Facilitating learning-2013

Facilitating Learning
HELEN BIHAG-BOHOLANO, LlB., ED. D.
Associate Dean, College of Teacher Ed.
1Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

Competencies 20% (FL & CAD)
• Analyze the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational
socio-cultural factors that affect learning.
• Apply theories of learning and development to the
teaching-learning process
• Draw educational implications or research findings
related to child and adolescent learning and
development along with the biological, linguistic,
cognitive, social and psychological dimensions
• Organize a learning environment that is responsive
to learner’s needs and that promotes fairness
among learners of various cultures, family
background, and gender

Learning
• Learning is a complex process involving the
development of conceptual understanding
• Individual learners must actively construct their
own learning (constructivism)
• New learning is based on prior knowledge
• Active learning is more lasting than passive
learning
• Thinking about thinking is important
– Metacognition
• The level at which learning occurs is important
for effective transfer
– Bloom’s Taxonomy

Metacognition
The term “metacognition” was coined by
John Flavell
- simply put, is “thinking about thinking” or
“learning how to learn”
- It refers to higher order thinking which
involves active awareness and control
over the cognitive processes engaged in
learning.

Metacognition
The ability to:
• think about thinking
• be consciously aware of oneself as a
problem solver
• monitor and control one’s mental
processing
• accurately assess what one
understands and does not understand

Rote Learning
• Involves verbatim memorization
(which is easily forgotten)
• Cannot be manipulated or applied to
novel situations
(e.g. memorizing metabolic pathways with
no understanding of the chemistry
involved)

Meaningful Learning
• Learning that is tied and related to
previous knowledge and integrated
with previous learning
(which is not easily forgotten, and can be
easily reconstructed)
• Can be manipulated, applied to novel
situations, and used in problem solving
tasks
(e.g. using knowledge of organic chemistry
reactions to aid in learning the pathways)

Metacognitive knowledge
• knowledge refers to acquired knowledge
about cognitive processes, knowledge that
can be used to control cognitive processes
• Flavell further divides metacognitive
knowledge into three categories:
knowledge of person variables, task
variables and strategy variables.

Basic Terms
• Person Variables – This includes how one
views himself as a learner and thinker.
• Task Variables – Knowledge to task variables
includes knowledge about the nature of the task
as well as the type of processing demands that it
will place upon the individual.
• Strategy Variables – Knowledge of strategy
variables involves awareness of the strategy you
are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether
this strategy is effective.

Basic Terms
• Meta-attention is awareness of specific
strategies so that you can keep your attention
focused on the topic or task at head.
• Metamemory is your awareness of memory
strategies that work best for you.

Differences Between Novice and
Expert Learners
Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners
Knowledge in different subject
areas
Have limited knowledge in the
different subject areas
Have deeper knowledge in
different subject areas because
they look for interrelationships in
the things they learn
Problem solving Satisfied at just scratching the
surface; hurriedly gives a
solution to the problem
First try to understand the
problem, look for boundaries,
and create a mental picture of the
problem
Learning/thinking Strategies Employ rigid strategies that may
not be appropriate to the task at
hand
Design new strategies that would
be appropriate to the task at and
Selectivity in Processing Attempt to process all
information they receive
Select important information to
process; able to breakdown
information to manageable
chunks
Production of output Do not examine the quality of
their work, nor stop make
revisions
Check their errors and redirect
their efforts to maintain quality
output

Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge
Making decisions and
supporting views;
requires
understanding of
values.
Combining information to
form a unique product;
requires creativity and
originality.
Using information to solve
problems; transferring
abstract or theoretical ideas
to practical situations.
Identifying connections and
relationships and how they
apply. Restating in
your own words;
paraphrasing,
summarizing,
translating.Memorizing verbatim
information. Being able to
remember, but not
necessarily fully
understanding the
material.
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
Identifying
components;
determining
arrangement, logic,
and semantics.

Cognitive and Metacognitive
Factors
• Nature of the learning process – The learning
of complex subject matter is most effective when
it is an intentional process of constructing
meaning from information and experience.
• Goals of the learning process – The
successful learner, over time and with support
and instruction guidance, can create meaningful,
coherent representation knowledge.
• Construction of Knowledge – The successful
learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways. 14Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

Cognitive and Metacognitive
Factors
• Strategic thinking – The successful learner can
create and use repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex
learning goals.
• Thinking about thinking – Higher order
strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
• Context of learning – Learning is influenced by
environmental factors, including culture,
technology, and instructional practices.

Motivational and Affective
Factors
• Motivational and emotional influences on learning – What and
how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by individual’s emotional
states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
• Intrinsic motivation to learn – The learner’s creativity, higher order
thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn.
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interest, and providing for personal
choice and control.
• Effects of motivation on effort – Acquisition of complex knowledge
and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice.
Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this
effort is unlikely without coercion.

Developmental and Social
Factors
• Developmental influences on learning – As
individuals develop, there are different
opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
taken into account.
• Social influences on learning – learning is
influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with others.

