This document discusses key concepts in photography including: - The relationship between design and photography, with both emphasizing composition through techniques like balance, proportion and emphasis. - The science of photography including exposure, shutter speed, aperture, light sensitivity, and how these techniques are used for composition. - Common photographic genres and strategies for effective composition like rule of thirds, selective focus, framing, and contrast.

1. (Mt) – Final project
Henri Cartier-Bresson/Magnum Photos 5 Photography Learning Objectives After
completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following: • • • • • Explain the role of
photography in culture and society. Describe the role of exposure and composition in
creating effectively designed photography. Explain the primary strategies for composing a
photo. List and define the three stages of photographic design work. List and define the
genres of photography and representative photographers and works associated with each.
Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 109 7/23/13 4:59 PM CHAPTER 5 Photography To take
photographs means to recognize— simultaneously and within a fraction of a second—both
the fact itself and the rigorous organization of visually perceived forms which give it
meaning. It is putting one’s head, one’s eye and one’s heart on the same axis. —Henri
Cartier-Bresson Chapter Outline 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Relationship Between Design and
Photography 5.3 The Science of Photography Exposure: Shutter Speed, Aperture, and Light
Sensitivity Composition and Effective Visual Communication Rya66944_05_c05_109-
136.indd 110 5.4 Photography as a Subjective Art The Photographic Visualization Process
5.5 Modes of Photography Portraiture Documentary Photography Photojournalism Russel
Wong: Fine Art Case Study Conclusion 7/23/13 4:59 PM CHAPTER 5 Section 5.2 The
Relationship Between Design and Photography 5.1 Introduction Photography is
everywhere. It documents important moments in our personal lives, records history, sells
products, makes artistic statements, and brings visual reportage from all over the world to
our magazines, tablets, newspapers, websites, and social media. It dominates the sides of
buildings in Times Square, imagery in National Geographic, digital photos on cell phone
wallpaper, and much of the content of Facebook. If you have a Facebook or Pinterest
account, take a few minutes to open it. Take a good, long look at the many photographs
there—your own, and those of your friends and associates. As you do, consider why
photographs are such compelling ways to communicate with others. Why do people actually
photograph their meals and post them to Facebook? Perhaps easier to answer— why do
people record birthdays, First Communion ceremonies, holidays, and weddings with
photographs? Because photography provides us with one of the only ways to visually freeze
a moment in time, forever. Behind every photograph is a story. This chapter is about the
process, technology, and art form of capturing those stories (Figure 5.1). © Underwood
Photo Archives/Superstock Figure 5.1: Flag raising on Iwo Jima 5.2 The Relationship
Between Design and Photography The design principles introduced in the last chapter all
relate to photographic composition. Both design and photography are approached with an

2. emphasis on the discipline of seeing, selecting some stimuli and “backgrounding” others,
and then bringing structure to content. Often that process is accomplished by the same or
similar means through balance, proportion, sequence, emphasis, and unity. Specifically,
photography is the art and science of creating lasting images by recording light or other
electromagnetic radiation, either digitally with an image sensor or chemically with a light-
sensitive material such as film (Spencer, 1973). Photographic images are used in many
examples of visual storytelling, including advertising, annual reports, photo essays,
documentary, photo narrative, slide shows, and portraiture. Henri Cartier-Bresson, master
photographer who wrote and spoke extensively about “decisive moment photography,”
once illustrated the importance of design to photography when he said that “To take
photographs means to recognize—simultaneously and within a fraction of a second—both
the fact itself and the rigorous organization of visually perceived forms which give it
meaning. It is putting one’s head, one’s eye and one’s heart on the same axis” (Assouline,
2005, p. 3). In other words, at the heart of photography are the artistic endeavors of
capturing just the right moment, and recording the essence of an Rya66944_05_c05_109-
136.indd 111 7/23/13 5:00 PM Section 5.2 The Relationship Between Design and
Photography CHAPTER 5 event or the soul of a person. That dynamic starts with a single
image—and it works collectively in photo essays, documentary, and longer sequences.
Making a photograph is a very deliberate and strategic process for most photographers. The
photographer’s objective is to figuratively stop time in order to capture the essence of
something or someone in a single frame. Photographers must decide, often in split seconds,
what to capture. What goes into the frame from the endless possibilities in front of the
camera? What should not be placed within the frame? Good photographers quickly
deliberate these critical choices at every photographic opportunity, and the way that they
address their choices is based on their understanding of the science of photography, as well
as their design aesthetic and grasp of the more subjective aspects of their craft. In Depth:
Ansel Adams Ansel Adams realized the intricacies of lighting and printing, as well as the
form, design, and composition of photography. The design within his imagery is so natural
than it often goes unnoticed, much like the best design. Adams’ work is impeccably ordered,
composed, and presented. In his photo displayed here, he frames the power and sheer
weight of the granite face of Half Dome through its detail, textures, and shadows against an
open sky and the snow in the distance. (See Figure 5.2.) Adams mused, “To visualize an
image (in whole or in part) is to see clearly in the mind prior to exposure, a continuous
projection from composing the image through the final print.” Separately, he noted: “You
don’t take a photograph, you make it.” Adams would “make” many images of Half Dome. It
was a site that inspired him—through all the seasons—and he would return to rediscover
its beauty many times over the course of his life. Associated Press Figure 5.2: Ansel Adams:
Half Dome Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 112 7/23/13 5:00 PM Section 5.3 The Science
of Photography CHAPTER 5 5.3 The Science of Photography Although photography may
seem magical in its ability to stop time—freeze fractions of seconds—and box off a single,
two-dimensional image from three-dimensional reality, there is a precise technical science
underlying the art of photography. One of the keys to this science is exposure. Exposure:
Shutter Speed, Aperture, and Light Sensitivity Exposure refers to the amount of light

3. allowed to fall on either the film or the image sensor during the process of taking a
photograph. It is a technical and creative balancing act. Photographers assess and figure
how lighting affects their subject, and then adjust the light and employ metering systems to
make properly exposed images. The light emanating from the subject passes through the
lens to the camera’s sensor and metering system. The photo’s exposure is basically
controlled by three camera controls: light sensitivity input, shutter speed, and aperture
settings. Light sensitivity is determined by sensitometry and calibrated by various
numerical scales and systems. Briefly, light sensitivity input determines the ISO rating
selected. The ISO (International Organization for Standardization) rating is the measure of
camera sensors’ sensitivity to light. ISO represents a corresponding light sensitivity to the
camera’s image capturing and metering systems. The higher the number, the more light-
sensitive the ISO rating. Higher ISO numbers compromise image quality for speed. Generally
speaking, high light sensitivity input is used for low-light situations. The more the ISO
number is Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 113 7/23/13 5:00 PM CHAPTER 5 Section 5.3
The Science of Photography Grant Gilmore/Gilmore Productions Figure 5.3: Shutter speed
increased, the less light that is required to take a photograph. However, higher light
sensitivity ratings are also likely to increase image noise, which refers to random variation
in brightness or color within a photograph. An increased ISO number helps photographers
make better-exposed images. It also allows them to use faster shutter speeds to capture
fast-moving subjects and to record sharper, handheld pictures in dimly lit situations.
Generally, brightly lit images don’t need the boosted light sensitivity. For example, low ISO
numbers work fine in digital photography shot in normal outdoor lighting. Shutter speed
and aperture provide the photographer additional ways to measure and determine
exposure. Shutter speed is the length of time the camera’s shutter is open to make an
exposure. Shutter speed determines how much time is used to record an image. Technically
speaking, it is the exposure dynamic that literally stops time to visually capture an instant.
Very fast shutter speed settings—say, 1⁄2000th, 1⁄1000th or 1⁄500th of a second— can
freeze motion: a speeding Formula 1 racecar, or a sprinting track star. On the other hand, if
photographers opt to suggest movement within an image by blurring the motion, they can
use slow shutter speeds (1⁄4th, 1⁄15th or 1⁄30th of a second). (See Figure 5.3.) Aperture is
an additional way to control exposure. Instead of controlling time, aperture openings
control the amount of light that passes through the lens. Aperture is the adjustable lens
opening that regulates the light directed to the film, sensor, and camera’s metering system.
Aperture size also determines the depth of field in a photograph. Depth of field is the area in
the image that remains sharp in front of, behind and around the subject focused upon. Very
small aperture settings (larger numbers, for example, f⁄32, f⁄16, f⁄11) extend the depth of
field. Conversely, wide aperture openings (f⁄1.4, f⁄2.8, f ⁄4) compress it. The wider the
aperture setting (and lower the f-stop number), the shallower or more limited the depth of
field will be within a photo. Photographers take creative advantage of aperture settings by
adjusting the depth of field to accommodate the intention of the imagery. For example, if
they wanted to demonstrate the vastness of a landscape, they Rya66944_05_c05_109-
136.indd 114 Grant Gilmore/Gilmore Productions Figure 5.4: Depth of field This photo
titled Winds of Change uses depth of field to demonstrate the vastness of the landscape.

