Navigating Effective Teaching: Flexibility, Context, and Student Needs

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Read Abstract
December 2010/January 2011 | Volume 68 | Number
4
The Effective Educator
Pages 46-50
Issue Table of Contents
| Read Article AbstractThe Flexible Teacher
Leila Christenbury
Good teaching comes not from following a recipe, but from
consistently putting student needs first.
After almost 35 years in secondary and university classrooms, I
know something about effective teaching. I have certainly seen
inspiring examples from other teachers; I have written and
reflected extensively on the topic; and occasionally in my own
practice I exemplify effective teaching myself.
I also have a modest reputation in my part of the academic
world for exploring ineffective teaching— and the source of my
most telling examples is still, embarrassingly, myself. In
articles and books throughout my career, I have felt compelled
to detail my recurring instructional struggles and failures

(Christenbury, 1996, 2005, 2007) to serve as a cautionary tale.
This article stems directly from my years of experience and
reflection and from my stubborn and consistent aspiration to be
a better teacher. I am not yet where I want to be, but as T. S.
Eliot (1952) reminds us,
For us there is only the trying. The rest is not our business. (p.
128)
For those of us who are still trying to become the most effective
teachers possible, it may be useful to consider a bit of history
and a recent real-world example.
Scapegoats and Superstars
Although it might seem self-evident that effective teaching is at
the heart of student learning, teaching has not always been a
central part of the public discussion on education reform.
Changing the patterns of school days and school years,
establishing a common core curriculum, linking assessments to
that curriculum, holding schools accountable for student test
scores, altering administrators' preparation and responsibilities,
incorporating new technologies into instruction, empowering
community groups and school boards—these have all been and
continue to be topics on the education reform discussion board.
The teacher, an individual who is crucial to the success of any
reform effort, has often been sidestepped, minimized, or even
ignored.
Only recently has it occurred to a number of otherwise bright
people that effective teaching is central to education success.
Yet rather than being a wholly heartening development, as many
of us initially hoped, this belated recognition of the importance
of effective teachers has had unintended and even pernicious
consequences. Both at the height of No Child Left Behind and
in its current twilight era, the significance of the teacher's role
has often been hijacked and distorted.
Some have claimed that because individual teachers are so

important, they should be able to overcome any and all
instructional, contextual, and societal issues and consistently
raise student test scores every year. Some have argued that
teachers are so vital that they must be strictly regulated; they
must follow scripted curriculums and be tracked, rewarded, or
punished for the performance of their students (again, as
measured by test scores).
Further, because teachers are so central, some pundits and
policymakers now propose that the best way to improve schools
is to strip teachers of tenure and seniority protections so that
newer and supposedly brighter and better teachers can quickly
take the place of "underperforming" veterans. Certainly in the
past year, the wholesale firing of an entire Rhode Island high
school's teaching staff and the dismissal of hundreds of teachers
from the District of Columbia schools were premised on the
idea that teachers are all-important.
The public discussion no longer ignores teachers and their
centrality; now it lays most of the onus of blame for student
failure on the individual teacher. And it must be reiterated that
in these days of high-stakes testing, student success is mostly
determined by only one measure: test scores.
Can the individual teacher bear this responsibility alone? Carter
(2009) critiques the image of the "teacher-as-saint" (p. 86). The
public, he contends, expects teachers to work miracles and
blames them when the miracles somehow do not materialize. In
an online forum on teacher effectiveness, Kate Walsh (2010)
points out that these "superstar" teachers are relatively rare.
And although good teaching is integral to student success, it
cannot by itself supersede the many other factors that contribute
to educational success or failure.
What Is Effective Teaching?
I teach preservice teachers at the university level, and one of
the hardest messages I try to impart to them is that there is no
definitive recipe, no immutable formula, no simple list of do's
and don'ts to ensure effective teaching. As they stand on the

brink of entering their own classrooms, many of my students
find this news frustrating. Some would prefer the deceptive
comfort of Chester E. Finn Jr.'s (2010) reductionist definition,
"An effective teacher is one whose pupils learn what they
should while under his/her tutelage."
Only when preservice teachers have gained some experience
with a range of students and some sense of themselves as
teachers do they understand that the individual, idiosyncratic,
and contextual aspects of effective teaching are what make it
both enormously rewarding and enormously challenging.
Students will always learn more, less, or differently than "what
they should." Good teachers understand this. Most people
outside the classroom, especially those who want to regularize
and routinize teaching and learning, do not.
But although there is no precise recipe, we can recognize
effective teaching by a number of characteristics.
Effective teaching is variable. Effective teachers use a variety
of strategies and a range of methods, and they change and refine
these over time. They do not teach the same way and use the
same instructional repertoire year after year. Effective teachers
also differ from one another; both teachers who use traditional
methods and those who employ the most up-to-date pedagogy
can be successful.
Effective teaching is contextual. It responds to individual
students, school and classroom communities, and societal needs.
Effective teachers alter, adjust, and change their instruction
depending on who is in the classroom and the extent to which
those students are achieving. Effective teachers are not so
devoted to their practice that they ignore the students in front of
them.
Effective teaching is premised on students' intellectual
curiosity. Effective teachers begin with the belief that students
are smart and can be enticed to learn. Despite their own skill,
knowledge, and experience, effective teachers neither patronize
nor condescend to students of any age.
Effective teaching must be somewhat autonomous. Reflective

