2. Facts and figures
Acute leukemia accounts for approximately 30 percent of all childhood malignancies
and is the most common cancer in children.
Of which 80% is caused by ALL, 15% by AML and the remaining 5% - HL, NHL, Juvenile
myelomonocytic leukemia etc.
Overall incidence stands at roughly 1 in 2000 ~ 400 children newly diagnosed cases
per year in the UK.
Cure rates based on recent data and treatment developments stands at around 80% -
varies depending on which cancer. Eg: ALL has better prognosis with cure rate of 80%
while AML has a cure rate of 50-60%.
9. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Overlap between leukemic and lymphoblastic – which means involving a
combination of blood and lymph nodes
Collectively referred to as ALL/LBL
Arises from Pre-B cells or T-cell precursors
Most common form in childhood, especially in age group of 2-5 years old
Blasts on PBF/BMA
10. Acute myeloid leukemia
Second most common hematological maglinancy in children
Stable incidence in childhood with increasing rates in adolescence, overall more
common in adults
Arises from myeloid precursors
Subdivided into 7 different morphologies based on the French American British (FAB)
classification system
Has a known association with Down’s Syndrome – 10 to 20 times greater risk as
compared to a child without DS
Features on peripheral blood film/bone marrow aspirate
More than 20% blasts, which may be myeloblasts, promyelocytes, monoblasts,
promonocytes, promonocytes, megakaryoblasts
11. Non Hodgkin's lymphoma
Divided into
Lymphoblastic (T-cell) – presenting with anterior mediastinal mass
Mature B cell (Burkitt) – has associated with EBV
Large cell lymphoma
Majority are high grade and aggressive requiring prompt diagnosis and
treatment
Associated with hypercalcemia
12. Hodgkin’s lymphoma
Increasing incidence with age
High association with EBV infection
Classical histology of Reed Sternberg cells in a lymph node biopsy
16. Symptoms and signs
Tend to present with non specific sign and symptoms depending on when the child presents to you
Main challenge is to not falsely diagnose the child as having a typical self limiting viral illness
However, there are recognized features of acute leukemias/lymphomas that should raise the suspicion
of an attending clinician. Studies show that a child with acute leukemia would at least have one of the
following
Fever
Pallor
Bruising
Hepato-splenomegaly or isolated organomegaly
Lymphadenopathy
Musculoskeletal pain – bone pain
Parents complaints – ‘something just doesn’t seem right with my child’
22. Investigations – important ones first
Full blood count
Peripheral blood smear
Lymph node biopsy
Bone marrow biopsy
CXR
23. Peripheral blood smear
Report should be obtained as urgent as possible
White blood cells
Mature neutrophils have segmented nucleus with 2 to 5 lobes joined by a thin filament. Less mature
forms include bands (stab, juvenile) forms, metamyelocyte, myelocyte, promyelocyte and myeloblast in
that order. The cytoplasm of a mature neutrophil is pink or nearly colorless and possesses moderate
azurophilic and specific granules.
In a ALL, morphology may vary from small cells with scant cytoplasm, condensed nuclear chromatin, and
indistinct nucleoli to larger cells with moderate amounts of cytoplasm, dispersed chromatin, and
multiple nucleoli; coarse azurophilic cytoplasmic granules may be present.
In AML, myeloblasts are immature cells with large nuclei, usually with prominent nucleoli, and a variable
amount of pale blue cytoplasm. Typically, myeloid blasts have more abundant cytoplasm compared with
lymphoid blasts and may have Auer rods or granules present.
The appearance of lymphoblasts in biopsy specimens is relatively uniform, but the cells may include
round, oval, indented, or convoluted nuclei, finely dispersed chromatin, and nucleoli that can range
from inconspicuous to prominent.
24. Other investigations
Bloods
Renal profile
Ca, Po4
Liver function test
Coagulation profile
LDH
Uric acid
Sampling
Biopsy –lymph nodes
Bone marrow aspirate
Lumbar puncture
Special tests
Cytogenetic studies
Immunohistochemistry
Cytochemistry
Imaging
CXR
CT Scan
MRI
26. Management
General principle of
Induction +/- CNS treatment
Consolidation or intensification
Maintenance
Drug regimes differ based on protocols
Oncologic emergencies can occur prior, during or after treatment
Once disease has remitted, monitor during maintenance phase with regular FBC,
if counts do not improve, consider repeat BMAT
28. References
UpToDate
Chris, M., Hall, G., & Clarke, R. T. (2009). Acute leukaemia in children: Diagnosis
and management. BMJ, 338.
MOH. (2018) Synopsis of childhood cancer incidence in Malaysia (2007-2011).
Paediatric Protocol 4th Edition
A. (2004). PERIPHERAL BLOOD FILM - A REVIEW. NCBI, 12(2).
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acute-myeloid-leukemia-in-children-and-adolescents?search=hematologic%20malignancy&source=search_result&selectedTitle=15~150&usage_type=default&display_rank=15#H449859963
Acute leukaemia in children: diagnosis
and management
Chris Mitchell,1 Georgina Hall,1 Rachel T Clarke2