4. 7/23/13 5:00 PM Section 5.3 The Science of Photography CHAPTER 5 might make the
image using a very small aperture setting (see Figure 5.4). Conversely, wide lens settings
limit or collapse depth of field. Selective focus methodically restricts depth of field in an
image; it is one of the most effective and commonly used compositional strategies of
photography. By deliberately blurring the foreground and background of an image via a
wide aperture setting, photographers sequence the viewers’ vision to the subject or element
emphasized. Again, when used appropriately and strategically, aperture and shutter speed
can accomplish a lot more than simply making a proper exposure. Those two camera
controls may be used as compositional tools. They can help direct vision, provide structure,
and help shape the intended meaning of a photograph. Composition and Effective Visual
Communication Photography is the most common medium for visual communication. We
see so much photography—on buses, in magazines, in advertising, on packaging, and in
social media—that we seldom think much about the mediated images we encounter.
Although to the typical consumer a photograph is a photograph, the visually literate
individual recognizes the subtle differences across images that make them effective (or
ineffective) at serving their intended purpose—whether that is entertainment, advertising,
or education. There are considerable differences compositionally between fashion and
documentary imagery or the snapshots that fill family scrapbooks and portraiture. How
images are structured and presented to us varies considerably. That presentation is as
much a part of the message as the content itself. Composition refers to the arrangement of
elements and their relationship to the background of the image. It is critical to the meaning,
impact, and interpretation of what we see. Many photos lack impact because they’re
disorganized and too “busy.” Busy photos have too much content, and that content appears
to be in disarray. They lack unity and are visually confusing. Backgrounds are too jumbled
or don’t emphasize anything. Photos with a lack of emphasis hinder viewers, because they
don’t know where to start or how to direct their vision. These characteristics of
photographs reflect lack of understanding of good design principles and composition.
Overcoming Compositional Problems Photographic clichés contribute to problematic
composition. In art, a cliché refers to an element or strategy that has been overused to the
point of obscuring its impact or meaning. When composition strategies become predictable
and overused, the image can lose impact. One of the most common photo clichés is over
centering. First, when photographers strive for balance and over-rely on centering, their
images often become predictable and clichéd. The tendency toward centering occurs, in
part, because that’s where a camera’s focusing and metering systems are located: smack in
the middle of the viewfinder. Consequently, that’s where the main element of the image
tends to end up in the frame—dead center—over and over again. The visual cliché of
centered images may be resolved by using the principle (or rule) of thirds. This strategy is
also known as strategic placement and is widely used by professional
Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 115 7/23/13 5:00 PM Section 5.3 The Science of
Photography CHAPTER 5 photographers. Basically, rule of thirds divides the frame into
thirds—both vertically and horizontally. Think of a tic-tac-toe configuration. Optimum
points of placement are located at or around the intersection points. Those hot spots are
considered ideal locations for placement of the image’s main elements. (See Figure 5.5.)

5. Like designers, photographers use proportion to divide and arrange space strategically. The
frame is the photographer’s Jan Ryan canvas. Ground thirds fractures that space into
approximately Figure 5.5: Rule of thirds The photo is broken up into horizontal one-third
and two-third segthirds and vertical thirds. How are the hotspots used here? ments; it is
used extensively across media. Once you become aware of it, you’ll see how designers,
artists, filmmakers, and photographers split space into ground third configurations within
their compositions. Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 116 7/23/13 5:00 PM CHAPTER 5
Section 5.3 The Science of Photography Reflect and React Although centering can be a
cliché, there are reasons why centered images are sometimes quite effective. For example,
they may be used to help establish bilateral symmetry or to present a subject directly or
formally. For instance, Time magazine used that approach to symmetry and design as part
of this cover (see Figure 5.6). Take some time to examine magazines or other media
featuring photography. Identify several compositions that feature the effective use of
centering and the ineffective use of centering. Explain your assessments. ASSOCIATED
PRESS Figure 5.6: Centering Strategies for Composing a Photograph Selective focus
strategically limits the depth of field in a photo, film, or video. Out-of-focus areas work much
like our peripheral vision. Photographers use selective focus to evoke a sense depth in their
work. Our eyes pass over blurry areas quickly to move to the main subject. Again, this is
accomplished by shooting at a very wide aperture setting. The wider the aperture, the more
limited the depth of field becomes—and vice versa. Selective focus allows photographers or
filmmakers control of what’s crisp in the picture. This tactic has a strong Gestalt figure and
ground connection. (See Figure 5.7.) Another common compositional strategy is framing.
Framing involves wrapping or masking the subject or focal point in a picture by blocking it
off from other elements in the image. Think of the art museums or galleries you may have
visited and the paintings or photographs you viewed. Artwork in those venues is usually
framed and matted for display. Along with protecting it, framing provides a formal
presentation of the work. It helps separate the art from its environment.
Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 117 William Ryan Figure 5.7: Selective focus In this image,
branches closest to the camera are most in focus. 7/23/13 5:00 PM CHAPTER 5 Section 5.3
The Science of Photography Framing within a photograph works similarly. By steering your
eyes away from the perimeter and less important elements of a composition, photographers
direct you to a focal point and the heart of the photograph. This graphic strategy directs
your vision. In so doing, photographers have charted your sight and led you to what they
want you to see—and to the intended meaning or basic idea of the work. Contrast refers to
the use of opposite tones or hues in adjacent areas within an image. In photography, it’s
often something as simple as placing a light element atop a dark one, or establishing a tonal
distinction between figure and ground. Knockout photos are also a good use of contrast. A
knockout photograph places the subject of the image against a neutral background.
Photographers often use seamless paper or other blank backdrops for contrast. They can
also create “clipping paths” using photo editing software to subtract surrounding content.
The emptied space emphasizes whatever is featured in the image—most commonly, a
person. Contrast is often used in portraiture. Art directors frequently use it for magazine
covers. Its Figure 5.8: Knockout Knockout photo: Ondikuhole. Ethos function is fairly

6. obvious; it Magazine, Summer 2009. Story by Emilee Booher. Photos by Gracie Persson.
Design by Kevin Bronk. works because our eyes have no place else to go. Contrast clarifies
what’s significant or set off within a given frame almost immediately. It may achieve a
figure-ground separation through color, selective focus, or isolation. Contrast may also be
employed between images for irony, incongruity, or other reasons. Finally, contrast may be
literal, as in the preceding examples, or more figurative: young and old, rich and poor,
happy and sad. Ethos Magazine Parallel structure involves repeating a similar configuration
to help form a visual link between two or more compositions. When placed side by side, we
can see the structural similarity. Advertising often uses parallel structure. For example, an
art director or creative director of a magazine ad campaign may use the same amount of
room for each separate ad treatment. The ad’s parts—typography, style, voice, spatial
dynamic, or message—will be consistent. Type and type specifications will follow a pattern.
The art style or idea employed will be used throughout the series of ads. In a subtle
example, the Absolut vodka ad campaign repeats its bottle matrix in all the different ads
created over many years (see Figure 1.11). Simply put, parallel structure helps us
understand things go together in photography and other design work.
Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 118 7/23/13 5:00 PM Section 5.3 The Science of
Photography CHAPTER 5 Another common compositional strategy is the use of texture.
Texture suggests a sense of touch to our visual perception, allowing us to feel
(psychologically, anyway) what we see. One of the benefits of this effect is that it helps
evoke a more sensual tie to the imagery. Texture adds an extra dimension to what we see.
(See Figure 5.9.) Vectors help direct our vision. When diagonal lines run into Theo
Allofs/Minden Pictures/Corbis or through an image, they steer our sight to the main point
or subject. In terms of linear per- Figure 5.9: Texture The audience can almost feel the
wrinkles spective, one interesting compo- around the elephant’s eye. sitional consideration
is related to vectors—and converging lines. A vector or line may be real or implied. In the
latter case, our eyes align key points or shapes to establish direction or a visual path within
an image. When lines or vectors intersect, our eyes are drawn to that intersection point.
Photographers, filmmakers, and designers may use intersecting lines to help steer us to a
strategic point of placement for the primary element in a composition. Our sight naturally
follows the lines to converge on or around that point. Everett Collection/SuperStock Figure
5.10: Migrant Mother Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 119 By following that diagonal lead,
your vision crosses or intersects the rail to direct your sight to the focal point of the
photograph. White Angel Breadline was shot by Dorothea Lange during the Great
Depression. It captures—in a single frame— the desperation, heartbreak, and prayerful
hope of that time. This image is iconic for all of those reasons and because of the
photographer’s compositional insight and talent. It is beautiful— despite its dark content—
because of Lange’s Spartan sense of space and line. She used thoughtful composition to
preserve a simple but significant moment. For many, this photograph—along with her more
famous Migrant Mother—provides poignant visual associations to the Great Depression.
Can you find the implied intersecting lines in the latter photo? (See Figure 5.10.) 7/23/13
5:00 PM Section 5.4 Photography as a Subjective Art CHAPTER 5 5.4 Photography as a
Subjective Art At one time, some believed that photography, and photojournalism in

7. particular, was an objective medium that documented truth and reality. However, that belief
has disappeared, and photography is embraced as a fairly subjective art—despite the
science that underlies the photo-making process. To better understand the nature of
photography as art, we need to understand this premise: Photos are images and
interpretations of reality, not reality. In the previous sections, we have described how, for
example, photographers selectively focus on a subject, how they subtractively compose
their photographs and employ other strategies to draw viewers’ eyes in certain directions
and shape their perceptions of what they see. In addition, although photographs have
always been deliberately altered, Photoshop and other editing software and digital
processing have simplified photo manipulation. As a result of digital photo manipulation,
people may be hesitant to even accept the credibility of some photos. In some countries,
photography is no longer permitted as evidence in a court of law. Even though
photojournalists and documentary photographers may try to be as truthful as possible, it’s
impossible for them to be impartial. Hunter S. Thompson once remarked that in his
experience the imagery that came closest to visual objectivity was watching a closed circuit
camera panning aisles for shoplifters in a convenience store (Thompson, 1973). The
Photographic Visualization Process Each stage of the photographic process—pre-
visualization, visualization, and post-visualization—involves subjective personal choices.
Let’s examine each of these phases. In the pre-visualization stage, photographers, often in
collaboration with creative directors, photo editors, art directors, and editors make
decisions about what to shoot and where. They plot the imagery and storytelling content. In
fact, art directors build “shooting scripts” for photographers. Story briefs or treatments
typically outline the content. What is the slant and gist of the story? Who are principal
characters? What are the benefits featured for the client? Where is the shoot location?
Outlines also may clarify the problem, offer resolution options, suggest camera angles,
highlights, and intended reaction or resolution of a story. These are all subjective, creative
choices. Additionally, photographers have to make subjective decisions regarding
treatment, format, lenses, angles, color or black and white, and even the composition of
what they photograph. Reflect and React Make a list of the all the options you weigh before
photographing a friend. Where do you stand? How close? Which angle? Straight on or
profile? What part of the background should you keep or eliminate? That doesn’t include
suggestions (or demands) from your subject. All of those considerations are part of pre-
visualization—the first stage of the process. Each one is also subjective.
Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 120 7/23/13 5:00 PM Section 5.4 Photography as a
Subjective Art CHAPTER 5 The second stage of capturing a photographic image is called
visualization. Although many of the decisions about a photograph’s composition and the
strategies the photographer will employ are made in pre-visualization, photographers must
be able to think on their feet and continue to visualize as they shoot. They have to make
many critical judgments regarding a wide range of things: what elements to include, how
tight, which lens to use, whether to use natural or artificial light or a combination of both,
and how to frame an image—to name just a few considerations. Add to that, judgments are
made via their intentions, aesthetics, philosophy, styling, serendipity, and the purpose of the
photography itself. That is an incomplete list of subjective choices factored into each image