and accomplished teachers do not need to be controlled,
managed, or strictly monitored. Such teachers are close to their
students in intellectual as well as psychological ways, and they
must be empowered to use their judgment to make classroom
decisions.
Ultimately, effective teaching is fearless. Because the goal is
learning, effective teachers must adjust curriculum, methods,
and pacing to meet the needs of the students. Effective teachers
put a priority on student needs rather than on the strictly
interpreted demands of the school district curriculum guide or
the year-end test. Again, to do this, teachers must have a great
deal of independence.
Walking the Walk
In spring 2010, I had a teaching experience that illustrates some
of the decisions and issues that confront all teachers in all
classrooms as we strive for effective teaching.
Because of a scenario that has become common during these
recession-plagued days, my university instituted a new round of
budget cuts, and I found myself unexpectedly teaching an
undergraduate writing course that is cross-listed in English and
in education. I had created the course, Teaching Writing Skills,
20 years ago. But my responsibilities had evolved and I had not
taught it for a while; it had recently been handled by
experienced and talented adjuncts. Now it was mine to teach
again.
At first, I welcomed this last-minute change in my schedule,
confident that I was in touch with the course focus and the
kinds of students who traditionally elected to enroll. In recent
years, I had taught almost exclusively graduate students, and
returning to teach this favorite undergraduate course would, I
thought, be interesting.New Challenges in an Old Course
Interesting it was indeed. Frankly, a number of issues caught me
by surprise. Many of the issues were familiar to me from high
school teaching, but I did not expect to find them at my
university.

First, it quickly became clear that my 18 students were not
prepared for the requirements of the course as I had designed it.
On a purely academic level, many students struggled from the
outset with the readings, the length and topics of journal
assignments, the etiquette of large-group discussions, and the
pacing and workload of the course itself. After some awkward
class sessions during the first weeks of the semester, I checked
student records and discovered that a number of those enrolled
in this 300-level course had current grade point averages of 2.5
or lower.
Second, although this course was geared to the teaching of
writing in secondary school, few of the course participants
planned to go into teaching. (From my experience, this was not
the usual course audience, and I wondered whether recent
enrollment pressures in the English department had made this
course attractive to English majors who needed the upper-level
credits.) Not surprisingly, then, early discussions and
assignments that addressed teaching scenarios were not
successful. When I previously taught the course, the students
were relatively able academically and most of them were taking
the course as part of their preparation to teach.
As a third issue, some students appeared unaccustomed to norms
of academic conduct, a problem I had rarely encountered at my
university or even when teaching at the high school level. About
half a dozen students had real difficulty with basic expectations:
They did not come to class on time; return promptly from the
break; or bring the necessary materials, books, and writing
journals. When I gave them directions or asked them a question
in discussions, some students routinely needed the question
repeated; their minds were clearly wandering.
One student was obviously frustrated with the class and dealt
with the situation by repeatedly coughing so loudly and
persistently in a number of class meetings that class
conversations and work had to stop. A least three students, early
in the semester, routinely missed assignment deadlines despite
an explicit syllabus and reminders.

In short, these students were not an optimal group. The 2010
Teaching Writing Skills course promised to be one hot
mess.Effective Teaching in a New Context
In this context, what did effective teaching look like?
First, it was variable. I ramped up the classroom intensity to the
level I usually reserve for one- or two-day inservice workshops
in which I need to instruct—and motivate—busy and often tired
practicing teachers. As in those contexts, I worked hard with
these Teaching Writing Skills students, being more personable
and direct than I had been in any classroom in years to keep
them awake, aware, and engaged. I used humor with the cougher
and with those who needed repeated questioning. I also moved
to more direct instruction, which I rarely used in my graduate-
level courses.
My teaching in this course was also contextual. Clearly, what I
had done before in this course was not going to work with these
students. One strategy was to address the elephant in the room;
I talked to the students explicitly about what I perceived was
going on in the class, and I proposed solutions. I asked for their
advice and feedback and gave them time to deliver it both face-
to-face and anonymously. Students told me that they wanted
more time with assignments, more direction regarding the
content of journal entries, and more feedback from me on
drafts. All of this I provided. To make the course more
appropriate for the students, I broadened the content of
discussions and assignments so that the focus was not just on
teaching writing but on issues in the students' own writing.
And I found that the students were smart—perhaps not smart in
the way I had assumed they would be, but in terms of their own
interests. As I made writing assignments more relevant to those
interests, students often revealed the kind of intellectual
curiosity that I knew was there. One student's traditional
argument paper defended the originality of Lady Gaga; another
student, in the course of a paper focused on the day he was
born, did an extensive—and sophisticated—analysis of
affordable Brooklyn apartments that had been available to his

young, immigrant parents.
I became more interventionist than I can ever recall in a college
setting—or even during my time teaching high school.
Specifically, I insisted that students who were struggling meet
with me outside of class. I initiated one-on-one conferences,
and during the class break I praised students for making
progress with behavior and attention. I individually tutored two
students whose literacy skills were below par. I used multiple e-
mail messages to remind students about deadlines. At students'
request, I expanded class time for discussions that were of
greatest interest to the students. I also limited large-group
discussions—which often veered out of control when students
were not able to present comments or ideas civilly—and
substituted small groups or pairs.
Most substantially, I concluded that few of these students would
pass the course as currently constructed. Therefore I jettisoned
some long-standing components of the course—in particular, the
culminating assignment, which was a favorite of mine. This
assignment had given each student the opportunity to assume
the roles of both writing teacher and writing student. Students
designed original writing tasks, exchanged and completed them,
and then evaluated the final products. However successful this
assignment had been in the past, I knew that it would most
likely be a failure with these students because their interest in
the teaching of writing was not central, and the detailed nature
of the work relied heavily on a pedagogical focus.
I also deleted a quarter of the journal entry assignments,
doubled the time allotted to writing-group revision, and
initiated rewards for completion of minor assignments. I
truncated some readings from the two textbooks and skipped
other parts of the books entirely. At the end of the course, for
the first time in my university teaching career (although I did
this regularly as a high school teacher), I provided a two-page,
detailed study guide for the exam.
Some of these changes may appear to have weakened the rigor
of the original course; from my perspective, however, not

