The Sixth Extinction Chapter Summary: An Unnatural History

The Sixth Extinction Chapter Summary
American journalist Elizabeth Kolbert authored The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History in 2014. This is a non–fictional account of what Kolbert
had named "the sixth extinction": an extinction event caused by humans similar to ones that destroyed earlier forms of life, like the dinosaurs and
megafauna.
Chapter One details the ancestry of frogs and examines the timeline of amphibians on Earth, as well as the increase in frog extinction rate. Kolbert
argues that the observed extinction rates which are exceeding expected background extinction rates suggest that catastrophe is ahead for Earth. Humans
are key to the extinction of Panamanian frogs due to their spreading of the Chtrid fungus, which is not native to Panama. Thus, Kolbert sees humans ...
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Chapter Four looks at the dust created by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which resulted in many species––excluding the
ammonites––dying out. This illustrates that the advantageous nature of some traits can be altered by a single moment.
Chapter Five examines glaciation and the extinction of graptolites and other clades. The decrease in sea level as a result of dropping carbon dioxide
levels caused a huge change in the chemistry of the ocean. Human activity is a contributor in this, through the damming of major rivers, the use of
accessible freshwater run–off, the removal of primary producers from oceans, deforestation, and fossil fuels.
Chapter Six depicts the rising concentration of carbon dioxide in the air due to the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, which has resulted in the
production of carbonic acid in oceans, the drop in pH of those oceans, and the death of marine life, including the Castello Aragonese.
Chapter Seven details ocean acidification and the extinction of coral reefs, which is entirely possible by the end of the
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Persuasive Essay On Mass Extinctions
Anthony D. Barnosky and his coauthors state that "paleontologists characterize mass extinctions as times when Earth loses more than three–quarters of
its species in geologically short interval..." (Barnosky). Since the life on Earth came to existence it has gone through multiple mass extinctions, five to
be exact. Throughout these extinctions, there has been the loss of millions of species that will never come back into existence. When the term mass
extinction is heard the first thought that most come to mind would be the extinction of dinosaurs, and how it is said that a giant asteroid crashed into
Earth causing them to die off. Mass extinctions are usually the result of some catastrophic event. "Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A
view from the world of amphibians" by David B. Wake and Vance T. Vendenburg, describes the last five of the mass extinctions occurring because of
natural disasters of some sort or shifts in the climate, whether it be the asteroid that took out the dinosaurs or the Earth becoming too hot for life to live
(Wake, Venddenburg). Mass extinctions take a major toll on Earth and having another could potentially lead to drastic changes in the human population
and the way we live. Being in the twenty–first century, the last thing that would cross a person's mind would be a sixth mass extinction, yet the rate
society is going at it is among us. While the five other mass extinctions have been due to climate change and natural disasters the

Mass Extinction And Its Impact On The World
200,000 years ago, the most adaptable animal that has ever lived comes onto the world, and it possessed a very large brain. Homo–sapiens or more
commonly referred to as modern humans, survived by using these powerful brains to learn and prosper in its environment. No other species has had
such a huge impact on the world compared to that of humans. Being able to manipulate the environment to better suit their needs, but for every action
there is an opposite and sometimes an even greater consequence. Many signs point to a great extinction occurring at this moment and it has correlation
with the beginning of the Homo–sapiens' expansion, more increasingly with the rise of the Industrial Era. Human hands have managed to touch every
species on earth in one shape or another, and there is nowhere for them to escape to. This great extinction, though not to the magnitude of the five
previous mass extinctions has the potential to rival them. The sixth mass extinction has its origin starting back to roughly 100,000 years known as the
Holocene Event (Lawrence, 2011). This is also around the time that humans began to expand out of Africa, and into the Asian and European continents.
Leaving there foot prints on the land and the negative effects on the animals they encountered. Lawrence also states that the climate fluctuated during
this period of time but it had no corresponding extinctions with the fluctuations (2011). So, humans had to have an impact with the extinction of the
larger