8. you encounter. Very few photos we see are randomly executed. Even the most amateurish
and unsophisticated images are made using subjective, strategic decisions. Finally, post-
visualization takes place once the shooting is completed. During this phase the imagery is
edited. This involves reviewing digital files, slides, or contact sheets of whatever has been
shot. Additionally, the photographer or editor must decide which images capture the
essence of the event, moment, or person. Finally, decisions are made about which image or
images will be featured (run large) and which ones will be presented smaller and how they
might be cropped. Should the photo be run vertically or horizontally? What image should be
the lead photo? Which one best closes or sums up a story? Again, all of these decisions are
important subjective ones. One important process that takes place during post-visualization
is picture editing. Picture Editing and Storytelling Picture editing is perhaps the most
important component of post-visualization. It is also the final part of the process. During
this activity, picture editors, creative directors, and art directors select the images that best
tell a story and then figure out the best strategy to order and sequence them. The primary
components to photo essays, picture stories, slideshows, and even film consist of three basic
elements: the opener or opening image; the closer; and the guts of the story, or the careful
arrangement of the photography that fits coherently in between to tell a compelling story.
Openers are designed to hook viewers. Effective closing images bring a narrative to
closure—sometimes by bringing the story full circle. The guts are the substantive content of
the story. Those images have to move you efficiently and effectively through the story in a
fitting way. Sometimes the strategy is chronological, but it doesn’t have to be. It could start
with a powerful image that basically gives up the end of the story. It might present a
mystifying problem that holds your attention, because you are compelled to learn its
solution. There is no silver bullet or failsafe pattern to picture editing. That varies from
story to story, and the best solutions are typically creative and enticing ones. Kat Miller is an
aspiring creative strategist and a natural-born storyteller and picture editor who hopes to
be an advertising account executive. “Dignity Village” is a simple but beautifully told tale of a
self-sustaining homeless community in Portland. Miller’s mission was to document that
community’s people, explain how they got there, how they planned to move on, and the
conditions under which they lived. The primary visual medium she used was
photography—formatted as a magazine layout built into a slideshow platform.
Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 121 7/23/13 5:00 PM Section 5.4 Photography as a
Subjective Art CHAPTER 5 Kat Miller: Storytelling With Photos Question: How did you
handle the initial problem of whether you should shoot the project in color or black and
white? Answer: I felt the images were more powerful in black and white, and gave the
imagery more of a documentary feeling. And I knew that as a photo essay, the pictures had
to do all the heavy lifting. Words and their voices were important, but the visuals needed to
drive the story, so I limited the amount of information I provided to brief captions and
quotes. I needed the photos to speak for themselves and allow the viewer to interact with
the people in the story. Question: Part of the challenge is capturing the pulse and culture of
the community with your camera. We come to know and understand the place—Dignity
Village—and the community there through the people, their personalities, and stories.
Establishing a good rapport with your subjects is crucial. You have to have their trust and

9. belief in what you are doing. The images reveal that they definitely allowed you to get into
their space and lives. Plotting a picture story is challenging, and settling on your primary
images can be tricky. Initially, I know when we were working on the Dignity Village
assignment together you struggled with the lead photograph. One of your issues was that
you had so many good images. And you switched out several photographs before you
settled on the final lead. I think you nailed it with the muscular guy gently cuddling his cat.
[See Figure 5.11.] Answer: Yes, there were three or four wonderful portrait shots that I kept
going back and forth with, but chose the man and the cat. I needed a really emotive opening.
Question: You had another Katherine Miller problem. How could you maintain a portraiture
Figure 5.11: Dignity Village cover strategy to show and tell this photo essay—at the risk of
losing a sense of place? We get to know the community and people from their portraits, but
where and how they live is also important to the story. So how do you tell the story and
integrate the environment into the mix? That’s a structural problem and a design challenge
as well. Answer: Exactly! I can’t tell you how many different ways I laid this story out. So
many times! I sketched ideas, put pictures in order, rearranged them, played with their
scale, juxtaposed things, and ultimately I liked your idea about using parallel structure for
unity and storytelling strategies. Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 122 7/23/13 5:00 PM
CHAPTER 5 Section 5.5 Modes of Photography Katherine Miller Figure 5.12: Dignity Village
spread Anyway, I decided to run all the portraits large. Then I aligned the most powerful
quotes I got from each person with his or her photos. I placed the community members on
the top: Their importance is reflected through the scale of the images and their
accompanying words. Finally, I cobbled together supportive shots of the village: recycling
bins, gardens, the recreation room, and so on with a filmstrip-like sequence of their
environment along the bottom. Hopefully, that allows the viewer to experience the story
interactively. [See Figure 5.12.] The “filmstrip” idea has a kind of cinematic feel to it. Miller’s
“Dignity Village” does a fine job of carrying several storylines through her choice and
arrangement of the photography. Words are also important and are tastefully integrated
into the layout to tell the story. Miller opted not to present this as a feature story and used
photo narrative instead. Her portraiture captures the personalities, humility, and hope of
these people. Words— a nice balance of captions and pull quotes—provide other important
information and answer a lot of questions we might have about the community and culture
of the homeless people living in Dignity Village: How did they end up destitute? How do
they still have their self-respect? The picture editing and order of presentation works well
and takes us into their world. Note, too, how integral the design is to the graphic solution.
Design principles, scale, continuity, and parallel structure provide a beautiful and user-
friendly visual presentation. Now that we have described both the science and the
subjectivity of photography, let’s take a look at the various types of photography. The
technology and the subjective nature of photography remains the same in each of these
modes; the context, purpose, and subjects vary. 5.5 Modes of Photography All photography
is narrative in nature and has an inherent storytelling power—no matter the form it takes.
Its major genres include portraiture, documentary, photojournalism, fashion, advertising,
landscape, and fine art. Each of these areas possesses inherent narrative qualities.
Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 123 7/23/13 5:00 PM Section 5.5 Modes of Photography

10. CHAPTER 5 Portraiture Beyond simple snapshots, portraiture is the most common
application of photography. Unlike simple snapshots, most portraits tend to be posed and
use sophisticated lighting, composition, or even the environment of the person
photographed. Almost immediately after the invention of photography, portraiture became
a booming business. Daguerreotypes provided inexpensive portraiture and, compared with
painted portraits, spared the subject a great deal of time. With the advent of photography
almost anyone could afford a portrait, and the genre’s popularity continues. Even acclaimed
documentary photographers and photojournalists make portraits on commission from
magazines and corporations. Richard Avedon, Mary Ellen Mark, Bruce Davidson, and Russel
Wong are a few famous photographers that have contracted their talAlina
Novipashina/epa/Corbis ents to shoot commercial work. (See Figure 5.13.) Figure 5.13:
Richard Avedon’s portraiture A visitor stands in Portraiture is a pervasive genre front of a
picture by photographer Richard Avedon at Martinthat, although an entity in and Gropius-
Bau in Berlin. of itself, bridges other areas of photography, notably photojournalism, fine
art, fashion, and documentary work. Lines between many of the photo genres are constantly
being blurred: portraiture as commercial work, fashion or documentary work being treated
as fine art in museums around the world. Documentary Photography Documentary
photography is another important facet of photography that often poignantly illustrates the
human social condition. Typically, this genre addresses social, political, gender, economic,
or other conditions of those who have been disenfranchised or marginalized by mainstream
culture. Documentary photography often covers groups of people suffering from poverty,
war, prejudice, or other injustices, revealing facets of life of which the average person is
either ignorant or does not want to see. Early photographers who set the bar for social
documentary included Jacob Riis, Lewis Hine, and the staff of Farm Security
Administration’s (FSA) historical division. Riis was a Danish American journalist and social
reformer who made images of indigent immigrants living in squalor in the tenement slums
of New York City’s lower eastside (Children of the Poor and How the Other Half Lives). A
studied sociologist, Hine also had an agenda. He continued where Riis had left off
documenting the rampant poverty in the Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 124 7/23/13
5:01 PM Section 5.5 Modes of Photography CHAPTER 5 slums of New York City, but then he
turned his camera on children forced to work in textile mills, coalmines, and factories. His
work helped establish child labor laws in the United States. The FSA photographers (who
included Arthur Rothstein, Dorothea Lange, Walker Evans, and Ben Shahn) documented the
plight of poor Americans during and after the Great Depression in America. It is the largest
single photo documentary project undertaken to date. Equally remarkable is the fact that all
of the FSA images are in public domain, so you are able to view and purchase imagery from
that masterwork through the Library of Congress’ Prints and Photographs Division. Today,
James Nachtwey continues to work in the social tradition of documentary photography.
Swiss filmmaker Christian Frei documented the work of James Nachtwey in his compelling
film, War Photographer, which received an Oscar nomination for best documentary film in
2002. In March of 2007, Nachtwey received the coveted TED Prize for his life’s work. Frei’s
film and the short TED celebration of Nachtwey—who shares his life’s work—are
unforgettable examples of documentary photography and cinematography.