making these changes ensured that most students who had
signed up for Teaching Writing Skills would falter in the
assignments if not fail the course itself. Compromise seemed
the better path and gave students a chance to succeed.
How did students react, and how well did they do in Teaching
Writing Skills? Over the course of the semester, nine final draft
papers were unacceptable; these students were given an R grade
(revise) and the opportunity to rewrite and resubmit without
penalty, and every student took advantage of that opportunity.
For the final exam, the study guide must have been helpful: 14
of the 18 students received As or Bs; there were only one C, one
D, and two
Fs. End-of-class anonymous student comments were generally
positive ("encourages passionate discussions," "willing to help
anyone who needed it," "establishes great working environment
among all her students") as were instructor and course rankings
(on a scale of 1 to 5, high 4s in almost every category).
Regarding final course grades, of the 18 students, 12 earned
either an A or a B; 4 received a C; and 2 students—who, despite
all my efforts, continued to experience difficulties with
attendance and deadlines—received Ds.
Giving Teachers the Freedom to Put Students First
All of the adjustments I made in response to the context and the
needs of students in this course depended on the autonomy I
enjoyed in my university teaching position (a level of autonomy
that current reform efforts are unfortunately making less, not
more, common among elementary and secondary teachers). I
think it would be overstating the case to call these adjustments
fearless. But I was pleased that by focusing on effective
teaching, I could recognize the need for change, respond to the
challenges, and make significant pedagogical and content
changes to meet student needs.
The spring 2010 Teaching Writing Skills course looked very
different from the course I had taught years before. But the
point was not to adhere to some preconceived, ideal course that

was no longer appropriate for these students; the point was that
effective teaching must be in service of student learning. Once
we more fully integrate our efforts to improve teaching with
school context and student need, we can look more confidently
to a future in which all students experience success.References
Carter, C. (2009, October). Priest, prostitute, plumber? The
construction of teachers as saints. English Education, 42(1), 61–
90.
Christenbury, L. (1996). Race differences: A white teacher and
a native son. In B. M. Power and R. S. Hubbard (Eds.), Oops:
What we learn when our teaching fails
(pp. 77–81). York, ME: Stenhouse.
Christenbury, L. (2005). Making the journey: Being and
becoming a teacher of English language arts (3rd ed.).
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Christenbury, L. (2007). Retracing the journey: Teaching and
learning in an American high school. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Eliot, T. S. (1952). East Coker (No. 2 of "Four Quartets"). In
The complete poems and plays 1909–1950. New York: Harcourt
Brace and World. (Original work published 1943)
Finn, C. E., Jr. (2010, July 12). Half brainer [blog comment].
Retrieved from National Journal Expert Blogs: Education at
http://education.nationaljournal.com/2010/07/defining-
effective-teachers.php#1603144
Walsh, K. (2010, July 12). Kate Walsh responds: The bottom
line [blog comment]. Retrieved from National Journal Expert
Blogs: Education at
http://education.nationaljournal.com/2010/07/defining-
effective-teachers.php#1604499
Leila Christenbury is Commonwealth Professor of English
Education at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond,
Virginia; a former high school English teacher; and past
president of the National Council of Teachers of English; 804-
828-1306;
[email protected].

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Read Abstract
December 2010/January 2011 | Volume 68 | Number
4
Pages 79-80
Issue Table of Contents

| Read Article AbstractResearch Says. . . / Good Teachers
May Not Fit the Mold
Bryan Goodwin
In Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game (Norton,
2003), Michael Lewis relates how Billy Beane, general manager
of the Oakland Athletics, helped his small-payroll baseball team
compete against teams with deeper pockets. Beane knew
intuitively that many commonly used baseball metrics, such as
batting average and the tools that scouts look for (arm strength,
speed, a good swing, and so on), didn't accurately predict a
player's value to his team. By identifying a new set of metrics—
including players' internal "makeup" and their ability to draw
walks—Beane was able to field a team of overlooked players
who didn't fit the regular major league superstar mold but who
were every bit as good as the big-money stars.
What does this have to do with teachers? Perhaps a great deal.
Like many major league teams, schools may be overlooking
some important metrics or even using the wrong measures as
they strive to recruit and retain the best teachers.
What Matters More
Research suggests that good teachers possess a few simple,
quantifiable attributes.
Verbal and cognitive ability. Given that teachers spend most of
the day thinking on their feet and communicating with students,
it's not surprising that teachers' verbal and cognitive abilities
are strongly tied to their success in the classroom. For example,
Ferguson and Ladd's (1996) analysis of the achievement of
nearly 30,000 Alabama 4th graders found that teachers' ACT
scores exerted a larger influence on student achievement than
did student poverty level, class size, and teaching experience
combined.
Adequate knowledge of their content areas. Debates have raged
over how important it is for teachers to be experts in their
subject areas. Rice (2003), who has reviewed hundreds of
studies of teacher quality, notes that "subject matter knowledge