Individual Differences Factors
• Individual differences in learning – learners have
different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and
heredity.
• Learning and diversity – Learning is most effective
when differences in learner’s linguistic, cultural, and
social backgrounds are taken into account.
• Standards and assessment – Setting appropriately
high challenging standards and assessing the learner as
well as learning progress – including diagnostic, process,
and outcome assessment – are integral parts of the
learning process.

Basic Cognitive Concepts
• Schema – Piaget used the term schema to refer to the
cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to
and organize their environment.
• Assimilation – This is the process of fitting a new experience
into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or
schema.
• Accommodation – This is the process of creating a new
schema. If the same child now sees another animal that looks
a little bit like a dog but somehow different.
• Equilibration – Piaget believe that that people have the
natural need to understand how the world works and to find
order, structure, and predictability in their life. Equilibration is
achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation. 19Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
• Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage – The first
stage corresponds from birth to infancy.
This is the stage when a child who is
initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and
reaching becomes more organized in his
movement and activity.
• Object permanence – This is the ability of
the child to know that an object exists
even when out of sight.

Development
• Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage – The preoperational stage covers from
about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years.
• Symbolic Function – This is the ability to represent objects and events. A
symbol is a thing that represents something else. A drawing, a written word,
or a spoken word comes to be understood as representing a real object like
a real MRT train.
• Egocentrism – This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view
and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view.
• Centration – This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one
aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects.
• Reversibility – Pre-operational children still has the inability to reverse their
thinking.
• Animism – This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or
characteristics to inanimate objects.
• Transductive reasoning – This refers to the pre-operational child’s type of
reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.

Development
• Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage – This stage is characterized
by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of
concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8-11
years or the elementary school years. The concrete operational
stage is marked by the following:
• Decentering – This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the
different features of objects and situations.
• Reversibility – During the stage of concrete operations, the child
can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.
• Conservation – This is the ability to know that certain properties of
objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if
there is a change in appearance.
• Seriation – This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in
series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or size.

Development
• Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage – In the final stage of
formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years,
thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract
problem and can hypothesize.
• Hypothetical Reasoning – This is the ability to come up with
different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh
data in order to make a final decision or judgment.
• Analogical Reasoning – This is the ability to perceive the
relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to
narrow down possible answer in other similar situation or
problem.
• Deductive Reasoning – This is the ability to think logically by
applying a general rule to a particular instance or situation.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
Level Stage Description
Preconventional Level –
Moral reasoning is based
on consequence/result of
the act, not on the whether
the act itself is good or
bad.
1 Punishment/Obedience. One is motivated by fear
of punishment. He will act in order to avoid
punishment.
2 Mutual Benefit. One is motivated to act by the
benefit that one may obtain later. “You scratch my
back, I’ll scratch yours.”
Conventional – Moral
reasoning is based on the
conventions or “norms” of
society. These may
include approval of others,
law and order
3 Social Approval. One is motivated by what others
expect in behavior – good boy, good girl. The
person acts because he/she values how he/she will
appear to others. He/she gives importance on what
people will think or say.
4 Law and Order. One is motivated to act in order to
uphold law and order. The person will follow the
law because it is the law.
Post-conventional –
Moral reasoning is based
on enduring or consistent
principles. It is not just
recognizing the law, but
the principles behind the
law.
5 Social Contract. Laws that wrong can be changed.
One will act based on social justice and common
good.
6 Universal Principles. This is associated with the
development of one’s conscience. Having a set of
standards that drives one to possess moral
responsibility to make societal changes regardless
of consequences to oneself. Examples of person are
Mother Teresa, Martin Luther King, Jr.

Learning/Thinking Styles
• Visual learners – These learners must
see their teacher’s actions and facial
expression to fully understand the content
of a lesson.
• Visual-iconic – Those who prefer this
form of input are more interested in visual
imagery such as film, graphic displays, or
picture in order to solidify learning.
Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU 25

• Visual-symbolic – Those who prefer this
form of input feel comfortable with abstract
symbolism such as mathematical formulae
or the written word.
• Auditory Learners – They learn best
through verbal lectures, discussions,
talking things through and listening to what
others have to say.

• Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners –
Tactile/Kinesthetic persons benefit much from a
hands-on approach, actively exploring the
physical world around them.
• Global – Analytic Continuum
Analytic – Analytic thinkers tend toward the
linear, step-by-step processes of learning.
Global – Global thinkers lean towards non-
linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern
rather than particle elements.

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)
Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information linearly 4. Processes information in varied order
5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6. impulsive
7. Recalls people’s names 7. Recalls people’s faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less punctual
10. Prefers formal study design 10. Prefers sound/music background
while studying
11. Prefers bright lights while
Studying
11. Prefers frequent mobility while
studying

Categories of Exceptionalities
Specific cognitive or academic
difficulties
• Learning Disabilities – Learning
disabilities involve difficulties in specific
cognitive processes like perception,
language, memory, or metacognition that
are not due or other disabilities like mental
retardation, emotional or behavioral
disorders, or sensory impairments.

difficulties
• Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder – ADHD is
manifested in either or both of those: (1) difficulty in
focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent
hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
• Speech and Communication Disorders – There is
difficulty in spoken language including voice disorders,
inability to produce the sounds correctly, stuttering,
difficulty in spoken language comprehension that
significantly hamper classroom performance.

difficulties
• Emotional/Conduct Disorders – This involves the
presence of emotional states like depression and
aggression over a considerable amount of time that they
notably disturb learning and performance in school.
• Autism – Autism is a condition manifested by different
levels of impaired social interaction and communication,
repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individuals with
autism usually have an intense need for routine and a
predictable environment.

difficulties
• Mental Retardation – Mental retardation
refers to significant sub-average
intelligence and deficits in adaptive
behavior. There is difficulty in managing
activities of daily living and conducting
themselves appropriately in social
situations.