11. Photojournalism Photojournalism got its start in the late 19th century with the
development of the halftone process, which enabled photographers to screen and print
their images. A halftone image is made up of a series of dots rather than a continuous tone
of a photograph. The dot patterns are screened in different sizes and different colors. Larger
or closer together dots are used to represent darker areas of the image. Conversely, smaller
or more widely spaced dots are used for lighter areas of the photo. These dot patterns give
the illusion of seeing a continuous tone photograph. Halftone screens allowed photographs
to reach the masses through newspapers and other early publications. Photojournalism, via
pictorial magazines and other publications, became the major visual news source for
Americans in the 20th century. Magazines such as Life, Look, Survey Graphic, and other
pictorial magazines of the 1930s ushered in the “Golden Age of Photojournalism” and
bridged it into the 1950s. At one point, Life alone had 13.5 million readers. During that
period, the photo essay became the most powerful form of visual communication and
storytelling. Life magazine’s first cover featured Margaret Bourke-White’s photograph Fort
Peck Dam, Montana (1936). Inside, the publication ran a compelling documentation of the
construction of the dam; readers marveled at the machine age icon and learned how its
10,546 construction workers created one of the government’s largest Public Works
Administration projects. Master photographer W. Eugene Smith produced numerable
humanistic photo essays. The work ranged from his slice of life “Country Doctor” (1948) to
bringing WWII into the living rooms of the publication’s readers with “Iwo Jima, Sticks and
Stones” (1945). Later, Smith would document the medical missionary work of Dr. Albert
Schweitzer in “Man of Mercy” (1954) among the lepers in French Equatorial Africa (now
Gabon). See http:// www.slightly-out-of-focus.com/W_Eugene_Smith_Man_of_Mercy.html.
Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 125 7/23/13 5:01 PM Section 5.5 Modes of Photography
CHAPTER 5 In 1955, Edward Steichen appropriately celebrated the power of photography
and photojournalism in his organized exhibition “The Family of Man” for the Museum of
Modern Art. In his words, it demonstrated “the essential oneness of mankind throughout
the world [showing] the gamut of life from birth to death” (p. 2). “Family of Man” would
prove to be a crown jewel of photojournalism. It featured more than 500 images created by
273 photographers from 68 countries; in that sense, it was as much universal in spirit as it
was international. “Family of Man” represented a social, cultural, and visual storytelling
peak for photojournalism. (See Figure 5.14.) Associated Press Figure 5.14: Family of Man
Photographer Suzanne Szasz shot this undated photograph of a child while visiting relatives
in her native Budapest. Szasz, 81, was known for her revealing and unsentimental pictures
of children and family life. Her work also has been exhibited at various galleries and was
included in Steichen’s landmark “The Family of Man” show at the Museum of Modern Art.
Television’s moving imagery and sound had a negative impact on the popularity of pictorial
magazines and photo essays. By 1957, 77% of American households had purchased their
first television set. The demographics and lifestyles of Americans were shifting rapidly.
Urbanization of the United States had snowballed: More than 70 cities’ populations zoomed
past one million. Consumerism was on the march, and big business was about to become
really big. Along those same lines, advertising began playing a much larger role across
media. Ad revenue had become an increasing force in shaping magazine content as well as

12. the direction of photojournalism. Times were changing—dramatically, and so were media
business models. Although much of photojournalism doesn’t have the impact it had up until
the mid-1950s, it is still alive and well, while its technology, delivery, and media continue to
change. Fashion This genre of photography is primarily a commercial venture that uses
photographic images to create and shape our perceptions of clothing and accessories.
Contemporary fashion photography often features content using glamorous models in
exotic locations to enhance the impact of the fashion on consumers. Some of this
photography is surprising, shocking, or even disturbing. Vogue (founded in 1892) is the
oldest and longest-lived fashion magazine—a fashion photography icon. Others include Elle,
Glamour, W, Harper’s Bazaar, Cosmopolitan, and a wide range of clothing catalogues. In
addition, there is a growing demand for online fashion photography. Photographer Brianne
Wills works the cutting edge of Bohemian fashion, literally. These days she works in the
Czech Republic, Ukraine, and throughout Central Europe. She is Rya66944_05_c05_109-
136.indd 126 7/23/13 5:01 PM Section 5.5 Modes of Photography CHAPTER 5 savvy about
this niche of photography. Along with establishing trends in the industry, fashion imagery
often creates new styles and ideas that bridge popular culture. She offers insights to her
process: I spend most of my time visually brainstorming ideas for photo shoots. I have a
model, a style, a location, and a story in my head. Once I get an idea I can’t let it go and I
have to create it. Typically, I’m inspired by one of these: the model, a certain style, or an
interesting location I’ve passed by on an ordinary day. Then I go from there. The story in my
head is always much more elaborate than I can pull off, but it helps to light a fire and get
things moving. (Wills, 2011) Having a strong idea and a good eye for color and composition
are important to fashion photography as well. Notice how even the lighting is in Wills’
image, and how her use of color really pops. Talent goes a long way, but being open to client
suggestions and collaborating with the others involved are equally important. (See Figure
5.15.) Collaborations are a big part of my job. I couldn’t do what I do without the help of
model agencies and stylists. I explain my idea to each player and they give me input,
negative and positive. Then from there we plan a time and day to meet at the perfect
location. Everything is so exciting when it comes together. The model is there in the flesh
and I can start mentally placing her in various poses around said location. Then the stylist
pulls out her wardrobe and I am even more inspired. Sometimes there’s a makeup
artist/hair stylist involved, but I generally like the models to keep things more natural. It’s
also Brianne Wills easier to work with fewer people involved. Usually the photo shoot
Figure 5.15: Brianne Wills Strong color effortlessly flows as the model and her clothes force
me to constantly create new ideas in my head. Once back at the studio I can spend hours
and hours looking through my images—to compare with the shooting script and initial
ideas I had conjured up in my head. (Wills, 2011) Brianne Wills is also very culture
conscious; traveling as she does, she’s able to sample popular culture of the United States
from afar while immersing herself in other cultures. Keeping a pulse on popular culture is
crucial to her work in the world of fashion. Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 127 7/23/13
5:01 PM Section 5.5 Modes of Photography CHAPTER 5 Photography for Advertising and
Collateral Materials Like fashion imagery, this genre of photography is commercial in
nature. Interestingly, an early example of advertising photography ran in an 1853 New York

13. Daily Tribune for a hatter that offered a free daguerreotype of the purchaser of a hat, which
illustrates the availability and popularity of photography at the time. The main draw of
photography in advertising is its credibility and the relatively quick accessibility it offers to
the product or service being advertised. Photography brings ads strong graphic attraction.
We are drawn to photographic images of delicious food and useful cleaning products, for
example, and expect that we will experience the same positive outcomes as the photo
illustrates if we buy the product. Advertising and branding are driven by photographic
imagery. Visual imagery dominates nearly all media formats available to any advertising:
print, outdoor, interactive, social, TV, POP (point-of-purchase), catalogs, and other
marketing media. Advertising creative strategies often run campaigns completely on
product and brand image. Products with strong “image” or “sex” appeal typically rely on
photography to establish and project a brand’s aura—its personality that lives on the ad,
but more importantly, in the minds of the consumer. When coupled with outdoor
advertising’s larger-than-life presence, photography communicates loudly and clearly. Can
you identify National Geographic/Superstock what’s really being sold on this NYC Fifth
Avenue billboard? Figure 5.16: Advertising campaigns use photography to (See Figure
5.16.) emphasize the image they’re selling. Landscape Landscape photography is intended
to capture images from nature. Photography from this genre also has a tendency to bridge
into other areas of photography: commercial work, advertising, photojournalism, and even
fine art. Coffee table books offer a wide selection of landscape imagery on just about any
place on the planet. National Geographic often features landscape photography. In an
example of how this genre has been commercialized and used for advertising, publications
and online sites for travel, architecture, landscape, garden, tourism, and similarly related
venues run landscape photography—as do calendars and greeting cards. Ansel Adams,
Galen Rowell, and Edward Weston are among the finest photographers in this genre.
Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 128 7/23/13 5:01 PM Section 5.5 Modes of Photography
CHAPTER 5 Another photographer that shoots stunning landscape and nature imagery is
Jim Brandenburg; he is also a frequent contributor to National Geographic. Brandenburg’s
Chased by Light received photographic book of the year from Independent Publisher’s
annual awards. To get to the work, blog, video (Brandenburg made a follow-up video to this
work), and other information on this gifted photographer, see
http://www.jimbrandenburg.com/. Photography as Fine Art Finally, photography is also
respected as an important medium of the fine arts. For the most part, fine art genre
photography centers on landscape, portraiture, nudes, and many areas common to painting;
in fact, some photographic work in this genre adopted painting styles and movements. For
example, the photo secessionist work was very impressionistic. Painter-photographer David
Hockney’s imagery from Camera Work bears a close resemblance to cubism; he uses
multiple photographs to piece together a large montage. (See Figure 5.17.) More recently,
fine art photography has explored areas of design, street photography, color, photo-
narrative (notably, that of Duane Michaels), as well as political and social issues. In addition,
the art world has adopted work from master photographers of fashion, photojournalism,
and documentary. At the heart of all the work, however, are the inherent compositional and
aesthetic properties of the imagery. That is a constant of great work across photographic