contributes to good teaching only up to a certain point, beyond
which it does not seem to have an impact" (p. 37). Good
teachers must know their subjects well, but having doctoral-
level knowledge of Freudian interpretations of Victorian
literature, for example, doesn't really improve someone's ability
to teach language arts to 8th graders.
Knowledge of how to teach their subject areas. Recently, a team
of German researchers addressed the debate about what matters
more—teachers' knowledge of subject matter or their knowledge
of how to teach it (often called
pedagogical content knowledge). Baumert and colleagues (2010)
tested 194 high school mathematics teachers on both their math
skills and their knowledge of how to teach difficult math
concepts. They found that although content knowledge is
essential, teachers who also possess strong pedagogical content
knowledge are more effective than those with content
knowledge alone. Students in the study whose teachers had
strong pedagogical content knowledge (ranking among the top
one-fifth of teachers) were likely to gain a full year more
learning than students whose teachers had weak pedagogical
content knowledge (among the bottom one-fifth of teachers).
What Matters Less
Research has also found that many common metrics for hiring
and rewarding teachers are only weakly linked to student
success.
Traditional licensure or credentials. After comparing
achievement data for more than 3,000 high school students with
their teachers' certification, Goldhaber and Brewer (2000) found
"little rigorous evidence that [teacher certification] is
systematically related to student achievement" (p. 141). One
partial exception may be National Board certification. An
extensive analysis of North Carolina data found higher
achievement in classrooms of National Board–certified teachers.
Yet the study detected no before-and-after effects—that is,
teachers appeared no more effective after undergoing the

grueling certification process than before it (Clotfelter, Ladd, &
Vigdor, 2007).
Advanced degrees. In her survey of research, Rice (2003) found
that several studies conducted since the 1970s "have found no
discernible effect of teachers having a master's degree or higher
on student achievement" (p. 26). Indeed, some studies,
including the North Carolina analysis mentioned earlier, found
slightly negative correlations with teachers' advanced degrees
and student achievement (Clotfelter et al., 2007). One possible
exception appears to be high school science and mathematics,
where teachers with subject-specific master's degrees are more
effective than those without such degrees (Goldhaber & Brewer,
1998).
Extensive classroom experience. After comparing teacher
characteristics to achievement results for more than 1.3 million
Texas students, a team of economists found that first-year
teachers "and to a lesser extent second- and third-year teachers"
were less effective than more experienced teachers (Rivkin,
Hanushek, & Kain, 2005, p. 447). However, they found little
difference in teacher effectiveness after about five years of
experience. Certainly, many teachers improve their skills
throughout their careers. Yet on average, after a few years of
teaching, added years of teaching experience appear to offer
little guarantee of increased effectiveness.
The Intangibles
The attributes discussed to this point can be measured or
quantified quite easily. Savvy principals, however, know that
great teachers also possess many intangible attributes. Here are
a few intangibles that research links to teacher effectiveness.
Belief that all students can learn. Since the famous Rosenthal
experiment in the late 1960s, the Pygmalion effect—the
observation that teachers' expectations for their students affect
how well students learn—has been well documented (Hattie,
2009).
Belief in their own abilities. A RAND study conducted more

than 30 years ago (Armor et al., 1976) found links between
student achievement and teachers' sense of efficacy—their
belief in not just their students' ability to succeed, but also their
own ability as teachers to help those students succeed.
Ability to connect with students. Cornelius-White (2007)
conducted a meta-analysis of research on teacher-student
relationships and found that teachers' warmth, empathy, and
"nondirectivity" strongly correlated to higher levels of student
participation, motivation, and achievement.
Advice for Educators
Few teacher candidates are likely to display all of these
attributes when they first walk through the classroom door.
School leaders must consider, then, which attributes they can
augment and which they cannot. They may also need to
reexamine the metrics, explicit or implicit, they use to select
and compensate teachers. Being credentialed, being
experienced, or holding an advanced degree is no guarantee of
effectiveness. Leaders must look more deeply, examining
whether teachers have adequate knowledge of their subjects and
know how to teach them. At the same time, important
intangibles, such as a teacher's dispositions and attitudes,
although more difficult to glean from a résumé, can still be
teased out through interviews and observations of teachers
delivering sample lessons.
A Lesson from the Major Leagues
Any analogy comparing baseball players to teachers has its
flaws. Baseball is, of course, just a game; in the grand scheme
of things, it matters little who wins or loses. For students,
though, the quality of their teachers can be the difference
between academic success and failure. Schools would do well to
put as much careful analysis into selecting their teachers as
major league teams put into scouting and drafting their
players.References
Armor, D., Conroy-Oseguera, P., Cox, M., King, N.,

McDonnell, L., Pascal, A., et al. (1976). Analysis of the school
preferred reading programs in selected Los Angeles minority
schools (Report No. R-2007-LAUSD). Santa Monica, CA:
RAND.
Baumert, J., Kunter, M., Blum, W., Brunner, M., Voss, T.,
Jordan, A., et al. (2010). Teachers' mathematical knowledge,
cognitive activation in the classroom, and student progress.
American Educational Research Journal, 47(1), 133–180.
Clotfelter, C. T., Ladd, H. F., & Vigdor, J. L. (2007, January).
How and why do teacher credentials matter for student
achievement?
(Working Paper 2). Washington, DC: National Center for the
Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research.
Cornelius-White, J. (2007). Learner-centered teacher-student
relationships are effective: A meta-analysis. Review of
Educational Research, 77(1), 113–143.
Ferguson, R. F., & Ladd, H. F. (1996). How and why money
matters: An analysis of Alabama schools. In H. F. Ladd. (Ed.),
Holding schools accountable: Performance-based reform in
education (pp. 265–298). Washington, DC: Brookings
Institution Press.
Goldhaber, D., & Brewer, D. (1998). When should we reward
degrees for teachers?
Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 134–138.
Goldhaber, D., & Brewer, D. (2000). Does certification matter?
High school teacher certification status and student
achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis,
22(2), 129–145.
Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning. London: Routledge.
Rice, J. K. (2003). Teacher quality: Understanding the
effectiveness of teacher attributes. Washington, DC: Economic
Policy Institute.
Rivkin, S. G., Hanushek, E. A., & Kain, J. F. (2005). Teachers,
schools, and academic achievement. Econometrica, 73(2), 417–
458.
Bryan Goodwin is vice president of communications, McREL,