Eons: The Evolutionary History Of The Phanerozoic Eon
Prehistoric Life is an interesting subject because we get to see the rise of life of multicellular creatures like dinosaurs from single–celled creatures,
their extinction, and dominance of mammals on the planet resulting in the evolution of smarter living beings– humans. The timeline of the
evolutionary history represents the current scientific theory briefly describing the major events during the development of life on planet Earth. There are
many scales to represent the timeline like Eons, Eras, or years.
In this speech, I will describe prehistoric life briefly so I have chosen eons as my time units. Eons usually span a billion years but it can always vary.
There are four Eons since the start of life on Earth. Hadean Eon (4000 million years ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The earliest ancestors roamed the earth in the Triassic period which spanned 50.9 million years. At the end of the Triassic another mass extinction
Triassic/Jurassic happened. This was followed by the Jurassic period in which large gymnosperm started growing leading to increased size of
herbivore dinosaurs. First blood sucking insects are evolved. The largest theropod, Spinosaurus appears in fossil record. In the Cretaceous, first ants
and snakes are evolved. The king of dinosaurs Tyrannosaurus Rex makes it to the fossil records. Cenozoic is the current Era in which we are living. It
started by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event which eliminated most dinosaurs and marine predators like Mosasurs except birds. Mammals
evolved from small rat like creatures to dog sized predators later evolving to Mastodons. Mammoths evolved from small herbivore. First members of
genus Homo known as Homo Habillis appears on fossil record. Neanderthals, the human ancestors die out with other species like Dodo, Wooly Rhino.
Finally, all these resulted in evolution of modern day Humans. I tried finding a visual aid but all the cool species like dinosaurs and wooly mammoths
are already dead. Therefore, I present myself as we humans are the result of a very long course of evolution and a part of the geological

Causes Of Mass Extinction
Throughout the history of earth there have been five mass extinction events that have wiped out most life on earth. To go into detail the first mass
extinction event happened over 439 million years ago due to glaciation and falling sea levels were around 86% of the life on earth was wiped out.
The second happened around 364 million years ago killing around 75% of species. Giant plants were presumed responsible for this event because of
their deep roots that released nutrients into the ocean which, resulted in mass amounts of algal bloom that depleted the seas of oxygen. The worst mass
extinction occurred 251 million years ago, during the Permian – Triassic period that wiped out around 96% of species. A gigantic volcanic eruption
filled the air with carbon dioxide which fed different kinds of bacteria that began emitting large amounts of methane. As a result theearth warmed up
and the oceans became acidic. Afterwards the Triassic– Jurassic extinction happened between 199 million and 214 million years ago. The cause of this
extinction is thought to be an asteroid impact, climate change, and flood basalt eruptions. During this period dinosaurs came the rule over most of the
earth. Finally, the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction happened around 65 million years ago. A combination of volcanic activity, climate change, and
asteroid impact effectively ended 76% of life on earth including the dinosaurs. And through these mass extinctions there has been few who have lived
through

Anthropology Essay Assignment
|
ANTH100
Assignment 1
Heather Hartwig
American Military University
October 21, 2012
Assignment 1
1) Discuss what evolution is in terms of physical anthropology. Evolution refers to "change over time". In terms of physical anthropology,evolution is
changes over time in living organisms. This means that living things have passed their traits from one generation to the next. There are very little
changes that occur with each generation, but over time these changes accumulate in each living organism. It is believed that all life on Earth has
common ancestry that lived more than 3.5 billions of years ago (Park, 2008).
2) Define evolution. Evolution is defined as the idea or scientific theory that was proposed by ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The earliest fossil of the primate can go back before the extinction of the dinosaur over 65 million years ago. Bones and teeth were discovered in
Montana and Wyoming (Park, 2008). Even though there was primate like evidence before the dinosaur extinction, (Shipman, 2012).
5) Find at least one outside source related to your answer for Q3 and Q4 (e.g. the genome project for DNA– do not use this example in your paper
since it is provided for you). My outside source for questions 3 and 4 is a journal by Pat Shipman titled Fossils. This journal was published in The New
Scientist Vol. 215, Issue 2876, p. 8–16.
6) Briefly describe the source and how is it helpful for examining/investigating evolution. It is a journal that discusses fossils of early life and evolution.
It gives facts and information pertaining to the timelines, type and the formation of fossils.
7) Choose a second subfield of anthropology – cultural, linguistic, or archaeology. I chose Archaeology as my second subfield of anthropology.

8) Discuss how an anthropologist in this subfield would study evolution. Park defines archaeology as a subfield of anthropology that studies the past
culture of humans and reconstructs the past cultural systems that existed. He goes on to say that they study cultures and people that are no longer
living (Park, 2008). Archaeology reconstructs past cultural systems. Archaeology began as a method of

