2. WHAT IS FEMINISM?
•A response to society’s assumptions that women should be
subservient to men
• Until feminism emerged in the 18th century, women were
treated as objects, passive agents in a male world.
• This theory pre-supposes that women suffer from various
forms of explicit and implicit discrimination. The media are
said to play their part through inaccuracies in re-
presentation (women being present for the pleasure of
men/presented in subordinate or objectified roles).
Theories/Issues/debates to link to feminism:
PATRIARCHY ‘THE MALE GAZE’
MATRIARCHY OBJECTIFICATION
SUBORDINATION IDEOLOGY/HEGEMONY
3. HISTORY OF FEMINISM
The earliest feminist movement can be traced back to the 18 th
Century but became more prolific with the ascendance of the
Suffragette movement who fought for the vote in the early 20 th
Century (think of ‘Mary Poppins’ and how …. Was ridiculed by her
oppressive husband because of her beliefs.).
When Europe went to war, feminism was again rife amongst the
Land Girls and other women who moved into many male
occupations (working in munitions factories etc) during WWII.
When the war was over, women were forced back into the role of
spectator (housewife, mother..). In order to make housework
more exciting, advertisers worked to redefine women’s domestic
responsibilities as being something glamorous and a great deal of
pressure was put upon women to buy modern goods to aid them in
their role as the housewife and mother.
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9. THE 2ND WAVE OF FEMINISM
Activists in the 60s and 70s were battling for liberation (‘women’s
lib) and equal opportunities during a time of civil unrest and social
upheaval for many social groups (homosexuals, blacks, immigrants).
In 1963, American writer Betty Friedan wrote the book, ‘The
Feminine Mystique’ which is a key text in the sexual revolution of
the 1960s.
Friedan was aware of the media’s affect on the oppression of
women. Women’s magazines continued to ‘insist that women can
know fulfilment only at the moment of giving birth to a child’
(Friedan, 1963:55), controlling women’s hopes for the future and
confining her dreams to those that concerned women as her
husband’s wife and children’s mother.
10. THE 2ND WAVE OF FEMINISM
At this time, two of the main types of feminism were
Liberal feminism (equality before the law, education,
welfare) and Radical feminism (challenge to social/sexual
experiences of patriarchy).
Friedan was known to be a Liberal feminist, stating that
motherhood, domestic chores and a career could all be
combined if women wanted to achieve it, yet she rarely
challenged the idea that a women’s main role should be
within the home.
This campaigning by the 2nd wave feminists paved the way
for Academic Feminist Theories (Angela McRobbie; Laura
Mulvey; Germaine Greer) who have produced critical
writing in relation to the role of women in society and their
presence in contemporary media.
It wasn’t until 1975 that the Sex Equality Act was finally
passed.
11. THE NEW DEAL: POST-FEMINISM
As society started edging towards the new millennium, suddenly
feminism was no longer a marginalised view; it has become
COMMON SENSE.
It became apparent that most of society understood that women
could be successful and independent whilst still being able to
bring up a family and run a home.
With this new revolution in thinking, women in the 80s and 90s
were now in the position to be both sexy and powerful.
12. THE NEW DEAL: POST-FEMINISM
Post-feminism aimed to signify the power and pleasure that
could be associated with being a woman, with advertisements
flaunting women’s sexuality in a way that was playful yet
designed to signify that women were in control of their lives
e.g. Wonderbra, Boddingtons.
Instead of having to don a pair of dungarees or combat
trousers, women were able to flaunt their sexuality, using it as
a source of strength to get what they want.
If you think about Erin Brockovich, how many times did she use
her ‘assets’ to get what she wanted?
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16. CRITICISMS OF POST-FEMINISM
The main criticism of post-feminism is its link to the media,
particularly the corporate media and advertising agencies.
READ SUSAN J. DOUGLAS EXTRACT IN HANDBOOK
It soon became apparent to both right wing politicians and the
corporate media that in order to reflect feminism as being
‘common sense’ , they had to push post-feminism as being logical
and progressive so that women continued to consume fashion and
beauty products without realising they were still conforming to
stereotypical roles and behaviours.
IS THIS A POSTMODERN, MARXIST OR PLURALIST
ARGUMENT?
17. CRITICISMS OF POST-FEMINISM
By distracting women into believing in the ‘superwoman’ effect,
the importance of femininity has been re-constructed in order
to prevent feminism from moving on in its achievements,
allowing women to ‘enjoy’ themselves and forget about the
harsh constraints that were put on them by early feminism.
These criticisms can be linked to:
THE MANUFACTURE OF CONSENT – NOAM CHOMSKY
•Chomsky links this phrase to the process of opinion formation
in western countries where some povs are privileged over
others.
•Chomsky argues that the mass media can be used to divert
people’s attention from real issues e.g. poverty.
•This can again be linked to the power of the state and
institutions that produce media texts.
18. GENDER STUDIES
GENDER AS PERFORMANCE – JUDITH BUTLER
• argument that we all put on a gender performance whether
traditional or not.
• Some people may chose to change gender norms and the binary
understanding of what is masculine and feminine.
• Butler suggests that:
gender is not some inner truth but the presence of
received meanings
Gender is not fixed but constructed.
• Gender can be manipulated in order to construct complex
gender ideologies as part of people’s image.
Consider: MADONNA, DAVID BECKHAM, SIGOURNEY WEAVER
& EDDIE IZZARD.
19. GENDER STUDIES
GENDER AND LIFESTYLE – DAVID GAUNTLETT
• Gauntlett argues that in contemporary society, gender roles are
more complex and that the media reflects this.
• He points out that female role models today can be glamorous as
well as successful in a way that was previously not seen.
• He links this to the rise of ‘girl power’ which had a huge boost in
the mid 90s with the emergence of successful girls band The
Spice Girls and Destiny’s Child as well as successful actresses who
demand more aggressive film roles.
• He argues that our expectations of gender are flexible and
culturally dependent and therefore will continue to change.
• He tracks these changes through different media texts,
especially lifestyle magazines.
IS THIS A PLURALIST, MARXIST OR POSTMODERN
ARGUMENT?
20. FEMINIST THEORISTS
MYRA MACDONALD
ANGELA MCROBBIE
GERMAINE GREER
BETTY FRIEDAN
JUDITH BUTLER
DAVID GAUNTLETT
MARY WOOLSTONECRAFT
NAOMI WOLF
NATASHA WALTERS
LAURA MULVEY