14. genres. Associated Press Master work in other photo- Figure 5.17: David Hockney graphic
disciplines has been singled out as art. For example, a fair amount of fashion photography
has ended up in museums around the world, too. Vienna’s Kunsthalle exhibited a collection
of fashion photography in late 2011 and early 2012. Diane Arbus, Irving Penn, Helmet
Newton, Richard Avedon, and Robert Frank all began their careers in fashion photography
and entered the world of fine art. Additionally, many critics consider the work of Annie
Leibovitz art; however, her entry into the world of photography (and the genre in which she
continues to work most frequently) was largely commercial portraiture. Gordon Parks’
imagery lines the walls of many museums and galleries; he worked in documentary, fashion,
and film. Garry Winogrand began his career as a photojournalist, as did W. Eugene Smith
and James Nachtwey; their imagery is heralded as classic. The work of documentary
photographers Mary Ellen Mark, Danny Lyon, Walker Evans, Henry Cartier-Bresson, and
Dorothea Lange is likewise considered artistic. Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 129
7/23/13 5:01 PM CHAPTER 5 Section 5.5 Modes of Photography In 1937, Walker Evans—
mostly celebrated up until that time as a documentary photographer—was invited to
exhibit his work at the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA). That fact is significant because
Evans’ show marked the first one-person photographic exhibition at that prestigious
museum. Many others, specifically Alfred Stieglitz (Studio 291) and many of the photo
secessionists (1902–1919) worked diligently to put photography on the map as an accepted
art form. One of that group’s more noted members, Edward Steichen, experimented, like
many secessionists, with the impressionistic look of the gum bi-chromate photographic
process. In February of 2006, Edward Steichen’s gum bi-chromate print, The Pond—
Moonlight (1904), fetched $2.9 million at a Sotheby auction in New York City. It changed
how we see the world and ourselves. What’s more, it captured the hearts and minds of the
public and became a mass medium. Although its astonishment factor has lost a bit of luster,
photography is still central to our lives. Russel Wong: Fine Art Case Study An interview with
Russel Wong is a wonderful bridge from the preceding discussion of photographic genres.
He is commonly referred to as the Richard Avedon of Asia—an honorific epithet given that
Avedon worked across all genres, and a good deal of his work ended up in museums around
the world. In a sense, Wong has been the key photographer in Asia for the past 25 years,
particularly in fashion, entertainment, and portraiture. Celebrated for his remarkable
portraits of filmmakers, artists, actors, musicians, and political leaders, Wong’s imagery has
appeared on the covers of Time, Vogue, Marie Claire, W, and Elle. His photos find their way
to museums, film posters, or in art galleries in New York City. His exhibits have opened the
Venice Film Festival. Wong’s landscapes have been auctioned at Christie’s. His advertising
clients have included Nike, Nokia, Montblanc, BMW, Ritz Carlton, and Donna Karan. He is
also a self-described “sports nut” and has shot just about any sport you can imagine. ©
Russel Wong/Corbis Figure 5.18: Wong’s portrait of Jackie Chan Rya66944_05_c05_109-
136.indd 130 Russel Wong’s sensitivity and rapport with his subjects are well-known, and
he has befriended most of his subjects from Joan Chen to Mickey Rourke, Shaq, Oliver Stone,
Jackie Chan (see Figure 5.18), and Robert Downey Jr. To that end, his work meshes with the
tradition of celebrity photographers Richard Avedon, Annie Liebowitz, and Helmut Newton.
7/23/13 5:01 PM Section 5.5 Modes of Photography CHAPTER 5 Russel Wong: Portraiture

15. Question: Russel, you’re a professional photographer who has been successful in all the
medium’s genres. Where does your heart lie? Which of those approaches do you most
enjoy? Answer: Well, I’ve always enjoyed shooting people since I started. Be it sports or
fashion or portraiture. It has always been a natural thing for me, and I enjoy the interaction,
the stories and all the friendships. I’m always on the side of my subjects and have largely
shot people I respect and admire. I can get the most out of them. When they feel you’re
trying your best and on their side, they put more trust in you. That’s how I get to make the
portraits I do. It’s a collaboration after all. I can’t possibly get a good portrait of them
otherwise. Question: Which niche of photography do you least enjoy? Why? Answer: Still life
objects in the studio as it’s really laborious, and I’m not really set up in terms of the types of
lights I need and the accessories I need. Some documentary work, too, because I’m not as
comfortable working from scratch and having much less control. You have to accept the
situation you’re in—and usually available light. Question: Sometimes people forget how
important research is to visual communication—portraiture and documentary in particular.
How do you use research in your work? Answer: I read a lot. If I’m shooting actors, I’ll watch
all their films, or listen to all their music if I’m working with a recording artist. Primarily, I
familiarize myself with all the work they’ve done. I also look at past photos made of them to
keep it fresh and so I don’t have to reinvent the wheel. I speak to people that know the
subjects or have worked © Russel Wong/Corbis with them to get a feel of who they are
personally. What they like to eat! Drink! Learn about any idiosyncrasies—pretty Figure
5.19: Wong’s portrait of Zhang Ziyi much everything! With this information, I will then
figure out how I can best establish rapport and communicate visually, using props, their
environment, etc. If you don’t know anything about them, how can you form an accurate
visual interpretation and more importantly, get to the soul of the person. I’m here not to just
capture them . . . how they look physically. I want to go deeper and into the personality or
nuances, the depth of the person. [See Figure 5.19.] Question: Your original attraction to
photography was sports in general and track and field in particular, and I know that you’re
still an avid sports fan. Do you still carry that passion for and fascination with sports into
your work? Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 131 7/23/13 5:01 PM Section 5.5 Modes of
Photography CHAPTER 5 Answer: Yes, I do. I have started to shoot Formula One, the Tour
de France, golf. . . . I am still a huge sports fan and always will be! Sports photography allows
me to just shoot, to connect with the action and drama—without bothering with agents,
stylists, hair, and makeup. It’s just about photography. Pure and simple. That’s why I got
into photography in the first place. Working on the fly like that helps me expand my range
with portraits. I can incorporate action shots. That’s especially helpful shooting stills or
working to create posters for my Chinese film publicity. Question: Given all of the morphing
of media and swirl of convergence we’re seeing today across platforms, why do you think
photography has survived and is still such a powerful medium? Answer: Everyone
understands it. And it’s likely they all make photographs of some kind. They’ve probably
done it digitally, too, especially now with mobile phones. The different media and platforms
give you a glimpse or opportunities in certain situations that you would not be able to
experience otherwise. Question: Have you experimented with or worked much in video or
used multimedia platforms? Do those formats interest you professionally? Answer: Yes, I

16. have. I have shot video and directed advertising commercials and created work for MTV and
music videos. I have also painted on my photos, and this has opened up a new way of
thinking for me, even as I shoot. Actually, I’m pretty much open to anything. I am beginning
to do installations and experiment using my photography in different situations or using
less traditional formats, or trying applications on glass and other materials. This also allows
me to create art and imagery and work on a much larger scale. Question: You’ve been
compared with another photographer whose work bridged traditional photographic
boundaries. In fact, some critics and reviewers have tagged you the “Richard Avedon of
Asia.” What’s your reaction to that comparison? Answer: Flattered. Richard Avedon was one
of the main photographers I loved and whose work I learnt so much from. Here in Asia,
most photographers seem to stay put in their respective countries or regional areas. There
wasn’t an Asian photographer who worked across the Asian continent. Hong Kong
photographers only worked in Hong Kong. The Japanese tended to focus on Japan and so on.
Just looking at the great photographers, they seemed to shoot just about everywhere, but
oddly enough not very many seemed to work in Asia. So I figured I should do it then!
Especially within the Asian movie business where I do a great deal of work, I never see
foreign or Western photographers on location. Question: Many don’t think of photography
as a business—but like any other occupation, photographers have to make a living as well.
Also, I don’t think many people realize your undergraduate degree is in business. Can you
talk a bit about the business side of photography, and did your business education come in
handy? Answer: We pretty much cover all the bases. [Laughs.] I am pretty much the
accountant, the marketing director, the marketing department, the human resource
coordinator, and secretary all rolled in one! I have always been very comfortable with those
aspects, Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 132 7/23/13 5:01 PM Conclusion CHAPTER 5
especially the marketing part—as you know yourself best—and I enjoy looking for work
and dealing with people and potential clients. Photographers don’t have the luxury of
leaving everything to an agent to deal with it. In addition, a lot of the work involves personal
relationships—working with people. I prefer that. I don’t use an agent in Asia. Everything is
done with or through me directly; it’s a very Asian way of doing business. [Laughs.]
Question: What do you see for the future of the medium? And what about you and your own
directions and future work? Do you have your next project or another book planned?
Answer: I think most everyone has already gone digital. Wet darkrooms and traditional
prints are vintage! As for photographers, their hands-on craft of printing is on the decline.
With printing came a special understanding of light, zoning, and controlling it by burning,
dodging, and other means. Today you just document and leave it to the digital guy to tinker
with it. That’s how a lot of ads are done. I am working on three books at the moment. One is
a book on Balinese landscapes and portraits. It has an old world touch and is interested
more with the place, its natural beauty, its culture and people. Most books now about Bali
tend to focus on the pools, gardens, and furniture! The other book is a formal examination of
the work of the Pritzker prize winner, Japanese architect Kenzo Tange, who combines
Japanese traditional style with modernism. It’s more of an impressionist view of his
buildings. It’s not a typical book on architecture and is my personal photographic
interpretation of his work; visually, I guess it is more about my perspective. The last book is

17. documentary in nature. Essentially, it looks at the life of a Geisha: all of the tradition, culture
of it, and how women are trained to become a Geisha. It’s being shot entirely in Kyoto.
Conclusion The real wonder of photography is that it captures sight and provides us a
retrievable instant that lasts forever. The history and evolution of the various genres of
photography—portraiture, photojournalism, documentary, fashion, and landscape—is
largely a concurrent one, even though they are independent from one another. The
composition, aesthetics, technology, tools, and delivery systems affected them all similarly.
The technology, process, tools, and media platforms for photography have evolved and
improved over time. However, what makes photography valuable and central to our lives
has not changed. Its literal nature and capability to stop time have changed how we see the
world as well as our personal lives. One of photography’s most fascinating idiosyncrasies is
its power to capture time in splintered fractions of seconds: seal a moment in its light
sensitive emulsion or pixels for all time. Our visual fascination with one another and the
world around us still percolates as vigorously as ever. Along with being a personal medium,
photography has become a huge and multilayered industry and has useful applications
across media. Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 133 7/23/13 5:01 PM CHAPTER 5
Conclusion Critical Thinking Questions 1. How does a photographer’s work in the area of
light management, or exposure, impact our ability to make sense of photography and assign
meaning to it? 2. What are some of the ways in which a photo’s composition may distract
and disable us from making sense out of an image? 3. How do photographers use each of the
genres discussed in this chapter to tell stories? Explain and provide at least one example for
each genre. 4. Can photography lie to us? Why or why not? Explain your response. 5. This
chapter has illustrated that some photography has been “elevated” to the status of fine art.
In your assessment, what distinguishes primarily commercial work from art? Web Links
Don McCullin: Documentary Photography Take a look at this interview with Don McCullin, a
well-known documentary photographer. Why does McCullin focus on the subjects that he
does? When McCullin refers to respect for his subjects, what does he mean? What aims and
objectives do you think this type of photography can accomplish for society’s greater good?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrP7Z6FUxZQ Photo Journalist: James Nachtwey
Romanian orphanages: http://www.jamesnachtwey.com/jn/slides/g14.html and Kosovar
regufees: http://www.jamesnachtwey.com/jn/slides/g28.html Key Terms aperture The
adjustable lens opening that regulates the light directed to the film, sensor, and camera’s
metering system. exposure Amount of light allowed to fall on either the film or the image
sensor during the process of taking a photograph. cliché An element or strategy that has
been overused to the point of obscuring its impact or meaning. framing Wrapping or
masking the subject or focal point in a picture by blocking it off from other elements in the
image. composition The arrangement of elements and their relationship to the background
of the image. halftone An image is made up of a series of dots rather than a continuous tone
of a photograph. The dot patterns are screened in different sizes and different colors.
contrast The use of opposite tones or hues in adjacent areas within an image. depth of field
The area in the image that remains sharp in front of, behind, and around the subject focused
upon. Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 134 image noise The random variation in brightness
or color within a photograph. knockout photograph Places the subject of the image against a