Permian Extinction
Over the course of its 4.5–billion–year history, the Earth has seen the rise and fall of many populations of organisms. However, in Earth's history,
there have been five big mass extinction events, characterized as "periods in Earth's history when abnormally large numbers of species die out
simultaneously or within a limited time frame." (BBC) These events are cataclysmic enough to wipeout at least 50% of all organisms living during that
period. The causes of mass extinction are many from the asteroids that sealed the fate of the dinosaurs to the volcanoes that choked out air to 96% of
the organismic population during the Permian extinction, however one of the most recent yet potent mechanisms of bringing upon a mass extinction
are humans. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the span of 50 years, the population of humans on this planet have reached all–time highs and continue to rise and with this rise comes the effects of
overpopulation. The planet cannot sustain so many people during such a short span of time. Not only is there a loss of space for new generations
of humans to live on, but there has been an excessive use of natural resources before there is a chance to replenish them such as food, natural gases,
and water. The problem of overpopulation seems to truly encompasses all other aspects of the factors leading to the sixth mass extinction such as
habitat loss and global warming. The population must be feed and because of this, million upon millions of acres of land once inhabited by a
whole ecosystem have been converted to farmland to provide food for the growing population. In addition, the increase in leads to an increase in
waste and therein arises a problem: where to put the waste. In the United States alone, "4.39 pounds of trash per day and up to 56 tons of trash per
year are created by the average person" Landfills seemed to be the perfect solution for this problem, however, over the years, "landfill managers have
been emphasizing just how quickly they are running out of space. The more people there are on the planet, the more waste is being produced. Some of
this waste is quite toxic, and even landfills which are

Non-Profit Organizations: Endangered No More (ENM)
There is an eye opening number of endangered and threatened species on planet earth. It is estimated there is a total of 41,415 species barely
surviving for numerous reasons. These endangered species include plants as well as animals. Failing to initiate action to help threatened and
endangered species would be blatantly absurd. Due to a prodigious grant I have received, I am now equipped to impact the world by creating a
non–profit organization called Endangered No More (ENM). To accomplish its main goals, to help raise awareness, and reduce the number of
endangered species, ENM will need to incorporate the many leadership skills and practices of exemplary leadership.
Caring is the first word that comes to mind when taking action on an issue. Although the average citizen might not know the number of species
struggling to survive, most people know at least a little about the leading causes of extinction; pollution, hunting and fishing, as well as the destruction
of habitat. Additionally, in our very own state of Colorado, the grey wolf, who is home... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The solution to saving endangered species is merely spreading the world of the drastic impact humans have. Through the leadership skills ENM
has applied, inspiring a shared vision and encouraging the heart current species will be saved and the future generations to come. Look at our world
today, could you imagine not seeing a lion in a zoo, or a wolf in the Rocky Mountains due to the fact that their populations spiraled into extinction.
That is what our world could look like if humans do not take into consideration their harmful effects on species. Exemplary leadership incorporates
the most prominent leadership skills to fulfill the goals of ENM, reduce the number of potential species that could go extinct by raising awareness
globally. The timeline between life and extinction for an amazing array of species is being held back by the forces of the ENM global

Primate Evolution Essay
Researchers have taken the Y–chromosome of higher primates including humans, and great apes (orangutans, chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas) and ran
analysis research. They have discovered that the X and Y chromosomes recombine only at the pseudo autosomal region (PAR), which is located at the
tip of one arm of X and Y chromosome respectively (Wimmer et al., 2005). They have also discovered that due to lack of recombination the
Y–chromosome goes through, there is a specific point in the gene where mutations accumulate (MSY) in almost all primates (Wimmer et al., 2005).
The DAZ gene was inserted into the Y–chromosome during the first wave of ampliconic transpositions, and since then has become an important
genetic marker for primate evolution ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Evidence supports that most likely, with male extinction comes primate extinction. This is because crucial maternal genes are sometimes activated
through males on their Y– chromosomes (Marvan et al., 2005). But there is still a possibility, as the loss of the Y–chromosome after relocation of the
SRY gene might prove successful for humans. However, evidence shows that when a Y–chromosome becomes functionless species are readily capable
to adapt to male–less conditions (Marvan et al., 2005). Studies of the Y–chromosome have shown the importance of mapping out its evolutionary
history in order to better understand why the Y–chromosome looks and functions the way it does. Its divergence outside of the monotremes showed
that primates have ancestral Y– chromosome relationships with earlier mammals that independently evolved from other sex chromosome. Similarly,
the variation of male specific genes, such as DAZ, display how significant the modification of the Y–chromosome truly can be. Its susceptibility to
evolutionary pressures such as mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection. a The Y–chromosome's potential for being preserved across lineages is
relatively high. Although, some mutation can occur occasionally during

