How do animals, plants, and fungi vary in terms of where in the life.pdf

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How do animals, plants, and fungi vary in terms of where in the life cycle mitotic divisions (to create a multicellular body) take place? Solution In animals and plants mitosis occurs during cellular growth phase. The cells increase in number or proliferate through mitosis. In fungi, mitosis is the asexual reproduction through which daughter fungal cells are formed. Therefore, mitosis in animals and plants takes place during growth stage and in fungi, mitosis takes place during reproduction stage. The mitosis is carried out in four stages known as prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Prophase: The nucleolus is disappeared and the nuclear envelop is fragmented. The spindle fibers attached to the chromosomes at the centromere. The chromosomes are pulled to the poles. Metaphase: During this phase the chromosomes are arranged at spindle equator that is the midpoint between the spindle poles. The spindle fibers extend up to opposite poles and the unattached spindle fibers overlap behind the equator. Anaphase: During this phase, the sister chromatids separate apart to become the daughter chromosomes. The attached spindle fibers disassembled and at each pole a daughter chromosome is formed. The spindle fibers move apart so that the separation of chromosomes occurs. Telophase: During this phase, the spindle fibers disappear and the nuclear envelop is formed around each daughter chromosome. Each nucleus consists of same number and type of chromosomes similar to the parent cell. Cytokinesis: After the division of nucleus the division of cytoplasm takes place and the daughter cells are completely apart from the parent cell. In some cases the division of cytoplasm does not take place and only mitosis is continued resulting in a multinucleated cell..

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The cells of the reproductive organs (Eg: ovaries ad testes) undergo meiosis. Meiosis is a type of nuclear division, which produces four haploid cells from a single diploid cell. Meiosis is divided into two phases, meiosis I (one diploid nucleus to two haploid nuclei) and meiosis II (two haploid nuclei to four haploid nuclei). Meiosis I and meiosis II are subdivided into four phases again namely, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Thus, meiosis is divided into a total of eight phases. The phases of meiosis I are prohase-i, metaphase-I, anaphase-I and telophase-I. Similarly, the phases of meiosis-II are prohase-II, metaphase-II, anaphase-II and telophase-II. Prophase is the first phase of cell division in both mitosis and meiosis. During this phase, cohesion that is present throughout the length of the chromatids is removed except at the centromere. The chromatids become more visible during this phase. In meiosis, the substages of prophase-I include, leptonema, zygonema, pachynema, diplonema, diakinesis. During the metaphase, two chromatids are formed from each chromosome by longitudinal splitting. These chromatids form the chromosomes of daughter cells. During anaphase, centromeres are pulled and the chromatids become separated and move towards the opposite poles. These chromatids now are the chromosomes of the daughter cells, and are pulled towards the centrioles by means of spindle fibres. During “metaphase I and II” the chromosomes align at the midway between the two opposite spindle poles. In the stage of telophase, cytoplasmic division of the cell takes place (cytokinesis) during which each of the daughter cell receives one of the daughter nuclei. The interval between each division is called interphase. During meiosis, the homologous chromosomes align during the prophase. These chromosomes crossover at some point and rejoin to form recombinant chromatids, and move towards the opposite poles during anaphase. The chromosomal crossover ocurs during metaphase-I of the meiosis, In meiosis, Alignment of homologous chromosomes at Mid-Prophase –I is characteristic of meiosis. The two chromosomes sharing the same quality are called “homologous chromosomes.” These chromosomes crossover at some point and rejoin to form recombinant chromatids. Now, these chromosomes are separated at Anaphase-I and move to their opposite poles. During anaphase of mitosis, the sister chromatids get separated and move to the opposite poles. In contrast to mitosis, the “homologues chromosomes” (but not sister chromatids) move to the opposite poles in anaphase –I of meiosis. In meiosis, the separation of sister chromatids occur in anaphase –II. Solution The cells of the reproductive organs (Eg: ovaries ad testes) undergo meiosis. Meiosis is a type of nuclear division, which produces four haploid cells from a single diploid cell. Meiosis is divided into two phases, meiosis I (one diploid nucleus to two haploid nuclei) and meiosis II (two haploid nuclei to four h.

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