Discuss epidemiological transition concept in ANT2002 essay

ANT2002 Major Essay Instructions.docx
Essay Question:
Discuss the concept of an epidemiological transition. Explain
the natures of those associated with the Neolithic,
urbanisation/civilisation, colonisation/migration/ conquest, and
modernisation.
MAJOR ESSAY (2500-3000 WDS)Assessment
· Item MAJOR ESSAY (2500-3000 WDS) — TWMBA ONLINE
ONL
Due by 11 May 2020
Maximum grade 40
Weighting 40%
· Assessment of essays
All essays returned to you will have a marking matrix attached
with comments. These are meant to be constructive and are
made to point out errors and areas where improvements could be
made. The comments will explain why you got the mark you
did. They are, therefore, usually ‘critical’. You should consider
these comments carefully, and try to understand why they were
made. If you do not see the point, or want further comment,
please take this matter up with whoever marked your essay,
preferably via the course coordinator A/Prof Lara Lamb.
The following points will be noted particularly in marking
essays:
1. Relevance to the topic set.
2. Organisation and effectiveness of argument, and proper use
of anthropological concepts and principles as outlined during
the course of your reading.
3. Evidence of reading outside the set texts and accuracy of
facts presented in the essay.

4. Originality – careful and critical thought about the topic,
and use of illustrative material from independent reading and
also, to some extent, from observation and experience.
5. Accuracy and clarity of written English, including grammar,
spelling, and punctuation. Overall legibility and general setting
out will be noted, especially of essay structure and referencing.
How to write an essay/presentation
Do not go over the word limit. This is set specifically to help
you develop a sharp and concise style. Going under the word
limit is preferable to ‘padding out’ your answer with vagaries or
‘waffle’ to reach the word limit.
Do not use value judgements of subjective terminology such as:
primitive, backward, surprisingly advanced, superior or
developed. You must be objective and indicate clearly what you
mean by your terms.
Writing an essay is a gradual process; the final version of an
essay should have been developed over several drafts, prepared
as you explore the topic and compile notes from reading
material.
You will usually need to do some reading before you can grasp
the significance of the set topic. Begin with the suggested
references in your book of reading and, as you read, keep a
copy of the actual wording of the topic/question in view. Initial
reading will enable you to:
1. Recognise the implications underlying the actual wording of
the topic.
2. Understand key ideas and terms.
3. Identify all parts of the set question.
After some preliminary reading, when you feel you are
beginning to grasp the topic, draft an outline plan for your
essay. This will involve drawing up headings for each major
section of your essay, writing a statement, in your own words,
which expressed the key idea or main point of each section and
noting relevant references to substantiate the points made. Take
care to acknowledge debate and deal with controversy when it is
evident in the literature; Alternative points of view must be

taken into account; do not simply select literature which
supports an argument you favour, or a point you believe is
true. It is expected that the points you make will be supported
by well reasoned anthropological argument – fully and correctly
referenced.
Once you have drawn up a tentative outline plan, proceed with
more reading and comprehensive note taking. Read widely and
critically. Continue to develop your plan gradually by
compiling evidence, examples and quotations from the literature
and review your plan from time to time in the light of any new
literature. Remember that this plan should be flexible and you
should be prepared to change it as you read and write more. It is
often useful to write separate points on separate pages or cards
so that you can easily re-organise your thoughts. When you feel
you have ‘covered’ the topic in your developing plan, write
your introduction and conclusion, and examine carefully, the
scope and structure of your plan. Ask yourself:
1. Have I compiled all the material necessary to answer the set
question/address the set topic?
Have I dealt with the whole topic?
Have I answered questions that are not asked? Or included
material that is not relevant to the question?
2. Is there a clear thread running through the plan linking each
of the parts logically together?
3. Does the conclusion clearly follow from the main points of
argument?
Then read through all your notes to refresh your memory and
write your first full draft. Don’t worry too much about the prose
at this stage, just let it flow from your developed plan. Write in
your own words; take care to reference correctly and use
quotations appropriately. Do not plagiarise.
When you have completed your first full draft, re-examine the
scope and structure of your essay and expand or prune if your
draft is too short, too long or not well balanced. Evaluate the
effectiveness of your introduction and conclusion and check
that they point to and address the main issues of the set topic;