Physical Disabilities and
Health Impairments
• Physical and health impairments – This
involves physical or medical conditions (usually
long-term) including one or more of these: (1)
limited energy and strength, (2) reduced mental
alertness, and/or (3) Little muscle control.
• Severe and Multiple Disabilities – This refers
to the presence of two or more different types of
disability, at times at a profound level. The
combination of disabilities makes it necessary to
make specific adaptations and have more
specialized education programs.Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU 33

• Visual Impairments – These are
conditions when there is malfunction of the
eyes or optic nerves that prevent normal
vision even with corrective lenses.
• Hearing Impairments – These involves
malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves
that hinder perception of sounds within the
frequency range of normal speech.
• Giftedness – This involves a significantly
high level of cognitive development.

Spiral curriculum
• Bruner stressed that teaching should
always lead to boosting cognitive
development. Students will not understand
the concept if teachers plan to teach it
using only the teacher’s level of
understanding.
• In a spiral curriculum, teachers must visit
the curriculum by teaching the same
content in different ways depending on
students’ development levels.

principles of instruction
stated by Bruner
• Instruction must be concerned with the
experiences and contexts that make the
student willing and able to learn (readiness).
• Instruction must be structured so that it can
be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organization).
• Instruction should be designed to facilitate
extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going
beyond the information given).

4 aspects
• Predisposition to learn – He introduced the
ideas of “readiness for learning”.
• Structure of Knowledge – The ways in which a
body of knowledge can be structured so that it
can be most readily grasped by the learner.
• Effective sequencing – No one sequencing will
fit every learner, but in general, the lesson can
be presented in increasing difficulty.
• Reinforcement – Rewards and punishment
should be selected and paced appropriately.

Focus of Ausubel’s Theory
• The most important factor influencing
learning is the quantity, clarity and
organization of the learner’s present
knowledge.
• Meaningful learning takes place when an
idea to be learned is related in some
sensible way to ideas that the learner
already possesses.

four processes
• Derivative subsumption – This describes the situation
in which the new information you learn is an example of
concept that you have already learned.
• Correlative subsumption – Examine this example.
Now, let’s say you see a new kind of bird that has really
big body and long strong legs.
• Superordinate learning – Imagine that a child was well
acquainted with banana, mango, dalandan, guava etc.,
but the child did not know, until she was taught, that
these well all examples of fruits.
• Combinatorial learning – This is when newly acquired
knowledge combines with prior knowledge to enrich the
understanding of both concepts.Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU 39

Types of advance organizers
• Expository – describes the new content.
• Narrative – presents the new information
in the form of story to students.
• Skimming – is done by looking over the
new material to gain a basic overview.
• Graphic organizer – visuals to set up or
outline the new information.

Theories of Learning
• Behaviorism
• Cognitivism
• Social Learning Theory
• Social Constructivism
• Multiple Intelligences
• Brain-Based Learning

Behaviorism
Confined to observable and
measurable behavior
 Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
 Operant Conditioning – Skinner
 Laws of Learning - Thorndike
 S-R ("Little Albert's" fear of a white rat) - Watson

Ivan Pavlov
• a Russian physiologist is well known for
his work in classical conditioning or
stimulus substitution.

Pavlov also had the following
findings:
• Stimulus Generalization – Once the dog has learned to salivate at
the sounds of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.
• Extinction – If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will
eventually cease in response to the bell.
• Spontaneous Recovery – Extinguished responses can be
“recovered” after an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if
the dog is not presented with food.
• Discrimination – The dog could learn to discriminate between
similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the
presentation of food and which would not.
• Higher-Order Conditioning – Once the dog has been conditioned
to associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such
as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung.

Behaviorism
S R
A stimulus is presented
in order to get a
response:

Behaviorism
S US
UR
CS US
CR
US = Unconditioned Stimulus
CS = Conditioned Stimulus
UR =Unconditioned Response
CR = Conditioned Response

Behaviorism
 Operant Conditioning - Skinner
The response is made first,
then reinforcement follows.