Summary Of The Sixth Extinction By Elizabeth Kolbert
Elizabeth Kolbert is an award winning author known for her commentary on environmentalism. Much of her career has been focused on an analysis of
the history of environmental change, as well as discussing modern day environmental trends. Her latest novel, The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural
History focuses on placing what she terms "The Anthropocene Extinction" in the context of life's history. Through an analysis of the Big 5 extinctions
as well as of more isolated extinctions, Kolbert communicates that the definition of extinctions has evolved with human understanding. In the past,
renowned scientists have wavered between a catastrophist and uniformitarian stance. The catastrophist stance emerged with Georges Cuvier, a French
zoologist who ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, at times the long drawn out explanations could be easily simplified for a more fluid reading experience. The novel clearly communicates the
point that Kolbert wants to make, that the next extinction will be caused largely by a destructive and invasive species, humans. Immediately, Kolbert
introduces the topic by delving into the discoveries of pre–history and the concept of extinction. This provides a definition of a mass–extinction and the
framework needed to translate everyday extinctions into evidence of a larger problem. By citing several examples of disappearing species to human
environmental influence, Kolbert continuously ties each extinction back to humanity. For example, the Panamanian golden frogs were discovered to
contain a chytrid fungus which soon made it impossible for the golden frogs to exist in the natural world. It was believed the chytrid, "moved around
the globe with shipment of African clawed frogs" (Kolbert 18). She cites the effects of invasive species brought upon by "New Pangaea" (Kolbert
210) and global homogenization as a major threat to fragile ecosystems. Overall, the book provides compelling and fascinating evidence of the powerful
influence humanity has on the natural world, which while plentiful, can sometimes be overshadowed by unnecessarily descriptions of Kolberts

Change Over Time: The Extinction Of Mammals
Everything changes over time, due to multiple reasons yet things still change for a reasons. Mammals today aren't exactly the same as the mammals
250 million years ago. Mammals were barely classified their own group once the extinction of dinosaurs but scientist have evidence to believe
mammals have been around longer than the extinction of dinosaurs, approximately 150 million years before. In 2001, researchers reported that a
fossil was found in China in the year 1985. It was the remains of a tiny, furry animal that was believed to be a relative of the living mammals today.
Instead it didn't live in our time, but lived 195 million years ago in the Early Jurassic period. The small ancient mammal had the name of Hadrocodium
wui, and the

The Environmental Disasters Of The World And Living Things...
Pollution has plagued the world and living things within it since the industrial revolution and the development of new technology. While some people
might know the effects of the environmental disasters that have occurred through the years, other do not. Maya Lin created a collaborative memorial
to try to gear people's attention to the problems being faced in the environment. The collaborative memorial can easily be accessed by anyone who has
a computer and internet access. For example, the BP oil spill affected a great number of living things and marine animals, due to a human error and
the failure to clear up the problem efficiently. Another example is the Flint Water Crisis that caused innocent children to become deathly sick due to
the lack of necessary chemicals. Another example about pollution is the Great Smog of 1952, which occured London, the smog lasted for five days
and killed about 4,000 people. Most of the people that were affected by the smog were children, the elderly, and people with respiratory problems. The
memorial is meant to shine light on the living things that are going extinct around us and how we as humans have contributed to their extinction. Its
purpose is to evoke empathy, better understanding, guilt, sorrow, and even rage. By creating the memorial, everyone's eyes can be open to the
negative effects that our pollution has caused the world. The memorial also provides ways people can make a difference in the world where living
things are going

Theropod Teeth Essay
Six new species of dinosaurs have been found after researchers from the University of Alberta analyzed theropod teeth from eight regions in Spain.
A Study On Teeth Revealed Six New Dinosaurs of the Theropod Species
University of Alberta researchers have quadrupled the number of known dinosaur species in Spain from only two species to eight new dinosaurs
species. The research was conducted using 142 isolated theropod teeth from a part of the South Pyrenean Basin dated around the Late Cretaceous epoch.
The teeth analyzed in the study were from eight different localities in Spain, including TreviГ±o County, Huesca, Lerida, and LaГ±o. Though two
species of theropod were already known, the researchers happened across six additional species during their research on dinosaur evolution at the final
stages of the Cretaceous period.
The new species of theropod ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
More Teeth Means More Theropods For Researchers in Spain
Though the research was not initially to investigate the number of theropod species in the area, the sample of 142 isolated teeth revealed more species
than researchers could have imagined.
Through analysis, the study concluded that a total of six toothed theropod species had lived in the area, five of which had been small, while the last
one was large in comparison. Angelica Torices, lead author of the study from the University of Alberta, believes the importance of the discovery may
help lead paleontologists to better understand how the dinosaurs lived and what caused their extinction.
As no complete theropod skeletons have been revealed in Spain and the surrounding countries, paleontologists must rely on the smallest element
available to know the timeline of dinosaur evolution: theropod teeth.
Though teeth may seem to be rather small, Torices and the other researchers say the teeth are the key to reconstructing the dinosaurs lives, especially in
Europe during the Late Cretaceous