ensure that you have included references where necessary and
check their accuracy.
Ask yourself; is my argument convincing?
At this stage, it is very helpful if you can read your essay aloud
to another person. Take note of any comments they have and
make any necessary adjustments.
Write your final draft and take particular care with spelling,
punctuation, grammar and legibility, and the presentation of
references. When complete, ask someone else to read your
essay. If you are satisfied, produce your final copy; proof-read
it carefully. Make a copy; attach cover sheet and submit it by
the due date.
Referencing
All written work must be referenced using the Harvard system.
Please refer to the USQ Library web site for referencing guides
in the Harvard style. Go to <http://www.usq.edu.au/library/>
and click on ‘Referencing Guides’. This provides details on the
referencing of print and electronic publications.
Extensions
If you require extra time to complete the essay, you must
contact the course examiner as soon as possible to apply for an
extension. Failure to do so will result in a penalty of 5% of the
available mark, per day.
Choosing Internet sources
We can not stress enough though, how important it is that you
are careful in choosing your sources. For academic purposes,
there is a LOT of unsuitable material out there, and we expect
you to be able to be discerning in this matter. For instance,
Wikipedia and other online encyclopaedias are not considered
appropriate resources at a tertiary level of study. A general rule
of thumb is to use online journals that are contained in the
library’s electronic data base (such as EBSCOhost). Internet
material from academic institutions such as university and
museum websites is also usually acceptable, but must be cited
appropriately. In following these rules of thumb, you can
generally be sure of the accuracy (and motives) of your sources.

If you have any queries regarding the use of internet material,
contact your lecturer for further guidance.
ANT2002 Major Essay Marking Sheet
HD
A
B
C
F
1. Presentation
a. grammar, spelling
Essay observes all conventions of spelling, punctuation,
grammar.
Essay observes almost all conventions of spelling, punctuation,
grammar.
Essay observes most conventions of spelling, punctuation,
grammar.
Essay is marred by some errors in spelling, punctuation,
grammar.
Essay is compromised by many errors in spelling, punctuation,
grammar.
b. referencing
Quoting and referencing are technically correct, consistent, and
complete.
Quoting and referencing are complete, with minimal technical
errors or inconsistencies.
Quoting and referencing are complete, although there may be
some technical errors or inconsistencies.
There may be omissions or inconsistencies in quoting and
referencing.

Quoting and referencing are incomplete or inconsistent.
c. writing style
Writing communicates concisely and effectively to intended
audience.
Writing communicates very clearly to intended audience.
Writing communicates clearly to intended audience.
Writing communicates adequately to intended audience.
Little attention given to format and written structure.
2. Originality and critical analysis
You have made a thoroughly original and relevant contribution
to the topic.
You have made a original and relevant contribution to the topic.
You have summarized points from sources, with some original
contributions of your own.
You have summarized points from sources, with little original
or critical content
You do not demonstrate the connection your points have to the
topic.
3. Results
You have synthesised ideas and evidence to produce excellent
arguments and justified conclusions.
You have produced reasoned arguments and draw on evidence to
support conclusions.
You have produced well explained arguments that connect ideas
but do not always connect with the evidence.
Selection and sequencing of ideas is not always logical or
connected.
Difficult for reader to obtain meaning from explanations. Ideas
are unconnected. No conclusions drawn.
4.
Understanding
Demonstrates sophisticated understanding of theoretical
concepts from readings and discussion.
Demonstrates thorough understanding of theoretical concepts
from readings and discussion.
Demonstrates clear understanding of theoretical concepts from