18. neutral background. 7/23/13 5:01 PM CHAPTER 5 Conclusion landscape Photography that
is intended to capture images from nature. openers Initial photos in a work that are
designed to hook viewers. parallel structure Repeating a similar configuration to help form
a visual link between two or more compositions. photography The art and science of
creating lasting images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either digitally
with an image sensor or chemically with a light-sensitive material such as film. pre-
visualization stage Stage where photographers—often in collaboration with creative
directors, photo editors, art directors, and editors—make decisions about what to shoot and
where. principle (or rule) of thirds Dividing the frame into thirds—both vertically and
horizontally. selective focus Purposefully restricting depth of field in an image. shutter
speed The length of time the camera’s shutter is open to make an exposure. texture A
dimension of a photo that suggests a sense of touch that allows the audience to feel, in a
way, what we see. vectors Help direct our vision. visualization Before shooting; when many
of the decisions about a photograph’s composition and the strategies the photographer will
employ are made. post-visualization Takes place once the shooting is completed. During this
phase the imagery is edited. Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 135 7/23/13 5:01 PM
Rya66944_05_c05_109-136.indd 136 7/23/13 5:01 PM Photononstop/SuperStock Visual
Storytelling Through Motion Pictures 6 Learning Objectives After completing this chapter,
you will be able to do the following: • Describe the development of motion pictures. •
Understand the basic theories of motion perception. • Understand the basics of film
technique. Rya66944_06_c06_137-164.indd 137 6/20/12 9:10 AM CHAPTER 6 Section 6.1
Introduction A film is never really good unless the camera is an eye in the head of a poet. —
Orson Welles Chapter Outline 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Introduction Motion Pictures Across Media
Forms How and Why Do We Perceive Motion? Selective History of Moving Imagery
Muybridge The Great Train Robbery: The First Narrative Film The Birth of a Nation: Classic
Visual Storytelling Sound: Arrival of the “Talkie” Color Film “Golden Age of Hollywood”:
Gone With the Wind & The Wizard of Oz 6.5 Storytelling with Moving Imagery: Thinking
Visually Mapping Stories and Using Storyboards 6.6 Television Genres Conclusion 6.1
Introduction As we learned last chapter, photography changed how we see ourselves by
providing a record of our personal existence. Photography also quickly affected our
perception of history, culture, and the world around us. It stopped time by preserving the
past on lightsensitive emulsion. In addition, it transformed how we remember things; in
fact, Oliver Wendell Holmes referred to photography as a “mirror with a memory” (Holmes,
1859). Photononstop/SuperStock Figure 6.1: The iconic poster from 1994’s Pulp Fiction
Rya66944_06_c06_137-164.indd 138 The next logical iteration involving visual imagery was
film, or motion pictures. Motion pictures involve a series of still or moving images produced
by recording photographic images with cameras or by creating images using special effects,
such as animation. The creation of motion pictures is a sophisticated art form and supports
an entire, multibillion-dollar industry (Figure 6.1). Today, it’s difficult to imagine living
without all of the variations of moving imagery: cinema, television, documentary, animation,
and more. They are ubiquitous in our lived experiences because of the vast number of
communication channels that support them. We no longer have to wait to visit a cinema to
see a recent film: On Demand and satellite television and the Internet (and sites like

19. YouTube) make 6/20/12 9:10 AM CHAPTER 6 Section 6.2 Motion Pictures Across Media
Forms motion pictures part of our daily existence (see Figure 6.2). Film is faster and easier
to access and enjoy than ever before. Consider a few of these 2011 statistics from the
YouTube blog: • • • • • • • Sixty hours of video are uploaded every minute, or one hour of
video is uploaded to YouTube every second. Over 4 billion videos are viewed a day on
YouTube. YouTube mobile receives more than 600 million views a day. Traffic from mobile
devices tripled in 2011. Ninety-eight of AdAge’s Top 100 advertisers have run campaigns on
YouTube or the Google Display Network. Five hundred years of YouTube video are watched
every day on Facebook. More than 700 YouTube videos are shared on Twitter each minute.
(YouTube, 2012) Today’s moving pictures (television, film, animation, and documentary)
provide a growing number of sensory stimuli that other visual media before film could
not— such as music, dialogue, ambient sound, sophisticated editing techniques, and special
effects. Motion pictures also give us an ever-changing perspective and point of view within
narrative. Through all of its many rich attributes, film and motion imagery affect us on a
visual and emotional, affective level. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to the
visual communication genre of motion pictures—theories of motion and how they pertain
to visual imagery, the history of moving images, and the processes and nuances of creating
visual stories with film. Associated Press Figure 6.2: YouTube phenomenon Founded by
former PayPal employees in early 2005, YouTube started a phenomenon that changed the
way content is viewed, and shared, on the internet. 6.2 Motion Pictures Across Media Forms
As McLuhan argued, the medium used affects the message—or certainly its impact—and
this holds true in the delivery of moving images. Compare the experience of seeing a movie
in a theater to watching a movie on your computer, smart phone, or electronic tablet. The
most obvious difference is scale. A smart phone or laptop screen doesn’t have the same
impact that a movie theater would have. Watching a downloaded film on a tablet or via a
rented DVD on your home television may lack the ambience and larger-than-life picture and
sound quality of the cinema. On smaller platforms, the film loses some of the visual power it
had in the cinema. It is also full of interruptions and trips to the kitchen or bathroom. TV
may further fragment a film due to advertising, other distractions, or perhaps channel
surfing. Ostensibly, the content and intent to enjoy the movie might be the same. However,
the non-cinema platforms and their respective environments deliver dramatically different
user experiences. Rya66944_06_c06_137-164.indd 139 6/20/12 9:10 AM Section 6.2
Motion Pictures Across Media Forms CHAPTER 6 There is something special about friends
and strangers coming together in the darkness of a movie theater to share a common
experience with one another. In that sense, cinema is a communal gathering. Individuals
collectively feeling the gambit of emotion: wonder, joy, shock, fear, hilarity, outrage, hope,
and sadness. The illusionary believability cinema brings via its moving pictures has the
power to grip our attention. Our imaginations take flight and can carry us anywhere. So,
how can such an illusionary medium have so much credibility? The vivid nature of the
storytelling holds us captive; and although we know the imagery isn’t real, we buy into the
illusion—for a while at least. But why? Corbis/SuperStock The short answer lies in the
seamless sound and natural movement of motion pictures and our appreciation of a good
story. Each picture varies slightly from the frame that preceded it (see Figure 6.3). The

20. carefully timed, rapid succession of images produces the illusion of a fluid continuum
through stroboscopic motion. Stroboscopic motion is the illusion of motion that occurs
when a stationary object is first seen briefly in one location and, following a short interval, is
seen in another location. Physiologically and psychologically our brains retain the series of
single images and read them together as a single thing. The running flow of pictures is
delivered at 24–32 frames per second in screened film or video. Figure 6.3: Stroboscopic
motion While a lot of movies are starting to be shot digitally, shooting on film gives a motion
picture that classic cinema look and feel. But filmmakers can stop motion by running exactly
the same image for an extended period of time. Similarly, slow motion is achieved by
recording many more frames per second (say 80 or more, for example). Then the same
spedup frames are played back at a standard rate; the more frames shot per second, the
slower the motion. Conversely, shooting fewer frames per second (10 frames, for example)
and running them normally (24/fps) speeds up the movement and makes the picture jerky.
For instance, pixel motion works by using still photos that, like a flipbook, are assembled
and timed out at different speeds in programs such as After Effects or Final Cut Pro. A
flipbook is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next so
that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating
motion or some other change. Mustardcuffins and other “pixel motion” artists create videos
from shooting still camera images. Then they arrange the photographs singly by layering
them and altering their speed, using programs such as After Effects or Final Cut Pro
presentations. The result produces surreal animations. Again, by manipulating camera
speeds, motion picture creators may use the rate of film speed (frames per second) as a tool
to structure and to impart a mood or feeling through movement. For example,
Mustardcuffins created the short film Drift completely in the still camera, using tilt motion
and single frame exposures. The only postproduction done on this art involved retiming the
video. Rya66944_06_c06_137-164.indd 140 6/20/12 9:10 AM Section 6.2 Motion Pictures
Across Media Forms CHAPTER 6 Filmmakers shoot and edit their films in strategic ways to
shape meaning among viewers. For instance, the zoom shot intensifies images and draws
our attention to what the director wants us to attend—what he or she deems important. A
reverse zoom shot moves away from a person or object, suggesting that the viewer process
the larger picture. Reaction shots focus on a character’s response to dialogue or an event.
They manage our perceptions and help shape our reactions to the plot of the film. Similarly,
filmmakers utilize color to enhance viewer perceptions of visual cues and messages
transmitted in film. Special visual effects, such as the use of handheld cameras, and panning
and tilting of the camera can affect our perception of the visual image. In addition to visual
elements, motion pictures rely on sound, including music, narration, and spoken dialogue to
create meaning and evoke a response among viewers. Motion pictures tell entertaining,
dramatic, funny, serious, interesting, novel, and mundane stories. Many powerful aspects of
film are manipulated to create and manage positive perceptions among viewers. A
multibillion dollar industry has been built around this popular visual art form, which is used
to encode a director’s vision and transmit it to viewers who then make sense of, decode, and
assign meaning to what they’ve experienced. Animation is produced similarly. Cells
(transparent sheets on which objects are drawn or painted for traditional, hand-drawn