Denver, Colorado; [email protected].
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a.exp07_link:hover { color: rgb(102, 102, 102); text-decoration:
none; }

a.exp07_footerLinks:link { color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-
decoration: underline; }
a.exp07_footerLinks:visited { color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-
a.exp07_footerLinks:active { color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-
decoration: none; }
a.exp07_footerLinks:hover { color: rgb(102, 102, 102); text-
decoration: none; }
a.exp07_headerLinks:link { color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-decoration:
none; }
a.exp07_headerLinks:visited { color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-
decoration: none; }
a.exp07_headerLinks:active { color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-

a.exp07_headerLinks:hover { color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-
#exp07_container { font: 11px Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-
serif; width: 600px; background: rgb(255, 255, 255); margin:
0px auto; text-align: left; }
#exp07_header2 { border: 1px dotted rgb(204, 204, 204);
padding: 0px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-
height: 20px; font-size: 9px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); }
#exp07_header { background:
url("http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/images/multifiles/ASCD%20Ex
press/masthead600_links.jpg") rgb(255, 255, 255); font-family:
Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 20px; font-size: 9px;
color: rgb(0, 0, 0); padding: 0px; }
#exp07_masthead { background: rgb(255, 255, 255); width:
600px; }
#exp07_sidebar1 { float: left; margin-top: 15px; width: 196px;
padding: 0px; vertical-align: top; }

#exp07_sidebarHead { background-color: rgb(102, 102, 102);
font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color:
rgb(255, 255, 255); font-weight: bold; font-size: 11px; border-
left: 1px solid rgb(102, 102, 102); border-right: 1px solid
rgb(102, 102, 102); padding: 3px 5px; }
#exp07_sidebarHeadRed { background-color: rgb(156, 15, 24);
font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color:
rgb(255, 255, 255); font-weight: bold; font-size: 11px; border-
left: 1px solid rgb(102, 102, 102); border-right: 1px solid
rgb(102, 102, 102); padding: 3px 5px; }
#exp07_sidebarBody { background-color: rgb(249, 243, 227);
line-height: 20px; font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-
serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 11px; border-left: 1px solid
rgb(102, 102, 102); border-right: 1px solid rgb(102, 102, 102);
padding: 13px; }
.exp07_sidebarBold { color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-weight: bold; }
.exp07_sidebarText { font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica,
sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 11px; }
.exp07_sidebarBoldRed { font-family: Verdana, Arial,
Helvetica, sans-serif; color: rgb(156, 15, 24); font-weight: bold;
font-size: 12px; }

.exp07_topStory { font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-
serif; color: rgb(156, 15, 24); font-weight: bold; font-size:
23px; line-height: 27px; padding-top: 16px; }
.exp07_secondpageStory { font-family: Verdana, Arial,
Helvetica, sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-weight: bold;
font-size: 18px; line-height: 27px; padding-top: 16px; }
.exp07_articleTitles { font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica,
sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-weight: bold; font-size:
14px; }
.exp07_mastheadHead { font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica,
sans-serif; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); font-weight: bold; font-
size: 11px; text-align: center; padding: 3px 0px; background-
color: rgb(153, 153, 153); }
.exp07_mastheadBody { font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica,
sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); vertical-align: top; line-height:
18px; font-size: 11px; text-align: center; padding: 3px 0px;
background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); }
#exp07_mainContent { margin: 0px 0px 0px 200px; padding:

0px 0px 10px 15px; line-height: 16px; }
#exp07_footer { padding: 0px; background:
url("http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/images/multifiles/ASCD%20Ex
press/footer600.gif") rgb(102, 155, 169); color: rgb(255, 255,
255); text-align: right; width: 600px; }
.exp07_clearfloat { clear: both; height: 0px; font-size: 1px;
line-height: 0px; }
.exp07_photoBorder { border: 1px solid rgb(0, 0, 0); }
.exp07_quote { font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman",
Times, serif; font-size: 12px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); padding: 15px
0px; background-color: rgb(230, 230, 230); border-bottom: 5px
solid rgb(131, 149, 49); text-align: center; }
.exp07_quoteAuthor { font-family: Georgia, "Times New
Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 11px; color: rgb(102, 102,
102); }
@charset "utf-8";

body { background-color: white; margin: 0px; }
.ControlPanel, .PagingTable { width: 100%; background-color:
rgb(255, 255, 255); border-width: 1px; border-style: solid;
border-color: rgb(0, 51, 102); }
.SkinObject { font-weight: bold; font-size: 8.5pt; color: rgb(0,
51, 102); font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; text-
decoration: none; }
a.SkinObject:link { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 51,
102); }
a.SkinObject:visited { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 51,
102); }
a.SkinObject:hover { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 51,
102); }
a.SkinObject:active { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 51,
102); }

div.language-object { white-space: nowrap; overflow: visible;
vertical-align: middle; margin: 0px; line-height: 0.5; }
div.language-object span.Language { display: inline; float: left;
margin: 0px 2px; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; }
div.language-object span.Language img { border: 2px solid
transparent; }
div.language-object span.Language.selected img { border-color:
rgb(51, 51, 51); }
.Head { font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 20px;
font-weight: normal; color: rgb(51, 51, 51); }
.SubHead { font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-size:
11px; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 51, 102); }
.SubSubHead { font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-
size: 11px; font-weight: bold; color: black; }