readings and discussion.
Demonstrates some understanding of theoretical concepts from
readings and discussion.
Demonstrates limited understanding of theoretical concepts
from readings and discussion.
5. Breadth
You have successfully drawn on an extensive range of sources
and related the sources appropriately to your argument.
You have successfully drawn on a good range of sources and
related the sources appropriately to your argument.
You have drawn on a range of relevant sources in your
argument.
You have drawn on a somewhat limited range of sources in your
argument.
You have drawn on insufficient sources in your argument.
TOTAL MARK…………………………/100 GENERAL
COMMENTS:
A list of Anthropology journals
Resources - Some Anthropological Journals
American Anthropologist
Annual Review of Anthropology
Annual Review of Sociology
Anthropological Forum
Anthropological Quarterly
Anthropology Today
Australian Journal of Anthropology
Australian Journal of Social Issues
Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology
Cross-Cultural Research
Cultural Studies
Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry
Current anthropology
Ethnology

European Journal of Cultural Studies
Gender and Society
History and Theory
Human Organisation
Journal of Anthropological Research
Journal of Contemporary Ethnography
Journal of Intercultural Studies
Journal of Material Culture
Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute
Mankind Quarterly
Medical Anthropology
Medical Anthropology Quarterly
Oceania
Qualitative Health Research
Qualitative Inquiry
Social Forces
Theory, Culture and Society
Urban Life
Urban Studies
Essay Que
stion:
the natures of those associated
with the Neolithic, urbanisation/civilisation,
colonisation/migration/ conquest, and
modernisation
.
MAJOR ESSAY (2500
-
3000 WDS)
Assessment

·
Item
MAJOR ESSAY (2500
-
3000 WDS)
—
TWMBA ONLINE ONL
Due by
11 May 2020
Maximum grade
40
Weighting
40%
·
Assessment of essays
with comments. These are
meant to be constructive and

are made to point out errors and areas where
improvements could be made. The comments will explain why
you got the mark you did.
They are, therefore, usually ‘critical’. You should consider
these comments carefully, and
try to understand why they were mad
e. If you do not see the point, or want further
comment, please take this matter up with whoever marked your
essay, preferably via the
course coordinator A/Prof Lara Lamb.
essays:
1.
Relevance to
the topic set.
2.
Organisation and effectiveness of argument, and proper use of
anthropological
concepts and principles as outlined during the course of your
reading.
3.
Evidence of reading outside the set texts and accuracy of facts
presented in the
essay.

4.
Orig
inality
–
careful and critical thought about the topic, and use of
illustrative material
from independent reading and also, to some extent, from
observation and experience.
5.
Accuracy and clarity of written English, including grammar,
spelling, and punc
tuation.
Overall legibility and general setting out will be noted,
especially of essay structure and
referencing.
you develop a sharp and
concise style. Goin
g under the word limit is preferable to ‘padding out’ your
answer with
vagaries or ‘waffle’ to reach the word limit.
Essay Question:
the natures of those associated
with the Neolithic, urbanisation/civilisation,
colonisation/migration/ conquest, and

modernisation.
MAJOR ESSAY (2500-3000 WDS)Assessment
-3000 WDS) — TWMBA
ONLINE ONL
Due by 11 May 2020
Maximum grade 40
Weighting 40%
with comments. These are
meant to be constructive and are made to point out errors and
areas where
improvements could be made. The comments will explain why
you got the mark you did.
They are, therefore, usually ‘critical’. You should consider
these comments carefully, and
try to understand why they were made. If you do not see the
point, or want further
comment, please take this matter up with whoever marked your
essay, preferably via the
course coordinator A/Prof Lara Lamb.
essays:
1. Relevance to the topic set.
2. Organisation and effectiveness of argument, and proper use
of anthropological
concepts and principles as outlined during the course of your
reading.
3. Evidence of reading outside the set texts and accuracy of
facts presented in the
essay.
4. Originality – careful and critical thought about the topic,
and use of illustrative material