A Reinforcer Increases the Probability
of the Behavior It Follows
• Primary versus secondary reinforcers
• Primary reinforcers: innately reinforcing—
satisfy biological needs.
• Secondary reinforcers: learned and
become reinforcing when associated with
a primary reinforcer

Behaviorism
• Learning is defined by the outward
expression of new behaviors
• Focuses solely on observable behaviors
• A biological basis for learning
• Learning is context-independent
• Classical & Operant Conditioning
– Reflexes (Pavlov’s Dogs)
– Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner’s Pigeon
Box) 49Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

Behaviorism in the Classroom
• Rewards and
punishments
• Responsibility for
student learning
rests squarely
with the teacher
• Lecture-based,
highly structured

Positive and Negative Reinforcement,
Positive and Negative Punishment

Edward L. Thorndike
Trial and Error
Learning/Connectionism
• Learning occurs through stimulus-response
associations derived from trial and error.
• E.g. Cats in a puzzle box with food outside
– length of time to escape

Principles of Connectionism
1. The law of Readiness
States that when a person is prepared to
respond or act, giving the response is
satisfying and being prevented from doing
so is annoying.

2. The law of Exercise
States that constant repetition of a
response strengthens its connection with
the stimulus and disuse of a response
weakens it.
Knowledge of results must occur before
the behavior can be reinforced.

3. The law of Effect
States that learning is strengthened if it
results in satisfaction but is weakened if it
leads to annoyance.
behavior which results in success or
reward is more likely to be repeated than a
behavior which does not.

John Watson
• the first American psychologist to work
with Pavlov’s ideas.
• Experiment on Albert – Watson applied
classical conditioning in his experiment
concerning a Albert, a young child and a
white rat. In the beginning Albert was not
afraid of the rat; but Watson made a
sudden loud noise each time Albert
touched the rat.

Cognitivism
• Grew in response to Behaviorism
• Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols
• Learning is the process of connecting
symbols in a meaningful & memorable way
• Studies focused on the mental processes
that facilitate symbol connection

Cognitive Learning Theory
 Discovery Learning -
Jerome Bruner (Spiral
curriculum)
 Meaningful Verbal
Learning -
David Ausubel

 Discovery Learning
1. Bruner said anybody can learn anything
at any age, provided it is stated in
terms they can understand.

 Discovery Learning
2. Powerful Concepts (not isolated facts)
a. Transfer to many different situations
b. Only possible through Discovery Learning
c. Confront the learner with problems and
help them find solutions. Do not present
sequenced materials.

Jerome S. Brunner’s
Discovery Learning Theory
• Focuses on the problem “What people
do with information”
• Learning is a process that involves:
1. Acquisition = process of obtaining and
assimilating new information
2. Transformation = manipulation and
utilization of information obtained
3. Evaluation = finding out whether such
information is appropriately utilized

Bruner’s Main Concepts
• Enactive representation – At the earliest
ages, children learn about the world through
actions on physical objects and the outcomes
of these actions.
• Ironic representation – This second stage is
when learning can be obtained through using
models and pictures.
• Symbolic representation – In this third stage,
the learner has developed the ability to think
in abstract terms. This uses symbol system
to encode knowledge.

 Meaningful Verbal Learning
Advance Organizers:
New material is
presented in a
systematic way, and is
connected to existing
cognitive structures in
a meaningful way.

Spiral curriculum
• Bruner stressed that teaching should
always lead to boosting cognitive
development. Students will not understand
the concept if teachers plan to teach it
using only the teacher’s level of
understanding.
• In a spiral curriculum, teachers must visit
the curriculum by teaching the same
content in different ways depending on
students’ development levels. 64Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

principles of instruction
• Instruction must be concerned with the
experiences and contexts that make the
student willing and able to learn (readiness).
• Instruction must be structured so that it can
be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organization).
• Instruction should be designed to facilitate
extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going
beyond the information given).

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of
instruction should address four major
aspects:
• Predisposition to learn – He introduced the ideas of
“readiness for learning”.
• Structure of Knowledge – The ways in which a body of
knowledge can be structured so that it can be most
readily grasped by the learner.
• Effective sequencing – No one sequencing will fit every
learner, but in general, the lesson can be presented in
increasing difficulty.
• Reinforcement – Rewards and punishment should be
selected and paced appropriately.

Cognitivism in the Classroom
• Inquiry-oriented
projects
• Opportunities for the
testing of hypotheses
• Curiosity encouraged
• Staged scaffolding

Social Learning Theory (SLT)
• Grew out of Cognitivism
• A. Bandura (1973)
• Learning takes place through observation
and sensorial experiences
• Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery
• SLT is the basis of the movement against
violence in media & video games

Albert Bandura
Social Cognitive Theory
• Learning is a result of observation and imitation
• Observation & modeling the behavior, attitude &
emotional reaction of others.
• Process of Learning
1. Attention – behavior or value desired has caught the
interest of the learner
2. Retention – recalls/remembers the behavior or value to
be learned
3. Motoric reproduction – learner imitates or emulates
newly learned behavior
4. Reinforcement – learner practices what he has learned

Social Learning Theory
Learning From Models -
Albert Bandura
1. Attend to pertinent clues
2. Code for memory (store a visual
image)
3. Retain in memory
4. Accurately reproduce the observed
activity
5. Possess sufficient motivation to apply
new learning

SLT in the Classroom
• Collaborative
learning and group
work
• Modeling
responses and
expectations
• Opportunities to
observe experts in
action 71Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