.Normal, .NormalDisabled { font-family: Tahoma, Arial,
Helvetica; font-size: 11px; font-weight: normal; }
.NormalDisabled { color: silver; }
.NormalBold { font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-size:
11px; font-weight: bold; }
.NormalRed { font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-size:
12px; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0); }
.NormalTextBox { font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-
size: 12px; font-weight: normal; }
.Hidden { display: none; }
.DataGrid_AlternatingItem { background-color: white; color:
red; font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 10px;
font-weight: normal; }
.DataGrid_Container { background-color: transparent; }

.DataGrid_Footer { background-color: white; }
.DataGrid_Header { background-color: transparent; color:
black; font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 10px;
font-weight: bold; text-align: center; }
.DataGrid_Item { background-color: transparent; color: black;
font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 10px; font-
weight: normal; }
.DataGrid_SelectedItem { background-color: silver; color: blue;
font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 10px; font-
weight: normal; }
.DnnGridNestedTable { border: 0px; text-align: center; border-
collapse: collapse !important; margin: 0px auto !important; }
.DnnGridNestedTable tbody td, .DnnGridNestedTable thead th {
margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; }
.DnnGridNestedTable tbody td { border-left: 0px !important; }

.DnnGridNestedTable caption { border-bottom: 1px dashed
rgb(195, 195, 195); margin-bottom: 3px; }
.TreeMenu_Node { font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-
.TreeMenu_NodeSelected { font-family: Tahoma, Arial,
Helvetica; font-size: 12px; font-weight: normal; background-
color: rgb(220, 220, 220); }
a.TreeMenu_Node:link, a.TreeMenu_NodeSelected:link { text-
decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 51, 102); }
a.TreeMenu_Node:visited, a.TreeMenu_NodeSelected:visited {
text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 51, 102); }
a.TreeMenu_Node:hover, a.TreeMenu_NodeSelected:hover {
a.TreeMenu_Node:active, a.TreeMenu_NodeSelected:active {

.Help { border-width: 1px; border-style: solid; border-color:
black; padding: 2px; font-weight: normal; font-size: 11px;
color: black; font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica;
.CommandButton { font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-
a.CommandButton:link { text-decoration: underline; color:
rgb(0, 51, 102); }
a.CommandButton:visited { text-decoration: underline; color:
rgb(0, 51, 102); }
a.CommandButton:hover { text-decoration: underline; color:
rgb(255, 0, 0); }
a.CommandButton:active { text-decoration: underline; color:
rgb(0, 51, 102); }
.StandardButton { padding-right: 5px; padding-left: 5px; font-
weight: normal; font-size: 11px; background: rgb(221, 221,

221); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; }
h1 { font-size: 20px; font-weight: normal; color: rgb(102, 102,
68); }
68); }
102); }
102); }
h5, dt { font-size: 11px; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 51,
102); }
h6 { font-size: 11px; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 51, 102); }
tfoot, thead { font-size: 12px; color: rgb(0, 51, 102); }

th { vertical-align: baseline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold;
color: rgb(0, 51, 102); }
img { border: none; }
a:link { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); }
a:visited { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); }
a:hover { text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(255, 0, 0); }
a:active { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); }
small { font-size: 8px; }
big { font-size: 14px; }
blockquote, pre { }

ul li { list-style-type: square; }
ul li li { list-style-type: disc; }
ul li li li { list-style-type: circle; }
ol li { list-style-type: decimal; }
ol ol li { list-style-type: lower-alpha; }
ol ol ol li { list-style-type: lower-roman; }
ol ul li { list-style-type: disc; }
hr { color: rgb(105, 105, 105); height: 1pt; text-align: left; }
.ModuleTitle_MenuContainer { border-width: 0px; border-style:
solid; border-color: blue; }

.ModuleTitle_MenuBar { cursor: pointer; height: 16px;
background-color: transparent; }
.ModuleTitle_MenuItem { cursor: pointer; color: black; font-
family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 9pt; font-weight:
bold; font-style: normal; border-width: 1px 0px; border-style:
solid; border-color: white; background-color: transparent; }
.ModuleTitle_MenuIcon { cursor: pointer; background-color:
rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left: 1px solid rgb(238, 238, 238);
border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top: 1px
solid rgb(238, 238, 238); text-align: center; width: 15px; height:
21px; }
.ModuleTitle_SubMenu { z-index: 1000; cursor: pointer;
background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); border-width: 0px;
border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); }
.ModuleTitle_MenuBreak { border-width: 1px 0px; border-
style: solid; border-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); background-
color: rgb(238, 238, 238); height: 1px; }
.ModuleTitle_MenuItemSel { cursor: pointer; color: black; font-

bold; font-style: normal; background-color: rgb(193, 210, 238);
}
.ModuleTitle_MenuArrow { font-family: webdings; font-size:
10pt; cursor: pointer; border-right: 1px solid rgb(255, 255,
255); border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(255, 255, 255); border-top:
0px solid rgb(255, 255, 255); }
.ModuleTitle_RootMenuArrow { font-family: webdings; font-
size: 10pt; cursor: pointer; }
.MainMenu_MenuContainer { background-color: transparent; }
.MainMenu_MenuBar { cursor: pointer; height: 16px;
background-color: transparent; }
.MainMenu_MenuItem { cursor: pointer; color: black; font-
bold; font-style: normal; border-width: 1px 0px; border-style:
solid; border-color: white; background-color: transparent; }
.MainMenu_MenuIcon { cursor: pointer; background-color:
rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left: 1px solid rgb(238, 238, 238);