The Theory Of Fossils, Abstract Thinking, And Learning...
Entry Event: Have everyone in the class take their height measurements (or guesstimate depending on time). . And ask, "If you are under 4'11 sit
down, if you are under 5'1, sit down..." and so forth to a height that is relatively tall. The last person standing should be over six feet tall, if no one is,
everyone lost. Restart the game and ask, "If you are over six feet sit down..." and so forth until the height of 5 feet on the dot. If they are five feet or
shorter, than they have won this round. This shows adaption through traits that the students already have, such as height. Then, begin to talk about
adaptations. This unit would be fun and enjoyable to do because the involvement of fossils, abstract thinking, and learning about the natural world.
Explains the reasoning behind evolution and gives an understanding of the Earth's history and the history of the organisms in it.Activity 1: Draw back
to the ostrich and emu. Pick two species that are similar, but not the same, but share a common ancestor. Trace back their lineage to the best of your
ability and in a small keynote presentation explain their relationship
Activity 2: Talk about the time scale of earth and when life began to really pick up by creating a timeline of earth, and have a group discussion (with
notes) on why during certain time periods organism grew bigger, etc. Draw conclusions
Activity 3: Talk about the fossils. Fill a box around a few feet in area with sand or any other material that kind conceal items.

The Environmental Disasters Of The World And Living Things...
What is Missing?
Pollution has plagued the world and living things within it since the industrial revolution and the development of new technology. While some people
might know the effects of the environmental disasters that have occurred through the years, other do not. Maya Lin created a collaborative memorial
to try to gear people's attention to the problems being faced in the environment. The collaborative memorial can easily be accessed by anyone who has
a computer and internet access. For example, the BP oil spill affected a great number of living things and marine animals, due to a human error and
the failure to clear up the problem efficiently. Another example is the Flint Water Crisis that caused innocent children to become deathly sick due to
the lack of necessary chemicals. Another example about pollution is the Great Smog of 1952, which occurred in London, the smog lasted for five
days and killed about 4,000 people. Most of the people that were affected by the smog were children, the elderly, and people with respiratory
problems. The memorial is meant to shine light on the living things that are going extinct around us and how we as humans have contributed to their
extinction. Its purpose is to evoke empathy, better understanding, guilt, sorrow, and even rage. By creating the memorial, everyone's eyes can be open
to the negative effects that our pollution has caused the world. The memorial also provides ways people can make a difference in the world where living

Summary And Critique Of Twilight Of The Mammoths : Ice Age...
Summary and Critique of Twilight of the Mammoths: Ice Age Extinctions and the Rewilding of America
By Tajwar Rahman The reading by Paul S. Martin, Twilight of the Mammoths: Ice Age Extinctions and the Rewilding of America, explores the idea
that extinction is a phenomenon that could be explained by human arrival. Humankind has an impact on animal extinction. He says: "based on the
concept that animal populations could have sustained some additional predation, but not as much as took place after human arrival, this explanation
has come to be known as overkill "(Martin, 48). In this passage Martin is explaining that humans are predators and upon their arrival many animals
died. Martin also goes on to say that meteor strikes and climatic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He also refutes that a meteor wiped out the dinosaur population and the climate change plays a role in extinction. He concludes his article by saying
that people do not care about the animals that are already extinct therefore; there is not much investigation on extinct animals. He says people are more
concerned about animals that are danger in the present (Martin, 55). He goes on to say that: "our ignorance of, or indifference to, prehistoric
extinctions, we lack understanding of the natural riches of this planet, and that lack has narrowed our vision of how to plan for the future, especially in
America" (Martin, 57). He is basically saying that due to our lack of understanding, that humans are the cause of extinction, we cannot plan a future
without animal extinction. Martin wants to encourage people to be more aware of animal extinction and the causes for it. Although Martin is correct
in his observation that humans have a direct impact on extinction, he cannot refute the fact that meteors can cause extinction. His argument in regards
to dinosaur extinction was flawed. Martin argues that every child in the first grade knows that dinosaurs vanished 65 million years ago. However, there
is no evidence that there were humans on this Earth when dinosaurs existed so his whole argument becomes null. He cites factual inaccuracies in this

Fermi Alien Life
The idea of life in the Universe evokes different feelings in people. Some find the idea scary, some find it hopeful, and evidence of life elsewhere
would challenge the beliefs of many religious or spiritual people who believe that humans are created in another beings image. When you delve into
the thought of alien life, a few questions arise.. One idea comes from Enrico Fermi, who asked one day while sitting around with other physicists, if the
universe is so large and life has to be everywhere, where are they? Where are the intelligent beings that create machines to cross the expanse of the
Universe? I am personally indifferent to this question, because no matter what happens or what we find out about the universe in my lifetime, I don't
think it will be anything close to making contact with another intelligent civilization. I take this paradox with a grain of salt because even if ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Abiogenesis is the way life evolves from non–living matter, such as amino acids forming together to make some early forms of RNA. When it comes
to abiogenesis, there has to be an overlap of conditions to occur. Firstly, there is the AHZ, or the abiogenesis habitability zone that rests in the habitable
conditions of a planet. In the left diagram of Figure 3, the AHZ is shown to line up with the planetary conditions and life emerges but then becomes
extinct because the planetary conditions change to quickly for life to evolve. This Gaian bottleneck extinction can also happen slowly. Life can
regulate its environment, evolving and responding to the planets changes, keeping life going until the star it revolves burns up and liquids disappear.