21. animation) are created and shot one frame at a time. Like film and video, animation creates
the illusion of motion through the manipulation and duplication of images in a
predetermined sequence. Animation was initially created by hand, each drawing differing
slightly from the preceding one. Run together, they create the illusion of movement. Disney
studios is celebrated with making some of the most beautiful, creative, and successful
animations. Like film and most other media, animation has numerous styles, formats, and
applications, from TV fare such as cartoons for children, to adult animation (like The
Simpsons or Family Guy), feature-length films, advertising, and more. Although initially
created through simple drawing to impeccably designed and painted cells, much of today’s
work in that genre of moving imagery is generated entirely by computer. Often they are
integrated or fused with filmed or videotaped backgrounds—an effect that meshes art and
the illusion of reality. To be sure, animation is no stranger to advertising and branding.
What follows is a series of animations that were conceived by Mira Kaddoura, art director
and creative director at Wieden + Kennedy. Over her 10-year tenure there, she’s amassed a
significant amount of international advertising honors for a wide range of clients, including
Nike, Belvedere Vodka, Nokia, Target, World Wildlife Foundation, and Coca-Cola. Some of
those awards include Clios, One Show Pencils, D&ED, Effies, Communication Arts, Gold
Lions at Cannes, and a TED award. She works across all media platforms. In a recent
interview, we discussed an animation project Kaddoura created for Nike’s NikeGo website.
It uses an interesting array of three completely different animation styles and techniques—
for the same advertising campaign. The animated films are unique, too, for several reasons.
The branding content resonates with children and adults via three shorts that don’t sell
Nike. Instead, the work does a wonderful job of demonstrating Nike’s personality via
branding. In addition, the work was created specifically for Valentine’s Day.
Rya66944_06_c06_137-164.indd 141 6/20/12 9:10 AM Section 6.2 Motion Pictures Across
Media Forms CHAPTER 6 Mira Kaddoura: Animation and Advertising Question: Mira, your
work for Nike is always fresh and surprising. In this case, it nimbly and subtly presents
three films—each one radically different from the others in terms of voice, style, and even
animation technique. Two of them are evergreen and can clearly communicate to children
from anywhere on the globe, because they aren’t encumbered by language. The stories are
visually driven and don’t need words or any explanation. They’re engaging, edgy, and one’s
even a bit risky. What were you going for with these animations? And in particular the one
spun off from Aladdin’s lamp? Answer: Nike asked us to remind people of their love of sport
and lead them to a site where they could find out more about NikeGo, an initiative to help
make kids get outside and be more active. Too many children don’t get out and exercise,
which is unhealthy and sets a poor lifelong pattern. We’re talking to kids, right? So
animation, cartoon-like messages seemed a fun and a very logical way to go. One of the
animations borrows from a story most of us are familiar with—Aladdin’s lamp. It’s a great
story. And all of us can relate to how cool it would be to have anything—any wish we
wanted—granted, so taking a celebrated story and putting a simple twist on it makes it
fresh. It’s interesting, too, in that a child’s wishes are likely very different from ours [adults],
so wishing for something as simple as a basketball is credible and moving. In fact, this kid
has three wishes offered—as was the case in the original story—but the basketball is all he

22. wanted. He was happy and content with one wish! That makes his choice all the more
important. Our world was a lot simpler when we were five or six, right? Question: So often I
find too many students adopting or using award-winning advertising from annuals the likes
of Communication Arts, a great publication that showcases the best in visual
communication. But that can be counterproductive looking to ideas that others have already
used. So . . . where do you pull or draw your inspiration from? Are there any specific
brainstorming techniques you use? Answer: I pull from life. Every single little thing around
you—if you open your eyes big enough and wide enough to see it—can be inspirational. I
know that in school students spend a lot of time going through the ad annuals, which can be
good for them so they know what has been done in the past. But after that, well, annuals
should just become a mere reference and never a source of inspiration. Past ads won’t
inspire new ideas or fresh ads. Life, on the other hand, is rich with ideas and associations
you can learn from to make brilliant advertising. The only “techniques” I can think of are
being awake and curious to everything around you and putting two things (or more) that
normally don’t go together. That way you’ll always come up creating something new.
Question: One of the aspects of your work flows from just that. All of these animations are
different, dramatically different from one another. And they underscore how important it is
to tell a simple story in a matter of seconds. Answer: Exactly. We decided to use different
creatives. Different animators—ones with completely different styles. Different voices. We
needed animation and communication that was lighthearted, funny, inspirational—and
honest—and not some “sales job,” you know? We went for something that would delight,
move, and entertain people instead of doing anything even remotely predictable. You have
to be emotive. Strike a chord. There’s Rya66944_06_c06_137-164.indd 142 6/20/12 9:10
AM Section 6.3 How and Why Do We Perceive Motion? CHAPTER 6 the honesty part again.
So everything from the ideas to the tone of voice, art direction, and varied styles were our
attempts to try to do just that—to tell a good story . . . one that connected with our
audience: kids. In advertising of any kind, no matter the audience or situation, it’s always a
challenge to tell a good story in a minute or less. And in these instances, tell a good story, a
simple story in a very short time. Talent is only half the equation of doing well in this
business. It takes a lot of risk-taking and perseverance. It takes a lot of hunger and a lot of
learning to sell great work you’ve just created. I think the best work you see—in animation,
TV spots, print or nontraditional media— is work that has a great idea at its core but is also
executed in a fresh, delightful, surprising, and emotive way. It has to do that to touch you.
The more you think of yourself as a charmer, the better you’ll do in advertising, I think. I
always like to compare the way ads talk to people to the way people talk to people. You
don’t want someone shouting at you. You don’t want to be talked down to . . . and ultimately
we are attracted to those who make you laugh, who tell good stories, who charm you and
make you feel you want to spend time with them. Same for ads—including animation. If we
want people to give us 30 seconds or a minute of their time, we need to earn it. (See slide
show of Mira Kaddoura’s work.) Whether the motion picture we’re considering is True Grit,
Drift, or one or Mira Kaddoura’s Nike animations, they all employ illusion, creativity, and
are guided by motion theory. In the next section, we will learn this important concept. 6.3
How and Why Do We Perceive Motion? Our fascination with attempting to capture motion

23. graphically dates back to our prehistoric ancestors. Images of animals in movement exist in
cave art throughout the world. Some of the most notable examples are found in paintings
and carvings on the cave walls at Lascaux and the Chauvet caves (France) as well as in
Altimira (Spain). In some instances, an artist would paint multiple limbs (eight or more legs
instead of four to imply motion) on bison and other animals, or the painter blurred limbs to
imply movement. Anthropologists and art historians note that Egyptian hieroglyphics
suggested motion through a series of sequential ideograms, each successive one subtly
hinting at motion in a picture story, hieroglyph by hieroglyph (Allen, 2010). Today, most of
us understand that a series of still images spliced or arranged together on strips of film or
videotape make up the content of a film. However, the nature of modern film is so
sophisticated that we rarely entertain the idea that it offers us only an illusion of movement.
Several theories explain how the human brain captures and processes this illusion, which
we will briefly describe here. Although he is best known for publishing Roget’s Thesaurus,
Peter Mark Roget developed an explanation of the illusion of motion, called persistence of
vision. Research suggests that the ancient Greeks proposed the concept of the persistence of
vision. But most scholars attribute that honor to Roman poet Titus Lucretius Carus (65
BCE). Today, this concept refers to the empirically demonstrated phenomenon of vision in
which an afterimage persists for about 1⁄25 of a second on the retina. Roget erroneously
thought that persistence of vision caused the perception of motion; this myth was generally
exposed in about 1912 (Wertheimer, 1912). Rya66944_06_c06_137-164.indd 143 6/20/12
9:10 AM Section 6.4 Selective History of Moving Imagery CHAPTER 6 Prior to film,
“flipbooks” and stroboscopes jerked single pages or frames quickly past the eyes to create
the illusion of motion. Though Edison receives most of the credit for inventing motion
pictures, both Thomas Eakins, who used a single camera to capture images of equine and
human figures, and Eadweard Muybridge, who relied on a series of cameras, pioneered the
idea of using a succession of photographic images to suggest movement. There are two
major theories as to why we perceive moving images as reality. Persistence of vision (or the
phi phenomenon) is a mostly debunked theory of how we perceive motion from film, video,
and animation; some theorists still adhere to this perspective (Barsam, 1992). Briefly,
persistence of vision is defined as the eye’s ability to retain an image on the retina of the eye
for an instant after that stimulus has been removed. The “afterimage” lasts for
approximately one-twenty-fifth (0.04) of a second on the back of our eye. The persistence of
vision perspective holds that our brains fill in the missing chinks between the still frames
rapidly moving on the screen to provide us the illusion of motion. Persistence of vision is
just one explanation of why film, video, and animations appear as real motion to the human
eye. More recently, Joseph Anderson and Barbara Anderson and a number of other scholars
have discarded that explanation (2007). They contend that the phi phenomena offers a
constructionist approach to the cinema. Conversely, they maintain that our perception of
movement in film and video is an illusion. They maintain our sense of movement is the
result of short-range apparent motion. Anderson and Anderson believe that “motion in the
motion picture is, as we have said, an illusion, but since it falls within the short-range or
‘fine grain’ category it is transformed by the rules of that system—that is, the rules for
transforming real continuous movement. The visual system can (and does) distinguish

