Summary of the book - THE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM - Academic Organisation in Cross-National Perspective Author BURTON.R.CLARK

1. SUMMARY
THE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM
- Academic Organisation in Cross-National Perspective
BURTON.R.CLARK
Research agenda centred an immediate issues and government and other patrons
sought answers to problems of the day. scholars with new perspectives;
organisation theorists to gaze upon the odd ways of universities and then return
to the business firm, for e.g: political scientists to assemble some essays on
government and higher education and then go back to traditional political
institutions, for e.g.: economists to measure inputs/outputs and speculate
benefits and costs.
The Purpose of the book is to improve the state of art by detailing
systematically how higher education is organised and governed. its a 2 hold
approach to set forth the basic elements of higher education system as seen from
organisation perspective and to show how these features vary across nations with
fateful effects. The problem proposed in this book is when professionalisation
converges with bureaucratisation in large organisation and larger sectors,
professionals become powerful actors, this is also in the case of higher
education. The ways in which teachers and researchers in disciplines and
professional fields hookup with their counterpart universities and other
national systems. Th arguments raised in the book confronts 5 questions: how is
work arranged? how are beliefs maintained? how is authority distributed? how are
systems integrated? how does change take place?
Chapter 1 of the book explains the concept of knowledge as a material, research
and teaching as the main technologies. It is defines knowledge in 3 parts; first
as organisational knowledge- particular factual information and skills for
manipulating some specific aspect of the environment; second as historical or
general knowledge which is theoretical understanding of accumulated scientific
and philosophical wisdom of the general culture and process or cultural
knowledge as the acquisition of the processes by which knowledge is increased
and development of skills that produce critical thinking and evaluation. The
main characteristics of knowledge stated are 1.discovery of knowledge which is
an open ended task, its an assignment to the unknown, the uncertain and its
difficult to systematise through normal organisation structures that have
already unknown and defined ends. The second characteristic is increasing
autonomy as steady distancing of the specialities from one another and from the
general knowledge imparted in elementary and secondary education and the third
characteristic is that knowledge has weighty logistics whee subjects come down
through time, expanding along the way and acquiring differential prestige which
is “cultural heritage” and “the best of mankind.” A lot amount of knowledge
inherited is suggested in these expressions.
Talking about the natural ambiguity of purpose of knowledge : Almost any
educated purpose could deliver a lecture entitled “The Goal of the University”,
but goals are so broad and ambiguous that the university system is left no
chance to accomplish goals. The effort to clarify the purpose by forceful
assertion of a specific vision has had long appeal. The broad statements of
purpose and goal, essence and true nature have served poorly as accounts of
reality and are inappropriate when used as possible guides to present. It is
better to insist that purpose is generated by the forming of academic groups
around the bodies of knowledge.
In order to perceive the sizes and shapes of the organisation clothing, the need
to study the elements of the organisation. First is Work- division of labor and
delegation of tasks. the structure of organised effort within which individually
and collectively people take different actions. It specialises by subject that
is by knowledge domain for e.g.: historians & historians; chemists & chemists.
This profession follows a similar principle putting together similar
specialists. Its the discipline mode of work that has rendered higher education
over time a meta-national and international, much more than elementary and
secondary education. The division of academic enterprises is done into
horizontal and vertical within and among institutions. Sections and tiers are
within institutions whereas sectors and hierarchies are among institutional

2. lateral separations. Sectors are basic broadest groupings known as
faculty/school/college for e.g. law school, business school, sciences,
humanities. In French, Italian Universities, these type of professional division
doesn't exist yet. Tiers are the principle of sequence, there are 1/2 or more
tiers, first tier is undergraduate for 4 years which is limited specialisation
and more general education whereas 2nd tier is the specialisation degree after
the completion of undergraduate degree. The third class of effects are to be
found in the support of functions as “Research”, those who are only restricted
to research, are finding their energies to separate it from teaching and do it
in the form of a separate institutes structured as Research institutes. Sectors
are divided into single public system, multiple public system and private/public
systems. Hierarchies are the vertical arrangements of institutions and sectors;
based on level of task as low and high. Its ranking is based on prestige and
hierarchy of status.
Second element of knowledge is Belief, its divided into 2 basic types-
discipline and enterprise. The culture of discipline is the primary going
concern of academic systems with their own procedures that had taken form
through generations of efforts. The comparative strength of disciplinary
cultures among national systems is dependent of how advanced is the system’s
state of knowledge. The culture of enterprise says it doesn't matter how the
culture are produced, enterprise cultures generate loyalty. The structural
feature that most determines the nature and strength of enterprise cultures in
higher education is tightness of organization. The culture of profession is
that all such men and women in the doctrines of profession are part of a single
“community of scholars.” The culture of the profession overlaps and fuses with
the cultures of individual disciplines to the extent that often we can hardly
separate one from another. While rooted in material conditions and interest; the
cultures of the profession becomes a force in the right. The culture of the
system has four beliefs, variable, reflecting and affecting the character of a
system; how accessible it should be; how specialised its trading; to what
occupations it should connect; and whether it should center on research.
Chapter 4 of the book explains the third element of knowledge- Authority, around
chairs and departments, facilities and schools, universities and colleges, there
are differing arrangements of deans, rectors, vice-chancellors, presidents,
trustees and ministers of education. There are six levels of authority, first
level is the major operating unit which is called the department, second level
is the operating units which functions as a part of the university or college.
Third level is the individual university or college which operated under one
name, fourth level is the multi-campus academic administration and fifth and
sixth levels are the highest administrative authority levels. At the summary
view, the distribution of authority determines how much the individual
university or college in an organisation.
Other elements of the knowledge like values and preferences; In higher education
various groups pressures broad values upon the system, the claims come from all
sides- business executives, union leaders, church officials, minority
representatives and journalists etc. There are 3 basic set of values; first is
Justice i.e. social equality or justice for all, equal treatment of students,
teachers, faculty, other staff members and sectors. The interest in justice for
students appears as a demand for uniform standards across a system so that all
students in a given field will be treated equally and given certificates of
equal value. Personnel and faculty be treated equally in the form of official
insistence in fair shares for institutions and programs. Second is competence,
it signifies capable system of higher education, which is effectively organised
to produce, criticise and distribute knowledge and can prepare people for
occupational performance and civil life. The preference for competence depends
on the work of academic individuals; quality of students at entry and at exit;
the effectiveness of institutions and systems; professionalism; research and
crirtisicm. Third set is liberty which links together choice, initiative,
innovation, criticism and variety. Liberties are sought by groups and
institutions in higher education as well as individuals. Fourth set of value is
loyalty which is a body of interests bought to bear in higher education centred
in the operation of state.
For higher education, the tasks are knowledge centred and one general effort

3. i.e. the creation of knowledge remains poorly comprehended until we grasp that
 the differed and plurality are part and parcel of the moral world of
discovery and invention.