those who did, the increase
was both limited and
mitigated by intervening factors. This outcome could be related
to the degree of
instructor interfacing in the journal writing process. A poor
showing of critical
re� ection might indicate that an instructor did not provide
adequate guidance or
facilitation to the student on how to produce journals that are
qualitatively re� ective
and collaborative. On the other hand, the results of this research
suggest that
non-traditional adult students can � nd it dif� cult to
understand what is meant by
re� ection and how it applies to their practical goals of
changing careers. These
students do not have a natural or traditional association with the
journal process
350 A. M. Langer
itself, as has been suggested, more or less, in much of the
literature on learning
journals. The current research therefore helps to expand the
purview of study related
to learning journals beyond what has been the dominant focus
aiming at traditional

students; it begins to draw out important variances when the
focus is shifted to the
study of non-traditional student groups. New areas of study, it
is hoped, will emerge
with an expanded scope of study groups.
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Cliffs, Prentice Hall).
LUKINSKY, J. (1990) Re� ective withdrawal through journal
writing, in: J. MEZIROW (Ed.) Fostering
Critical Re� ection in Adulthood: a guide to transformative and
emancipatory learning (San
Francisco, Jossey-Bass).
MEESE, G. (1987) Focused learning in chemistry research:
Suzanne’s journal, in: T. FULWILER
(Ed.) The Journal Book (Portsmouth, Heinemann).

MEZIROW, J. (1990) How critical re� ection triggers
transformative learning, in: J. MEZIROW (Ed.)
Fostering Critical Re� ection in Adulthood: a guide to
transformative and emancipatory learning
(San Francisco, Jossey-Bass).
MEZIROW, J. (1991) Transformative Dimensions of Adult
Learning (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass).
MOON, J.A. (2000) Learning Journals: a handbook for
academics, students and professional development
(London, Kogan Page Limited).
MORRISON, K. (1996) Developing re� ective practice in
higher degree students through a learning
journal, Studies in Higher Education, 21(3), pp. 317–332.
PATTON, M.Q. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research
Method (Newbury Park, Sage).
PEYTON, J.K. (1993) Dialogue Journals: interactive writing to
develop language and literacy, Research
Report (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 354
789).
POWELL, A.B. (1997) Capturing, examining, and responding to
mathematical thinking through
writing, Clearing House, 71(1), pp. 21–25.
RAINER, T. (1978) The New Diary. How to use a journal for
self-guidance and extended creativity (Los
Angeles, JP Tarcher Inc.).
SCHÖN, D. (1983) The Re� ective Practitioner: how
professionals think in action (New York, Basic
Books).

SELFE, C. & ARBABI, F. (1986) Writing to learn—engineering
students journal, in: A. YOUNG & T.
FULWILER (Eds) Writing Across the Disciplines (Upper
Montclair, Boynton/Cook).
SELFE, C., PETERSON, B. & NAHRGANG, C. (1986) Journal
writing in mathematics, in: A. YOUNG
& T. FULWILER (Eds) Writing Across the Disciplines (Upper
Montclair, Boynton/Cook).
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Appendix I: interview guide
1. What was your initial reaction to being required to use a
learning journal?
2. How did you use the learning journals during the course?
3. What were the bene� ts of doing learning journals?
4. What were the downsides or disadvantages of using learning
journals?
5. Did producing learning journals change your learning
process?
6. Have you continued using learning journals in other courses
or in other situations?
7. Do you think that learning journals can be used for all types
of courses?
8. Did you use the learning journal as a way of collaborating
with your instructor?
9. Did the journals assist in critical re� ection?

· Module 2 online lectures
· From the book, Research design, read:
· Review of the literature
· From the book, Conducting research literature reviews: From
the internet to paper, read:
· From the chapter, Reviewing the literature, read: pp. 16-44
· Searching and screening: Methodological quality
· From the Publication manual of the American Psychological
Association (6th edition), read:
· Writing clearly and concisely
· Crediting sources
· Reference examples
Article Critique Checklist*
INTRODUCTION
Yes/No
Is the study relevant & important to your topic?
Is the work useful & original? Does it add to the body of useful
knowledge?
Was the study setting similar to your proposed setting that,
assuming the results are valid, they may be applicable to your
study?
METHODS
Was the design of the study appropriate to answer the questions
posed in the introduction?
Is the connection between the hypothesis & the instruments

used clearly justified?
Is the relationship between outcomes & measures plausible?
Are the instruments used appropriate to the study?
Have these instruments been validated previously?
Are the population & the population sample defined ?
Are they recognizably similar to your targeted population?
Are the recruitment definitions clearly stated?
Are the inclusion & exclusion criteria clearly stated?
Is the sample size sufficient to answer the questions posed?
Has there been an attempt to estimate the required numbers in
advance?
RESULTS
Is the response rate adequate?
Are the drop-outs well described?
Is there any reason to think the drop-outs are significantly
different from the responders?
Are the tables & figures clear?
Have statistical tests been applied appropriately?
Are p values or confidence intervals used?

Where statistically significant differences are found, are they
sufficient to be clinically important?
DISCUSSION
Does the discussion show an awareness of the methodological
limitations of the study design? Are problems or difficulties
acknowledged?
Are the conclusions drawn justified by the results presented?
Is a comparison drawn with other published work?
Do the authors speculate too far beyond the evidence presented?
*Source:
Research Article Critique Checklist
University Hospital Nursing Journal Club
From Ridsdale; Practitioner, 238:108-13, 1994.
OR
Article Critique CheckList
ftp://ftp.prenhall.com/pub/ect/education.q-089/airasian/group5-
articles/Checklist.pdf

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