border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top: 1px
solid rgb(238, 238, 238); text-align: center; width: 15px; height:
21px; }
.MainMenu_SubMenu { z-index: 1000; cursor: pointer;
background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); border-width: 0px;
border-style: solid; border-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); }
.MainMenu_MenuBreak { border-width: 1px 0px; border-style:
solid; border-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); background-color:
rgb(238, 238, 238); height: 1px; }
.MainMenu_MenuItemSel { cursor: pointer; color: black; font-
bold; font-style: normal; background-color: rgb(193, 210, 238);
}
.MainMenu_MenuArrow { font-family: webdings; font-size:
10pt; cursor: pointer; border-right: 1px solid rgb(255, 255,
255); border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(255, 255, 255); border-top:
0px solid rgb(255, 255, 255); }
.MainMenu_RootMenuArrow { font-family: webdings; font-
size: 10pt; cursor: pointer; }

.HeadBg { background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); }
.TabBg { background-color: black; }
.SelectedTab { font-weight: bold; font-size: 8.5pt; color:
rgb(255, 255, 255); font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; text-
decoration: none; }
a.SelectedTab:link { text-decoration: none; color: white; }
a.SelectedTab:visited { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(238,
238, 238); }
a.SelectedTab:hover { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(204,
204, 204); }
a.SelectedTab:active { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(238,
238, 238); }
.OtherTabs { font-weight: bold; font-size: 8.5pt; color: white;
font-family: Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica; text-decoration: none; }

a.OtherTabs:link { text-decoration: none; color: white; }
a.OtherTabs:visited { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(238,
238, 238); }
a.OtherTabs:hover { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(204, 204,
204); }
a.OtherTabs:active { text-decoration: none; color: rgb(238, 238,
238); }
.PagingTable { height: 33px; }
.LabelEditTextClass { border: 1px solid red; background-color:
transparent; }
.LabelEditWorkClass { border: 0px solid red; background-color:
transparent; }

.SuggestTextMenu { border: 1px solid black; white-space:
nowrap; background: white; }
.SuggestNodeOver { background-color: navy; color: white; }
.eipbackimg { border: 1px outset; position: absolute; margin-
top: -22px; white-space: nowrap; background:
url("../../images/eip_toolbar.gif") repeat-x rgb(153, 204, 204);
height: 22px; }
.eipbuttonbackimg { width: 21px; height: 21px; cursor: pointer;
float: left; }
.eipbutton_edit { background: url("../../images/eip_edit.gif")
100% center no-repeat; float: left; }
.eipbutton_save { background: url("../../images/eip_save.gif")
100% center no-repeat; float: left; }
.eipborderhover { border: 1px outset; }
.DNNEmptyPane { width: 0px; }

.DNNAlignleft { text-align: left; }
.DNNAlignright { text-align: right; }
.DNNAligncenter { text-align: center; }
.LoginPanel { }
.LoginTabGroup { }
.LoginTab { float: left; background:
url("../../images/tablogin_gray.gif") left top; margin: 0px 3px
3px 0px; padding: 5px 5px 4px; text-decoration: none; color:
rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(37, 86, 154); }
.LoginTabSelected { float: left; background:
url("../../images/tablogin_gray.gif") 0% -41px; margin: 0px 3px
rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(37, 86, 154); }

.LoginTabHover { float: left; background:
url("../../images/tablogin_gray.gif") left top; margin: 0px 3px
rgb(85, 85, 85); border: 1px solid rgb(204, 0, 0); cursor:
pointer; }
.LoginContainerGroup { clear: both; padding-top: 5px; }
.LoginContainer { }
div.SearchContainer { position: relative; white-space: nowrap; }
div.SearchBorder { width: 200px; height: 20px; border: 1px
solid rgb(224, 224, 224); position: relative; background-color:
white; white-space: nowrap; float: left; margin-top: 2px; }
input.SearchTextBox { float: left; z-index: 10; border: 0px;
width: 169px; height: 18px; }
div.SearchContainer a { padding: 0px 5px; position: relative;
display: inline-block; }

div.SearchIcon { float: left; width: 31px; height: 20px; cursor:
pointer; z-index: 11; background: 2px 2px no-repeat; text-align:
right; }
div.SearchIcon img { margin-top: 3px; }
#SearchChoices { width: 160px; clear: both; display: none;
border: 1px solid rgb(119, 119, 119); z-index: 2000; cursor:
pointer; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;
background-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); position: absolute; top:
21px; left: 0px; }
#SearchChoices li { cursor: pointer; margin: 2px; padding: 2px
2px 2px 25px; height: 20px; text-align: left; background-color:
rgb(238, 238, 238); background-repeat: no-repeat; background-
position: 5px center; list-style: none none; border: 1px solid
rgb(238, 238, 238); display: block; }
#SearchChoices li.searchHilite { background-color: rgb(221,
221, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 255); }
#SearchChoices li.searchDefault { background-color: rgb(238,
238, 238); border: 1px solid rgb(238, 238, 238); }

#floater { padding: 0px; background: rgb(255, 255, 255);
visibility: hidden; margin: 0px; width: 150px; color: rgb(255,
255, 255); position: absolute; height: auto; }
#tablist { width: 120px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 10px;
float: left; }
.dashboardPanel { margin-left: 120px; padding: 0px 10px 10px;
}
.dashboardPanel table td { padding: 2px 4px; }
.dashboardPanel table th { padding: 2px 4px; font-size: 1em;
font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 51, 102); border-bottom: 1px
solid rgb(159, 177, 188); }
.dashboardTableAlt { background-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); }
.dashboardGrid { margin: 10px; }
.paneOutline { border: 1px dotted rgb(204, 204, 204); }