from independent reading and also, to some extent, from
observation and experience.
5. Accuracy and clarity of written English, including grammar,
spelling, and punctuation.
Overall legibility and general setting out will be noted,
especially of essay structure and
referencing.
you develop a sharp and
concise style. Going under the word limit is preferable to
‘padding out’ your answer with
vagaries or ‘waffle’ to reach the word limit.
01_Booth_Epidemiologic_Transition_in_2016.pdf
23
Canadian Studies in Population 43, no. 1–2 (2016): 23–47.
Epidemiologic Transition in Australia:
The last hundred years
Heather Booth1
Leonie Tickle
Jiaying Zhao
Abstract
Mortality change in Australia since 1907 is analysed in the light
of Epidemiologic Transition
theory. Australia began the twentieth century in the second age
of the Epidemiologic Transition,
the Age of Receding Pandemics. Australia probably moved to
the third, the Age of Degenerative

and Man-Made Diseases before 1946, which is slightly in
advance of most Western countries.
Transition to the fourth, the Age of Delayed Degenerative
Diseases, is clearly marked by a
downturn, in about 1970, in circulatory disease mortality,
concurrent with other Western countries.
Keywords: mortality, trends, decomposition, life expectancy,
differentials. Australia.
Résumé
La théorie de la transition épidémiologique sert de base pour
une analyse des changements de
mortalité en Australie depuis 1907. Au début du XXe siècle,
l’Australie était dans la deuxième
phase de la transition épidémiologique, celle du recul des
pandémies. Néanmoins, l'Australie entrait
probablement avant 1946 dans la troisième phase, celle des
maladies dégénératives, ce qui est
légèrement en avance sur la plupart des pays occidentaux. La
transition vers la quatrième phase, celle
des maladies dégénératives retardées, est clairement marqué par
un ralentissement depuis environ
1970 dans la mortalité par maladies circulatoires, en même
temps que chez d'autres pays occidentaux.
Mots-clés : mortalité, tendances, décomposition, espérance de
vie, écarts, Australie.
Introduction
Australia enjoys a life expectancy that is among the highest in
the world. In 2011–13, life expect-
ancy at birth among females was 84.3 years, and 80.1 years
among males (ABS 2014a). The recently-

released United Nations World Population Prospects 2015
(UNPD 2015) shows that for life expectancy
at birth in 2010–15, Australian males rank eighth internationally
and Australian females rank tenth.
The top five ranked countries for males are Hong Kong, Iceland,
Switzerland, Italy, and Israel, and
for females they are Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, Italy, and
Spain.
1. Corresponding author: Prof. Heather Booth, School of
Demography, The Australian National University,
Canberra ACT 2601, Australia, e-mail: [email protected]; Prof.
Leonie Tickle, Faculty of Business
and Economics, Macquarie University, Sydney; and Dr. Jiaying
Zhao, School of Demography, The Australian
National University.
Canadian Studies in Population 43, no. 1–2 (Spring/Summer
2016): Special issue on Canada and Australia
24
This paper examines changing mortality in Australia since 1907,
six years after the Commonwealth
of Australia was created. The focus is at the national level,
with some discussion of differentials. The
theoretical framework of the analysis is the Epidemiologic
Transition (Omran 1971; Olshansky and
Ault 1986). As noted by de Looper (2015), the more recent
Epidemiologic Transition in Australia has
not been addressed as such, though studies of twentieth-century
mortality decline there do exist (e.g.,
Taylor and Lewis 1998; Taylor et al. 1998; Booth 2003). This
paper remedies the omission.