Social Constructivism
• Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed
around metacognition
• Knowledge is actively constructed
• Learning is…
– A search for meaning by the learner
– Contextualized
– An inherently social activity
– Dialogic and recursive
– The responsibility of the learner
• Lev Vygotsky
– Social Learning
• Zone of Proximal Development

Social Constructivism in the
Classroom
• Journaling
• Experiential
activities
• Personal focus
• Collaborative &
cooperative learning

Characteristics of Constructivism
• Learners construct understanding – As discussed earlier,
constructivists do not view learners as just empty vessels
waiting to be filled up.
• New learning depends on current understanding –
Background information is very important.
• Learning is facilitated by social interaction – Constructivist
believe in creating a “community of learners” within
classrooms.
• Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning
tasks – An authentic task is one that involves a learning
activity that involves constructing knowledge and
understanding that is so akin to the knowledge and
understanding needed when applied in the real world.

Applying Constructivism in
Facilitating Learning
• Aim to make learners understand a few key
ideas in an in-depth manner, rather than taking
up so many topics superficially.
• Give varied examples.
• Provide opportunities for experimentation.
• Provide lots of opportunities for quality
interaction.
• Have lots of hands-on activities.
• Relate your topic to real life situations.
• Do not depend on the explanation method all the
time.

• Transfer of learning happens when
learning in one context or with one set of
materials affects performance in another
context or with other related materials.

Type of Transfer
• Positive transfer – Positive transfer occurs when learning in
one context improves performance in some other context.
• Negative transfer – Negative transfer occurs when learning
in one context impacts negatively on performance in another.
• Near transfer – Near transfer refers to transfer between very
similar contexts. This also referred to as specific transfer, for
example, when students answer types of algebra word
problem in a an exam which are similar to what they had in
their seatworks.
• Far transfer – Far transfer refers to transfer between contexts
that, on appearance, seem remote and alien to one another.
• General transfer – For example Stephen covey applied the
lesson of the Aesop’s fable of “The Goose That Lays the
Golden Eggs” to managing corporations. 77Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

Burrhus Frederick Skinner
• Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner
believed in the stimulus-response pattern of
conditioned behavior.
• Operant Conditioning – Operant
Conditioning is based upon the notion that
learning is a result of change in overt
behavior.
• Reinforcement is the key element in
Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforce is anything
that strengthens the desired response. 78Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

• A positive reinforce is any stimulus that is given or
added to increase the response.
• A negative reinforce is any stimulus that result in the
increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn
or removed.
• Shaping of Behavior – An animal on a cage may take a
very long time to figure out that pressing a lever will
produce food.
• Behavioral chaining come about when a series of steps
are needed to be learned.
• Reinforcement Schedules – Once the desired
behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement
does not have to be 100%; in fact it can be maintained
more successfully through what Skinner referred to as
partial reinforcement schedules.

• Fixed Interval Schedules – The target
response is reinforced after a fixed amount of
time has passed since the last reinforcement.
• Variable Interval Schedules – This is similar to
fixed interval schedules, but the amount of time
that must pass between reinforcement varies.
• Fixed Ration Schedules: a fixed number of
correct responses must occur before
reinforcement may recur.
• Variable Ration Schedules: the number of
correct repetitions of the correct response for
reinforcement varies.

Multiple Intelligences (MI)
• Grew out of Constructivism, framed
around metacognition
• H. Gardner (1983 to present)

Tolman’s Purposive
Behaviorism
• Purposive behaviorism has also been
referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is
often seen as the link between
behaviorism and cognitive theory.
Tolman’s theory was founded on two
psychological views, those of the Gestalt
psychologists and those of John Watson,
the behaviorist.
•

Conditions necessary for
effective modeling to occur
• Attention – The person must first pay
attention to the model.
• Retention – The observer must be able to
remember the behavior that has been
observed.
• Motor reproduction – The third condition is
the ability to replicate the behavior that the
model has just demonstrated.
• Motivation – The final necessary ingredient
for modeling to occur is motivation. 83Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

Brain-Based Learning (BBL)
• Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism
• D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen
(1980’s to present)
• 12 governing principles
1. Brain is a parallel
processor
7. Focused attention & peripheral
perception
2. Whole body learning 8. Conscious & unconscious
processes
3. A search for meaning 9. Several types of memory
4. Patterning 10. Embedded learning sticks
5. Emotions are critical 11. Challenge & threat
6. Processing of parts and
wholes
12. Every brain is unique

BBL in the Classroom
• Opportunities for group
learning
• Regular environmental
changes
• A multi-sensory
environment
• Opportunities for self-
expression and making
personal connections to
content
• Community-based
learning

Gestalt Principles
• Law of proximity – Elements that are closer together will be
perceived as a coherent object.
• Law of Similarity – Elements that look similar will be perceived as
part of the same form.
• Law of Closure – We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we
perceive.
• Law of Good Continuation – Individuals have the tendency to
continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an
implied direction.
• Law of Good Pragnanz – The stimulus will be organized into as
good a figure as possible.
• Law of Figure/Ground – We tend to pay attention and perceive
things in the foreground first.