.containerAdminBorder { border: 2px solid red; }
#UserProfile { border: 1px solid silver; padding: 10px; margin-
bottom: 10px; width: 500px; }
#UserProfile .ProfileName { font-weight: bold; color: rgb(203,
32, 39); margin-bottom: 5px; }
#UserProfile .ProfilePhoto { background-image:
url("../../images/no_avatar.gif"); float: left; }
#UserProfile .ProfileAddress { margin: 0px 0px 10px 130px; }
#UserProfile .ProfileContact { margin: 0px 0px 10px 130px;
color: gray; font-size: 0.9em; }
#UserProfile .ProfileBio { clear: both; margin: 10px 0px;
padding: 10px; border: 1px solid rgb(238, 238, 238);

.horizontal ul.categories, .horizontal ul.tags { list-style: none;
padding: 0px; margin: 0px; text-indent: 25px; line-height: 28px;
}
.horizontal ul.categories { background:
url("../../images/category.gif") left center no-repeat; }
.horizontal ul.tags { background: url("../../images/tag.gif") left
center no-repeat; }
.horizontal ul.categories li, .horizontal ul.tags li { display:
inline; margin: 0px; }
.horizontal ul.tags li.add-tags { margin-left: 20px; }
.horizontal ul.tags li.add-tags img { vertical-align: middle; }
.vertical ul.categories, .vertical ul.tags { list-style: none;
padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin-
bottom: 0px; }

.vertical ul.categories li, .vertical ul.tags li { margin: 0px; line-
height: 20px; }
.vertical ul.categories li { list-style-image:
url("../../images/category.gif"); list-style-position: inside; }
.vertical ul.tags li { list-style-image: url("../../images/tag.gif");
list-style-position: inside; }
.vertical ul.tags li.add-tags { list-style-image: none; }
.vertical ul.tags li.add-tags img { vertical-align: middle; }
.html_preview { border: 1px solid rgb(0, 148, 255); padding:
5px; margin: 10px; }
@charset "utf-8";
@charset "utf-8";

.HeadBg { }
body { }
.ControlPanel { }
.TabBg { }
.LeftPane { }
.ContentPane { }
.RightPane { }
.SelectedTab { }
a.SelectedTab:link { }

a.SelectedTab:visited { }
a.SelectedTab:hover { }
a.SelectedTab:active { }
.OtherTabs { }
a.OtherTabs:link { }
a.OtherTabs:visited { }
a.OtherTabs:hover { }
a.OtherTabs:active { }
.Head { }

.SubHead { }
.SubSubHead { }
.Normal { }
.NormalTextBox { }
.NormalRed { }
.NormalBold { }
.CommandButton { }
a.CommandButton:link { }
a.CommandButton:visited { }

a.CommandButton:hover { }
a.CommandButton:active { }
.StandardButton { }
h1 { }
h2 { }
h3 { }
h4 { }
h5, dt { }
h6 { }

tfoot, thead { }
th { }
a:link { }
a:visited { }
a:hover { }
a:active { }
small { }
big { }
blockquote, pre { }

ul li { }
ul li li { }
ul li li li { }
ol li { }
ol ol li { }
ol ol ol li { }
ol ul li { }
hr { }
.Message { }

.ItemTitle { }
.ModuleTitle_MenuContainer { }
.ModuleTitle_MenuBar { }
.ModuleTitle_MenuItem { }
.ModuleTitle_MenuIcon { }
.ModuleTitle_SubMenu { }
.ModuleTitle_MenuBreak { }
.ModuleTitle_MenuItemSel { }
.ModuleTitle_MenuArrow { }

.ModuleTitle_RootMenuArrow { }
.MainMenu_MenuContainer { }
.MainMenu_MenuBar { }
.MainMenu_MenuItem { }
.MainMenu_MenuIcon { }
.MainMenu_SubMenu { }
.MainMenu_MenuBreak { }
.MainMenu_MenuItemSel { }
.MainMenu_MenuArrow { }

.MainMenu_RootMenuArrow { }
.LoginPanel { }
.LoginTabGroup { }
.LoginTab { }
.LoginTabSelected { }
.LoginTabHover { }
.LoginContainerGroup { }
.LoginContainer { }
@charset "utf-8";

@font-face { font-family: FontAwesome; src:
url("../fonts/fontawesome-webfont.eot?#iefix&v=4.5.0")
format("embedded-opentype"), url("../fonts/fontawesome-
webfont.woff2?v=4.5.0") format("woff2"),
url("../fonts/fontawesome-webfont.woff?v=4.5.0")
format("woff"), url("../fonts/fontawesome-webfont.ttf?v=4.5.0")
format("truetype"), url("../fonts/fontawesome-
webfont.svg?v=4.5.0#fontawesomeregular") format("svg");
font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; }
.fa { display: inline-block; font-style: normal; font-variant:
normal; font-weight: normal; font-stretch: normal; line-height:
1; font-family: FontAwesome; font-size: inherit; text-rendering:
auto; -webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; }
.fa-lg { font-size: 1.33333em; line-height: 0.75em; vertical-
align: -15%; }
.fa-2x { font-size: 2em; }

.fa-fw { width: 1.28571em; text-align: center; }
.fa-ul { padding-left: 0px; margin-left: 2.14286em; list-style-
type: none; }
.fa-ul > li { position: relative; }
.fa-li { position: absolute; left: -2.14286em; width: 2.14286em;
top: 0.142857em; text-align: center; }
.fa-li.fa-lg { left: -1.85714em; }
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}
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.fa-
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Navigating Effective Teaching: Flexibility, Context, and Student Needs