The paper is organized as follows. After a discussion of
Epidemiologic Transition theory and a
description of the data and methods employed, the paper
examines trends in life expectancy at birth
and at selected ages by sex. Cause of death, in conjunction with
age, is then explored through a series
of decompositions of temporal change in life expectancy over
the course of the lengthy period con-
sidered. The following section addresses age patterns of change
and focuses on infant mortality, the
adolescent and young adult mortality hump, and old age
mortality. The penultimate section presents
geographic, indigeneity and socio-economic mortality
differentials, and the paper concludes with a
discussion of the findings in relation to Epidemiologic
Transition theory.
Epidemiologic Transition theory
The theory of Epidemiologic Transition (Omran 1971, 1983)
describes health changes during
the process of modernisation as a series of three successive
stages of transition or ‘Ages’. The first
is the ‘Age of Pestilence and Famine’, characterised by low and
fluctuating life expectancy in the
range 20–40 years. The second is the ‘Age of Receding
Pandemics’ when life expectancy increases
steadily from an average of about 30 years to 50 (Omran 1971)
or 55 (Omran 1983) years, largely as
a result of less frequent epidemics and the decline of
infectious diseases; the underlying causes were
primarily socio-economic, ‘augmented by the sanitary
revolution in the late nineteenth century and by
medical and public health progress in the twentieth century’
(Omran 1971, reprint p.753). The third

‘Age of Degenerative and Man-Made Diseases’ is characterised
by a slow increase in life expectancy
due to the balancing effects of the disappearance of infectious
diseases and the rise of ‘degenerative
and man-made’ or non-communicable diseases such as heart
disease, stroke, cancers, and external
causes. At the time of publication of the theory, the general
consensus was that there was a limit to
life expectancy which would soon be reached (see Meslé and
Vallin 2011); for example, United Na-
tions (1975) took this limit to be 75 years.
In response to renewed mortality decline from the 1970s,
Olshansky and Ault (1986) proposed
a fourth ‘Age of Delayed Degenerative Diseases’ characterised
by the decline of cardiovascular and
other non-communicable diseases at increasingly older ages,
due to advances in medical technology
and improved health programs. Rogers and Hackenberg (1987)
also proposed a fourth ‘hubristic’ (or
‘hybristic’) stage giving prominence to the decline of social
pathologies arising from individual behav-
iour and lifestyle, which are driven by ‘hubris’ or notions of
excessive self-confidence and invincibility.
These two proposed extensions of Omran’s Epidemiologic
Transition theory address different aspects
of the same stage.2 The Epidemiologic Transition theory has
been criticised by Robine (2001) and by
Meslé and Vallin (2006), particularly in regard to the
distinction between the third and fourth Ages.
Omran (1971) defined three models of Epidemiologic
Transition, in recognition of the differing
dates of onset and speeds of transition among countries. The
Classical or Western model applies to
the populations of Europe and North America. Compared with

this, the Accelerated model involves
2. Proposals of fifth and sixth stages exist; these are not
considered.
Booth et al.: Epidemiologic Transition in Australia – The last
hundred years
25
a more rapid transition such as occurred in Japan. The
Contemporary or Delayed model applies to
the populations of developing countries.
While Epidemiologic Transition theory was developed to
explain global patterns, it can be used
in the study of mortality decline in individual countries (e.g.,
Caselli, Meslé and Vallin 2002; Lussier,
Bourbeau and Choinière 2008). Several exceptions to the
overall theory have been identified (Caselli,
Meslé and Vallin 2002). A limitation is that Omran did not
provide clear guidelines to determine
when successive Ages begin and end (Mackenbach 1994). It has
been argued that the approach is
overly broad, and that there is a need to take greater account of
how population subgroups experi-
ence epidemiologic transitions differently (Gaylin and Kates
1997).
The early years of the Epidemiologic Transition in the settler3
population of Australia have
been comprehensively documented by de Looper (2015) who
notes that the Age of Pestilence and
Famine was absent in Australia.4 Though there was no shortage