“Types of Knowledge”
• General vs. Specific: This involves whether the
knowledge useful in many tasks, or only in one.
• Declarative – This refers to factual knowledge
• Procedural – This includes knowledge on how to
do things.
• Episodic – This includes memories of life events,
like your high school graduation.
• Conditional – This is about “knowing when and
why” to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.

Stages in the information
Processing Theory
• Encoding – Information is sensed, perceived,
and attended to.
• • Storage – The information is stored for
either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following
encoding.
• • Retrieval – The information is brought back
at the appropriate time, and reactivated for
use on a current task, the true measure of
effective memory. 88Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

Methods for increasing
Retrieval of Information
• Rehearsal – This is repeating information
verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
• • Meaningful Learning – This is making
connection between new information and
prior knowledge.
• • Organization – It is making connection
among various pieces of information.
• • Elaboration – This is adding additional
ideas to new information based on what
one already knows.

Methods for increasing
Retrieval of Information
• Visual Imagery – This means forming a
“picture” of the information.
• • Generation – Things we ‘produce’ are
easier to remember than things we ‘hear.
• • Context – Remembering the situation
helps recover information.
• • Personalization – It is making the
information relevant to the individual.

Other Memory Methods
• Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) – You will
remember the beginning and end of ‘list’ most readily.
• • Part Learning – Break up the ‘list’ or “chunk”
information to increase memorization.
• • Distributed Practice – Break up learning sessions,
rather than cramming all the info in at once (massed
Practice).
• • Mnemonic Aids – These are memory techniques that
learners may employ to help them retain and retrieve
information more effectively.

Attribution theory
• Locus (“place”): Internal versus external – if your student
traces his good grade to his ability and to his hard work, he
attributes his good grade to internal factors.
• Stability: Stable versus unstable – If you attribute your poor
eyesight to what you have inherited from your parents, then
you are attributing the cause of your sickness to something
stable, something that cannot change because it is your
genes.
• Controllability: Controllable versus uncontrollable – If
your student claims his poor academic performance is due to
his teacher’s ineffective teaching strategy, he attributes is
poor performance to a factor beyond his control.

Choice Theory
• Belonging or connecting
• Power or competence
• Freedom
• Fun

Other Learning Theories of Note
• Andragogy (M. Knowles)
• Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)
• Situated Learning (J. Lave)
• Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)
• Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)
• Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight & GestaltTheory
• Rumelhart Schema Theory
• Lewin’s Field Theory

Other Learning Theories of Note

David Ausubel Assimilation /
Subsumption of Meaningful Verbal
Learning
• Meaningful learning occurs as a result of
interaction between new information which
an individual acquires, and the relevant
cognitive structures he already possesses.
• Cognitive structures – a person’s store of
information, overall framework that
incorporates new knowledge, prerequisite
to meaningful learning.

Approaches to Learning
1. Meaningful – learn in a particular meaningful
way, related logically and can interact with
new material.
2. Rote Learning – learn the material in a word
for word fashion, simple without any real
interaction from new material
Learning

Learning
Methods to Learning
1. Reception – passive learning, learner is
presented with the material to be learned
2. Discovery – active learning, learner must first
discover the material to be learned

Focus of Ausubel’s Theory
• The most important factor influencing
learning is the quantity, clarity and
organization of the learner’s present
knowledge.
• Meaningful learning takes place when an
idea to be learned is related in some
sensible way to ideas that the learner
already possesses.

Meaningful learning can take
place through four processes
• Derivative subsumption – This describes the situation in
which the new information you learn is an example of concept
that you have already learned.
• Correlative subsumption – Examine this example. Now,
let’s say you see a new kind of bird that has really big body
and long strong legs.
• Superordinate learning – Imagine that a child was well
acquainted with banana, mango, dalandan, guava etc., but
the child did not know, until she was taught, that these well all
examples of fruits.
• Combinatorial learning – This is when newly acquired
knowledge combines with prior knowledge to enrich the
understanding of both concepts.

Types of advance organizers
(Ausubel)
• Expository – describes the new content.
• Narrative – presents the new information
in the form of story to students.
• Skimming – is done by looking over the
new material to gain a basic overview.
• Graphic organizer – visuals to set up or
outline the new information.

Rumelhart Schema Theory
• All knowledge is packaged into units
called Schemata that helped us to
comprehend events or situations and to
make predictions about unobserved
events.

Rumelhart Schema Theory
• Modes of Learning
1.Accretion – learning of facts
2.Tuning – schema are refined throughout
the life span as new situations are
encountered.
3.Restructuring – development of new
schema

Lewin’s Field Theory
• Every object exists in a “field of forces” that
move, change, define or give degree of stability,
meaning or substance
• Interaction of external forces (environment) &
internal forces (self) that acts on the learner.

USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM
Principle Example
1. Gain the students' attention.
 Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
 Move around the room and use voice inflections.
2. Bring to mind relevant prior learning.
 Review previous day's lesson.
 Have a discussion about previously covered content.
3. Point out important information.
 Provide handouts.
 Write on the board or use transparencies.
4. Present information in an organized
manner.
 Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
 Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.
5. Show students how to categorize
(chunk) related information.
 Present information in categories.
 Teach inductive reasoning.
6. Provide opportunities for students to
elaborate on new information.
 Connect new information to something already known.
 Look for similarities and differences among concepts.
7. Show students how to use coding when
memorizing lists.
 Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in the list.
 Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method.
8. Provide for repetition of learning.
 State important principles several times in different ways during
presentation of information (STM).
 Have items on each day's lesson from previous lesson (LTM).
 Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM).
9. Provide opportunities for over learning
of fundamental concepts and skills.
 Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.
 Play form of trivial pursuit with content related to class.

Torrance Framework for
Creative Thinking
• Fluency – Fluency refers to the production of a
great number of ideas or alternate solutions to a
problem.
• Flexibility – Flexibility refers to the production of
ideas that show a variety of possibilities or
realms of thought.
• Elaboration – Elaboration is the process of
enhancing ideas by providing more details.
• Originality – Originality involves the production
of ideas that are unique or unusual.

Factors that Bring about
Student Diversity
• Socioeconomic status – The millionaires’
lifestyle differs from that of the middle
income or lower income group.
• Thinking/Learning Style – Some of you
learn better by seeing something; others
by just listening; and still others by
manipulating something.
• Exceptionalities – In class there maybe
one who has difficulty in spoken language
comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.107Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

Some Tips on Student
Diversity
• Encourage learners to share their personal history and
experiences.
• Integrate learning experiences and activities which
promote students’ multicultural and cross-cultural
awareness.
• Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity
that transcend group differences.
• Communicate high expectations to students from all
subgroups.
• Use varied instructional methods to accommodate
student diversity in learning styles.

Some Tips on Student
Diversity
• Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order
to provide multiple contexts that are relevant to students
from diverse backgrounds.
• Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning
styles by allowing them personal choice and decision-
making opportunities concerning what they will learn and
how they will learn it.
• Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating
student learning.
• Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students
from diverse backgrounds. You can form groups of
students with different learning styles, different cultural
background, etc. 109Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

• Visual learners – These learners must see their
teacher’s actions and facial expression to fully
understand the content of a lesson.
• Visual-iconic – Those who prefer this form of input are
more interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic
displays, or picture in order to solidify learning.
• Visual-symbolic – Those who prefer this form of input
feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as
mathematical formulae or the written word.
• Auditory Learners – They learn best through verbal
lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening
to what others have to say.

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)
Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
1. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
2. Sequential 3. Random
3. Processes information linearly 4. Processes information in varied order
4. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
5. Plans ahead impulsive
Recalls people’s names Recalls people’s faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
8. Punctual 9. Less punctual
9. Prefers formal study design Prefers sound/music background while
studying
Prefers bright lights while Studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying

• Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners – Tactile/Kinesthetic
persons benefit much from a hands-on approach,
actively exploring the physical world around them.
• Global – Analytic Continuum
• Analytic – Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear,
step-by-step processes of learning.
• Global – Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought
and tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle
elements.

Motivational Factors in
Learning
• Motivation is a central determinant of
learning and therefore teachers must be
masters of various motivational strategies.

Motivation
Needs
&
Expectations
Behaviour / Action Desired
Goals
Fulfilment
Motivation is the driving force to achieve a
goal / fulfil a need

Types of motivation
• Extrinsic – ‘tangible rewards’ (eg salary,
benefits, security, contracts etc) – largely outside
of manager’s direct control
• Intrinsic – ‘psychological’ rewards (eg being
appreciated, doing challenging work, positive
recognition, using one’s ability etc ) – can be
heavily influenced by manager’s behaviour and
actions
‘You don’t motivate individuals – you create the
environment to enable self motivation – that is
managements prime role’

Goal Orientation and
Motivation
• Types of Goals
• Feedback and Acceptance
• Goals: Lessons for Teachers

Types of Goals
1.) Learning Goal: Personal intention to
improve abilities and understand, no
matter how performance suffers.
Task-Involved
Learners

Types of Goals
2.) Performance Goals: Personal intention
to seem competent or perform well in
the eyes of others.
Ego-Involved
Learners

Types of Goals
3.) Work-Avoidance Goals: Personal
intention to avoid all work and doesn’t
care to learn or look smart.
Work-Avoidant
Learners

Types of Goals
4.) Social Goals: A wide variety of needs
and motives to be connected to others
or part of a group.
Need for
Relatedness

Motivational theories
Content Theories
• Maslow
• Herzberg
• McClelland
Process Theories
• Expectancy theories
– (Vroom, Porter &
Lawler)
• Equity Theory
– (Adams)
• Goal Theory
– (Locke)
• Attribution Theory
– (Heider)

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Self
Actualisation
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Growth, advancement,
creativity
Self-respect, prestige,
status
Affection, belonging, love
Security, stability,
protection
Food, water, sleep
Challenging job,
achievement,
advancement
Job title, social
recognition,
Work relations,
professional association
Safe working conditions
benefits, job security
Pay, cafeteria, benefits

Contrasting Views of
Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
Satisfaction Dissatisfaction
Traditional view
Satisfaction No satisfaction
Herzberg's view
No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction
Hygiene Factors
Motivators