Persuasive Essay On Evolution
Evolution has shaped many things into the way they are today, ranging from various animals to even parasites! However, to understand this, we must
know what evolution even is. Evolution is any change to the genetic composition of a population(Nova, xx). Evolution is not fixed or entirely random.
Through various tools like reading and comparing genetic codes, making phylogenetic trees, and observing physical traits, exploring and finding out
how homo sapiens have evolved is so interesting and easier than ever before! Homo sapiens have evolved from chimpanzees. In order for evolution
from chimpanzees to homo sapiens to happen, natural selection must take course. Natural selection is when "nature decides which organisms survive."
(Nova,n.d.). This happens through reproduction and variation. Consequently, there will be mutations in the organism's genetic code. This variation
usually is what helps the organisms to survive in different locations. Only the most reproductively successful will survive. For example, in a PBS
Learning Media course video, someone said that there was a theory that brown polar bears migrated to Antarctica, and they went through assorted
genetic mutations, and the bears who were able to survive became polar bears. To prove the natural selection between chimps and humans, we share
98% of our genetic code with chimpanzees. If we did not share 98% of our genetic code with them, we would have been further distantly related. In
addition to this, the

History Of Mass Extinction Essay
The History of Earth's Mass Extinctions
The four billion year history of earth has witnessed five mass extinctions, and some scientists believe that we are on the verge of the sixth.1[1] If we
are in the midst of the next mass extinction, we are in the very early stages of an evolving, and escalating process. The most recent, or fifth mass of the
extinctions occurred 65 million years ago at the boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. Images of an asteroid colliding with the planet,
decimating the dinosaur population have been in circulation since the early 80's.2[2] Being the most recent mass extinction, thousands of scientists
around the world have investigated it, and elementary school children are familiar with ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Experts have put together various theories about previous mass extinctions and their findings have led some to believe that we are in the early stages of
the sixth. One finding that has worried scientists throughout the world is the rate at which species of plants and animals have been going extinct.
Previous research had discovered that the number of species of birds around the world has been on a steady decline for some time.6[6] While this
detection did raise some red flags, it was not evidence that the next mass extinction had been launched.
While birds are abundant both in sheer population and number of species scientists needed to discover the decline of more than one selection of
animals. More than half of the detected species of animals on earth are insects.7[7] If scientists wanted substantial, tangible evidence that there was a
widespread decrease in animal populations and worldwide decrease in biodiversity, researching insects was the way to go. The results across the board
were not the least encouraging.
The populations of butterflies in Britain were at the forefront of the researchers' findings. Overall, 71 percent of the butterfly populations have
decreased in numbers and 3.4 percent of

The Sixth Extinction Summary
Panamanian golden frogs, the American mastodon, Neanderthals, coral reefs, and auks –– what do they have in common? They are all mentioned in
Elizabeth Kolbert's award–winning book, The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History. In The Sixth Extinction, Kolbert relates the findings of her
investigations into several extinctions recently reported, connecting them to several human activities such as habitat fragmentation and introducing
nonnative and invasive species, while also giving the readers various history lessons. She tells about her adventures in Panama saving endangered
frogs, visiting the island of the last two great auks known to man in Iceland, and even examining the fossilized teeth of an American mastodon in the
French National Museum of Natural History. She explains the concept of ocean acidification, and what humans are doing to help it along, as well as
the theory that humans bred with Neanderthals until they were no longer in existence. Kolbert ends on a hopeful note, saying that humans can change
their ways very easily and save many species from extinction; however, if we do not change, there very well might be another mass extinction soon
approaching. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The chapter lists all sorts of species of frogs, and in order to get a better grasp on their appearance, I would look up images on the internet. I probably
spent about a day stuck on the first chapter because I was too preoccupied in looking at pictures of frogs. That was my favorite part of the book, but I
also thought the chapter on mastodons was interesting because it combined history and paleontology with her own experience with looking at the
molars and ultimately relating it back to (possible) human–induced