of epidemics in the second half of
the nineteenth century, famine was almost entirely absent, and
life expectancy was always above the
defining threshold of 40 years for transition to the second stage
(Omran 1971). Thus, the second
Age of Receding Pandemics characterises the start of the
‘truncated’ Epidemiologic Transition in
Australia, confirmed by life expectancies in the 1860s of 45
years for males and 49 years for females.
Further, de Looper (2015) concluded that, although there was
rapid mortality decline in the period
1885 to 1903, there was no evidence of transition to the third
Age of Degenerative and Man-Made
Diseases because the major causes of death (infectious
diseases, non-communicable diseases, and
external causes) declined proportionately. Commencing in 1907,
this analysis therefore begins in the
second Age of Receding Pandemics.
Data and methods
Data for international trends and comparisons of life
expectancies are from the Human Mortal-
ity Database (HMD 2015). The analyses use five-year averages
from 1920–24 to the present. For Aus-
tralia, HMD covers 1921 to 2011, so that the first period is
1921–24.The countries for comparison
are Canada, England and Wales, France, Japan, and the United
States, selected on the basis of high
income and either historical links and cultural similarities to
Australia (Canada, England and Wales,
United States) or recent leading-edge mortality experience
(France, Japan). HMD data are also used
for the examination of trends at specific ages.
Australian cause of death data are from the Australian Institute

of Health and Welfare (AIHW)
General Record of Incidence of Mortality (GRIM) books
(AIHW 2015a), which contain mortality
rates by five-year age groups for ages 0 to 84 and for the age
85+, from 1907 to 2012. Over this per-
iod, the International Classification of Diseases underwent
numerous revisions (WHO 1992), leading
to inconsistencies in cause of death classification and
discontinuities in time series of data. These
potential problems have been largely mitigated in this analysis
by considering only the major cause
of death categories. The six major causes of death employed
are infectious diseases, neoplasms, circulatory
diseases, respiratory diseases, external causes, and ‘all other’
causes. Note that in the early part of the century,
3. The first British settlers arrived in Australia in 1788.
Comprehensive mortality data have been compiled from
1856, when registration began, by de Looper (2015).
4. Smith (1980) and Gray (1985) suggest that the historic
Indigenous population was stationary prior to
settlement. Therefore, this population would not have been
subject to the fluctuation defining the Age of
Pestilence and Famine. Thus, neither the Indigenous nor settler
population appears to have experienced
Omran’s first Age.
Canadian Studies in Population 43, no. 1–2 (Spring/Summer
2016): Special issue on Canada and Australia
26
many ‘all other’ causes of death were indicated as ‘ill-defined’,

but this classification was reduced to
near zero by 1960 (Lancaster 1990).
The cause of death analysis uses standardized mortality rates
and life expectancy decomposition.
Standardized mortality rates are computed by sex and the six
major causes of death, using the 1981
total Australian population (both sexes) by five-year age groups
as the standard. Life expectancy
decomposition uses the Arriaga (1984) method to attribute
differences in life expectancy at birth to
mortality change by age and major cause simultaneously. To
facilitate discussion of the Epidemio-
logic Transition, decomposition analyses were conducted for
four periods:5 1922–46, 1946–70, 1970–
94, and 1994–2011. The periods were identified on the basis of
internal consistency of patterns; that
they are of roughly equal length assists in their comparison.
Trends in life expectancy
Australia in international context
Figure 1 compares historic male and female Australian life
expectancies at birth with those of
Canada, England and Wales, France, Japan, and the United
States. The upward trends confirm the
experience of Epidemiologic Transition. Deaths of Australian
military personnel during World War
II were excluded from national mortality statistics (Taylor et al.
1998), accounting for the absence of
a downward spike in male life expectancy observed for some
other countries.
In 1921–24, life expectancy in Australia was the highest among
the six selected countries. Figure

1 shows that for both males and females, Australian life
expectancy exceeded that of the second-
highest of this group by as much as four years. Over the next
two to three decades, this advantage
diminished, and in the 1950s and 1960s Australia fell behind
other countries. In the 1960s, for males, …

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