24. between long-range and short-range apparent motion, but it seemingly cannot distinguish
between short-range apparent motion and real motion. To the visual system the motion in a
motion picture is real motion” (2007, p. 4). Anderson and Anderson contend that because
we know that individual frames of film aren’t really moving, our perception of motion is
related to our visual processing of real (continuous) motion. Both theories describe a mix of
physiological and psychological brain processing and experimentation. The important thing
to remember is that although films record real motion, their projection—or what we
perceive as motion—is an illusion. 6.4 Selective History of Moving Imagery This section
does not even begin to attempt to provide a historical overview of moving imagery; there
isn’t time or space for that in a book of this size. Instead, the material presented here
highlights some of the more important developments of film and motion— along with
presenting a brief list of landmark films and cinematic evolution. Muybridge Even before
photography became part of the media landscape, flipbooks were producing the illusion of
motion by shuffling pages of drawings. Shortly after photography had been
Rya66944_06_c06_137-164.indd 144 6/20/12 9:10 AM Section 6.4 Selective History of
Moving Imagery CHAPTER 6 invented, photographers Thomas Eakins (Man Pole Vaulting,
1885) and Eadweard Muybridge (Galloping Horse, 1878) were experimenting with still
picture sequences. Muybridge shot a series of images of a horse at a gallop—initiated on a
$25,000 bet that its feet never completely left the ground when running. The bet was lost,
but the gain was that the work and claimed stakes inspired further experiments by
Muybridge (Solnit, 2003). (See Figure 6.4.) Science and Society/SuperStock He pursued his
investigation into sequential photography and photographed a galloping horse using Figure
6.4: Muybridge’s galloping horse 24 different cameras. Muybridge used trip wires to engage
the cameras. He continued to photograph sequences of animals and humans moving,
amassing a large collection of studied movement. Later, he constructed an improvised
projection system and ran the images in quick succession. However crude and shaky, it was
in essence the first motion picture. Later, to help eliminate the quirky slippage of the jittery
image, William Dickson perforated the outer edges of the film so film cameras and
projectors could grip and flatten the film as it whirled past camera lenses. Moving film was
off and running. Remember, photography and film provide us imagery of reality—not
reality. Movie pictures are an illusion of real motion. Although “all in” and captivated by a
good film today, we don’t mistake it for reality. However, in 1895 when Auguste and Louis
Lumiére first screened their 50-second film L’arrivée d’un train en gare de La Ciotat (Arrival
of a Train at La Coitat), it shocked a packed movie theater. In a magazine review, Der Spiegel
reported that the film imagery terrified the audience. It caused such alarm that viewers fled
their seats screaming, thinking the locomotive was about to slam through the wall of the
movie house. That may seem laughable enough now, but that sort of astonished reaction is
reflective of the power of media— particularly a newly launched, revolutionary one. See
Lumiére at Bettmann/Corbis work in Figure 6.5. Figure 6.5: Louis Lumiére Here, he
examines a film reel in his office. Rya66944_06_c06_137-164.indd 145 In 1891, Edison
(generally heralded as the inventor of motion pictures) 6/20/12 9:10 AM Section 6.4
Selective History of Moving Imagery invented the Kinetoscope and later (1896) the
Vitascope projectors. The Kinetoscope could accommodate only single viewers and was

25. used commercially as an attraction in penny arcades. Arcades specialized in visual
storytelling in moving pictures—one viewer at a time. However, motion pictures would
soon provide a larger audience experience and move from Nickelodeons (early movie
theaters that charged five cents admission) to movie theater screens, with the help of
Edison’s Vitascope. In the process, a new mass medium was being shaped. See an ad for the
Vitascope in Figure 6.6. CHAPTER 6 Everett Collection/SuperStock Figure 6.6: Edison’s
Vitascope Debuting in 1895, Edison’s Vitascope projector provided one of the earliest forms
of motion picture entertainment for audiences. Early films were silent, shot in black and
white and very short in duration (generally less than 25 minutes). The earliest movies were
also short in terms of plot. Their storytelling was simplistic. Initially, audiences were
content with mundane content: waves breaking on a beach, a man sneezing, a farrier
shoeing a horse, a contortionist twisting into knotted shapes. Because the medium was still
a novelty, seeing pictures move was interesting enough. Whatever narrative existed in early
films was minimal and largely accidental. That would change. The Great Train Robbery: The
First Narrative Film In 1903, Edison distributed Edwin Porter’s The Great Train Robbery.
Although a mere 10–12 minutes and about 14 scenes in length (film scholars disagree on its
duration), the film is considered pivotal in the history of motion pictures. It is loosely based
on reports of Butch Cassidy’s Hole in the Wall Gang’s real robbery of a Union Pacific
Railroad train outside of Table Rock, Wyoming. Film critics hailed The Great Train Robbery
as the first narrative film. Its plot established a familiar story line for “oaters” (movies about
frontier or cowboy life) to come: bandits, robbery, pursuing posse, outlaws return to
hideout, big gunfight, and apprehension of the culprits. Along with inventing film narrative,
Porter introduced cross cuts (the technique of jumping back and forth between
simultaneous scenes to establish parallel action) and panning (movement of the camera
following the action or recording a panorama). The Great Train Robbery was an
unprecedented commercial success and one of the most popular films of its time.
Simultaneously, it introduced narrative to the screen and moved filmmaking out of the
studio to 10 locations. Audiences loved the action, realism, and violence of The Great Train
Robbery. There are several shootouts, and audiences were horrified when a bludgeoned
man is thrown (Porter used a dummy) from the racing train. Audiences bought into the
notion that film recorded reality, and although narrative became the focus of filmmaking,
movies continued to be short—for a while. Rya66944_06_c06_137-164.indd 146 6/20/12
9:10 AM Section 6.4 Selective History of Moving Imagery CHAPTER 6 The Birth of a Nation:
Classic Visual Storytelling D. W. Griffith’s ambitious motion picture The Birth of a Nation
(1915) would run a little short of three hours. The film is considered a classic (see Figure
6.7); in fact, Robert Ebert pointed out it was “cited until the 1960s as the greatest American
film” (Ebert, 2003). That’s quite a bit of acclaim for a silent movie. There are several reasons
for that kind of recognition. The film’s cinematography broke new ground in countless
ways. Griffith’s storytelling skills were masterful. He established new techniques to improve
the aesthetics, composition, and editing for cinema. Noted film critic Roger Ebert
commented, “Griffith demonstrated to every filmmaker and moviegoer who followed him
what a movie was, and what a movie could be” (Ebert, 2003). Corbis Figure 6.7: The Birth of
a Nation W.D. Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation captivated audiences in the early 20th century

26. and ushered in the era of feature-length motion pictures. Griffith’s sophisticated techniques
changed visual storytelling. He invented a grammar, syntax, and language for film. Some of
the things he introduced film audiences to included decorative title cards, fullscreen close-
ups, extensive crosscutting, an original musical score, and film that was so realistically shot
that it resembled a documentary. Audiences were in awe. His scenes were shot from
multiple angles, used landscapes, natural backgrounds, dissolves, and other transitional
devices to suggest a shift of time or place in the The Birth of a Nation. Griffith’s techniques
have inspired uncountable filmmakers. The Birth of a Nation was also the first epic film ever
produced. Epic films are a genre of films with a large scale, sweeping scope, and broad
spectacle that “transport” viewers to another time or place. Its advertising and posters that
promised the “mightiest spectacle ever produced!” lived up to their hype. It was America’s
first blockbuster film. The motion picture used the star system (movie companies casting
celebrity actors for their properties). The film grossed more than $10 million the first year
of its release and continued to break gate records for a decade. Getty Images Figure 6.8: The
first “epic” film Rya66944_06_c06_137-164.indd 147 While its technique and storytelling
were groundbreaking, its controversial content caused a national stir. Briefly, the film
dramatized the founding of the Ku Klux Klan (see Figure 6.8), and fueled existing bigotry
around the country. It has been used for recruitment purposes for the KKK to this day. The
film raised censorship issues immediately upon its 6/20/12 9:10 AM Section 6.4 Selective
History of Moving Imagery CHAPTER 6 release. In fact, it was banned in Denver,
Minneapolis, St. Louis, Pittsburgh, Chicago, and many other places. Tom Dirks acknowledges
all of the film’s racial, social, and ethical problems but still maintains that “film scholars
agree, however, that it is the single most important and key film of all time in American
movie history” (Dirks, n.d). Sound: Arrival of the “Talkie” Inventors and scientists had been
trying to crack the sound barrier for quite a few years. The industry lacked the technology,
and to some extent, the motivation to develop it. Producers responsible for gathering film
content were preoccupied with finding novelty acts and vaudeville talent when they weren’t
making serial content and serial films. They were busy feeding the status quo of the silent
film industry. However, sound was the next logical transition for film. As you might expect,
the earliest “talkies” were shorts. Later, when features initially employed sound, audio was
limited to music and sound effects. Dialogue and synchronization were still on the drawing
board. Eventually, “talkies” integrated synchronized sound-on-film technology to enrich the
visual experience. The Jazz Singer (Figure 6.9) was the first feature film (and first musical)
using the “sound-onfilm” system. It was released by Vitaphone and Warner Brothers in
1927 and received international acclaim and more than doubled the take of Warner’s most
successful venture to date, raking in $2.6 million. Actually, the film was silent for the most
part. The Jazz Singer contained only 350 spontaneously spoken words, but for audiences at
that time its six songs made up for it. Copyright Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images The overnight
popularity of “talkies” and their financial suc- Figure 6.9: The Jazz Singer Al Jolson
performing one of the six cess forced the studios to take musical numbers in 1927’s The Jazz
Singer the plunge; but it wouldn’t happen overnight. It would cost the film industry and
motion picture theater owners plenty to replace the old technology in order to make the
switch from silent to sound films. For example, movie theaters throughout the country

27. needed to invest in new technology to feature sound films. Replacing the silent system
meant investing in new projection and audio technology. It wasn’t easy or inexpensive.
Consequently, films were produced in both silent and “talkie” modes into the early 1930s.
However, public demand for “talkies” pushed silent films into obsolescence quickly. By
1933, less than 1% of the movies being screened were silent. Rya66944_06_c06_137-
164.indd 148 6/20/12 9:11 AM Section 6.4 Selective History of Moving Imagery CHAPTER 6
Alfred Hitchcock’s Blackmail (1929) straddled both formats, and it’s an interesting case
study when examining the transition from silent to talking films. Blackmail was the first
British “talkie,” but its original version was as a silent film. However, producer John
Maxwell, wanting to hedge his bet, told Hitchcock to film portions of the feature in sound.
Hitchcock thought that was a foolish idea, producing a h…