Leo Tolstoy Wise Thoughts For Every Day Analysis
Oftentimes, examining any individual's can provide insight into what makes up the person's worldview and, more importantly, allows us to receive a
glimpse of the given individual's worldview. As I lay down my personal beliefs in regards to significant philosophical questions on the table, my only
hope is that my worldview is at least mildly grasped and understood.
One question that I have continuously pondered for quite some time is the following question: do we, as humans, exist within the same plane of
existence? In clarifying what I mean by plane of existence, I mean that my fellow humans and I are locked within the same specific time frame with the
respective timelines unique to our lives. Are my fellow humans and I experiencing the same ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The law of conservation of mass, accredited to both Mikhail Lomonosov and Antoine Lavoisier, states that the mass of a given system, our body
qualifying as a system, must remain constant over time. Therefore, when our bodies go through the process of decay we, in essence, remain a part of
the earth and there is an afterlife. This afterlife being a distinctly different afterlife, or at least slightly so, than what is believed in the Judeo–Christian
tradition. Is remaining as a necessary part of life on earth considered an afterlife? I would say no because that specific thought process plays into what
Tolstoy describes as "the end of something insignificant" (For Every Day, April 29th, entry 1). Returning to the ground merely reiterates the views of
the non–religious communities, which stress the idea that life is the only shot we get. Most sects of Judaism and Christianity don't hold this view of
the afterlife, some even blatantly disregard it, and I plan to discuss what their specific views are, being a subscriber to the Christian

Mass Extinction
Extinction is the end of an organism or group of taxa. Extinctions occur when a species becomes unfit for survival in its natural habitat usually to be
replaced by another, better–suited species. An organism becomes ill–suited for survival because its environment is changed or because its relationship
to other organisms is altered as stated from Credo Reference. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of
that particular species. Mass extinctions, however, are rare events that only happen every few million years. Only recently have these events been
recorded and scientist have become alarmed at these recent extinctions. Most extinctions aren't even documented and some predict that most of ... Show
They believe that a large asteroid was the cause of Cretaceous' mass extinction. A large crater was found in the Caribbean Sea near the Yucatan
Peninsula of Mexico, which is about 65 million years old. (Campell)
A large impact from an asteroid like this would cause global darkness from the amounts of dust sent into the air. This dust would stop photosynthesis
for plants which in all would affect every source of live in the area (Thomas). This darkness would also cause the area to cool which could also kill
off organisms. Another would be an impact from a comet, such as the comet that exploded above southeastern Siberia in 1908 (Thomas). The last
factor is a Supernova explosion, which isn't the case for earth since there is no evidence that this influenced life on earth.
The consequences of mass extinctions affect biological diversity greatly. By removing large numbers species, this could reduce thriving and complex
communities. These events are random and effect species greatly, permanently removing species with highly advantageous features and change the
course of evolution forever. Whenever extinctions occur, a trickledown effect can occur. An example of this could be how a certainplant may go extinct,
and a worm eats that plant.
That worm would eventually die out because of the food source being gone. A bird would also be affected by this since it can't eat that worm which
is his only food source. The fossil record shows that it typically takes 5 to 19 million

Why Aliens Exist Research Paper
Aliens are not just for sci–fi movies and the imaginary dreamlands of UFO enthusiasts, they are a very real possibility with the reality of possible
dangers that could occur with the introduction of a non–earth species from another universe. Astronomers and fiction fans alike have been curious
about the possible circumstances around which alien populations exist mere light–years away. Of the many popular theories is that an alien population
exists, and it is slowly conquering and colonize earth–like inhabitable planets along the universe from galaxy to galaxy. This theory obviously involves
a quite advanced alien population, who have surpassed the knowledge we have accumulated here on earth, in order for them to be able to travel at
speeds fast enough to travel through the universe and survive the journey. Two US–Based astronomers believe that even if these civilizations exist,
inviting them with open arms is not an adequate plan. The basic differences in biology could breed a multitude of diseases and even worse plagues
like the black death. The article references the analogy of Europeans coming to the Americas in the 1500s and how their contact with the native people
was horrendous for the health of the indigenous. Kipping and Teachey from Columbia university believe that a similar outcome would fall upon the
Earth if an entirely different... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Though this is not exactly a kid in his backyard pointing a laser into the eyes of an airline pilot, these lasers will need a lot more energy, requiring a
continuous 30–MegaWatt laser for about 10 hours for one day every year. They believe the usage of this mega laser would cloak the biosignature of
the Earth from universe probing