Hygiene
• Salary
• Job security
• Working conditions
• Interpersonal
relationships
Motivators
Recognition
Achievement
Responsibility
Personal growth
Advancement
Herzberg

Dissatisfaction
and
demotivation
Not dissatisfied
but
not motivated
Positive
satisfaction
and motivation
Hygiene Factors
•Company policies
•Quality of supervision
•Relations with others
•Personal life
•Rate of pay
•Job security
•Working conditions
Motivational Factors
•Achievement
•Career advancement
•Personal growth
•Job interest
•Recognition
•Responsibility
Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory

Needs Theories
Maslow Herzberg
Hygiene
Motivators
Factors
Social
Safety
Physiological
Self-Actualisation
Esteem

Mcclelland’s achievement
motivation theory
Achievement
Power
Affiliation

Expectancy theories
Vroom
• A persons choice of behaviour (the effort they exert) is based on
the expectancy of the most favourable consequences. It is a
function of:
– valance – anticipated satisfaction from an outcome
– instrumentality – extent to which ‘performance related’ outcome will
lead to ‘needs related’ outcome
– expectancy – perception of probability
Porter & Lawler
• Introduces Role Perceptions and Abilities and Traits (in addition to
effort) as factors impacting on performance
‘Good performance leads to job
satisfaction rather than the reverse’

Expectancy Theory
(Vroom)
3. Rewards-Personal goals relationship = Valence
1. Effort-Performance relationship = Expectancy
2. Performance-Rewards relationship = Instrumentality
Individual
Effort
Individual
Performance
Personal
Goals
Organisational
Rewards
1 2
3

Equity theory (Adams)
Based on Social Exchange theory.
Focuses on people’s feelings of
how fairly they have been treated
in comparison with the treatment
received by others

Goal theory (Locke)
Based on the premise that people’s
goals or intentions play an
important part in determining
behaviour. Effort is regulated by the
perceived difficulty of the goal and the
individual’s commitment.

Goal Setting
Goals
Specific
Difficult
Accepted
Effects on Person
Directs attention
Energises
Encourages persistency
New strategies developed
Feedback
Performance

Attribution theory (Heider)
• Focuses on how people interpret the perceived
causes of behaviour. It is a function of Internal
Attributions (personal factors such as ability,
effort) and External Attributions (environmental
factors such as task difficulty, luck). Typical
perceptual problems can arise from:
– Stereotyping
– the halo effect
– perceptual defence
– projection

Learner-Centered Psychological
Principles: A Framework for School
Redesign and Reform
• 1. Nature of the learning process
• 2. Goals of the learning process
• 3. Construction of knowledge
• 4. Strategic thinking
• 5. Thinking about thinking
• 6. Context of learning

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles: A
Framework for School Redesign and Reform
• 7. Motivational and emotional influences
on learning
• 8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
• 9. Effects of motivation on effort
• 10. Developmental influences on learning
• 11. Social influences on learning
• 12. Individual differences in learning
• 13. Learning and diversity
• 14. Standards and assessment 135Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

difficulties
• Learning Disabilities – Learning disabilities involve
difficulties in specific cognitive processes like perception,
language, memory, or metacognition that are not due or
other disabilities like mental retardation, emotional or
behavioral disorders, or sensory impairments.
• Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder – ADHD is
manifested in either or both of those: (1) difficulty in
focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent
hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
• Speech and Communication Disorders – There is
difficulty in spoken language including voice disorders,
inability to produce the sounds correctly, stuttering, difficulty
in spoken language comprehension that significantly
hamper classroom performance.

difficulties
• Emotional/Conduct Disorders – This involves the
presence of emotional states like depression and
aggression over a considerable amount of time that they
notably disturb learning and performance in school.
• Autism – Autism is a condition manifested by different
levels of impaired social interaction and communication,
repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individuals with
autism usually have an intense need for routine and a
predictable environment.
• Mental Retardation – Mental retardation refers to
significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive
behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily
living and conducting themselves appropriately in social
situations.

Physical Disabilities and
Health Impairments
• Physical and health impairments – This
involves physical or medical conditions (usually
long-term) including one or more of these: (1)
limited energy and strength, (2) reduced mental
alertness, and/or (3) Little muscle control.
• Severe and Multiple Disabilities – This refers
to the presence of two or more different types of
disability, at times at a profound level. The
combination of disabilities makes it necessary to
make specific adaptations and have more
specialized education programs. 139Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

Sensory Impairments
• Visual Impairments – These are conditions
when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic
nerves that prevent normal vision even with
corrective lenses.
• Hearing Impairments – These involves
malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that
hinder perception of sounds within the
frequency range of normal speech.
• Giftedness – This involves a significantly
high level of cognitive development. 140Dr. Helen B. Boholano-CNU

 Learning to know
 Learning to do
 Learning to live together
 Learning to be
Learning: The Treasure Within, Report to
UNESCO of the International Commission on
Education for the Twenty-first Century,
Jacques Delors (1996):
UNESCO’s understanding of education quality

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