What Is Ocean Chacterification
Ocean Acidification and the Permian–Triassic Extinction Event
Ocean Acidification
In current times, as we consider ways to inhibit CO2 emissions, we look towards the Earth's natural carbon sinks as possible solutions. Carbon sinks an
environment that can hold onto carbon chemicals for an indefinite time with the act of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere defined as carbon
sequestration. The Oceans are one of them. However, when the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide elevates in a short period of time, this can lead
to Ocean Acidification, the phenomena where the dissolution of excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere leads to the lowering of ocean pH
(Greene, et al., 2012).
When carbon dioxide reacts with water, becoming carbonic acid, it loses a proton to bicarbonate and then dissociates again resulting in two hydrogen
ions and a carbonate molecule. This increases the acidity of the ocean as the concentration of hydrogen is increasing, resulting in a lower pH. The
heightened concentration of hydrogen ions results in lowered seawater pH levels. In addition to elevated dissolved carbon ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Proxy data is preserved physical characteristics of the environment that can stand in for direct measurements. Some of this data includes ice cores,
tree rings, coral reefs, and ocean sediments. For example, corals build their bodies with calcium carbonate that contains trace metals and isotopes of
oxygen that can be used to determine the temperature of the water the corals grew in. Therefore, Past Ocean Acidification is often inferred from a
decrease in the accumulation & preservation of Calcium Carbonate in marine sediments, possibly indicated by an increased degree of fragmentations
of foraminiferal shells because geochemical proxy observations are still lacking (Green, et al.,

Persuasive Essay On Endangered Animals
Almost all living things have a cycle or a system which they are part of. Most species depend upon each other. "The U.S. for service like parts of the
human body, to make functioning hole." That basically means like a human body to work together with all of its organs humans need animals to work
together that way we can all survive. Should we prevent excessive hunting and poaching to help our environment and the fate of the human existence. I
think the answer is yes! Saving most of these endangered species have become crucial.
In 2003, the Canadian government officially designated Atlantic Cod as an endangered and threatened species. In the 15th century Atlantic Cod has
been a dietary and economic Mainstay. This Cod also helps sustain human life along the Canadian coast as well as marine life. A 2010 reassessment of
the fish stocked by Canadian government determine Cod population have diminished to the extent they say are predicted to experience or irreparable
harm. Another example of endangered species would be the polar bear. This species has become endangered due to the effects of global warming
because of the result of these greenhouse gases getting trapped in the utmost atmosphere it is burning the fossil fuels because the ice caps are
shrinking, so a re the inhabited areas for polar bears. Fewer polar bears mean more seals (which the polar bear eats) which would turn into fewer fish.
10,000 seals weighing 500 lb can eat 350,000 lb of fish per day. "LUJAN

Persuasive Essay On Climate Change
One topic that biologists are most interested in is the patterns of life on Earth. One of the ultimate questions for a biologist to answer is how do new
species arise, and for what reasons do they disappear? Biologists all over the world are searching for answers regarding the rapidly diminishing
amounts, and in some cases, extinction of many of Earth's species. Scientists are coming out with results that show current anthropogenic climate
change is the main culprit for Earth's continuing loss of biodiversity. With estimations showing future continuing rapid decreases and losses in
biodiversity, climate change is likely leading Earth into its sixth mass extinction. Across history there have been many cycles of change in Earth's
climate, whether it be cooling or warming, but today's climate change differs greatly. Humans have influenced the environment so greatly that we are
experiencing anthropogenic climate change. The combination of human activities such as habitat destruction, overfishing, and pollution has multiplied
the problem and is causing a startling decline in Earth's biodiversity. Biodiversity, the totality of Earth's species, ecosystems, and genetic diversity, is at
great risk if temperatures keep increasing. If global warming passes approximately 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, the IPCC concludes that of the species
assessed, 20–30 percent will have a high risk of extinction during the next century (Pearson 19). Many of Earth's species will find it difficult to keep

Genetic Engineering: Brave New World
Genetic engineering has been around for many years and is widely used all over the planet. Many people don't realize that genetic engineering is part
of their daily lives and diet. Today, almost 70 percent of processed foods from a grocery store were genetically engineered. Genetic engineering can be
in plants, foods, animals, and even humans. Although debates about genetic engineering still exist, many people have accepted due to the health
benefits of gene therapy. The lack of knowledge has always tricked people because they only focused on the negative perspective of genetic
engineering and not the positive perspective. In this paper, I will be talking about how Genetic engineering is connected to Brave New World, how the
history of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to the article Is GE food safe? "The reason that genetically engineered food could be dangerous is because there has been no adequate
testing to ensure that extracting genes that perform an apparently useful function as part of that plant or animal is going to have the same effects if
inserted into a totally unrelated species," (Shah). These concerns don't only warn people about genetically modified foods, but also about genetically
modified human beings because this technique changes all the cells of the human baby and would be passed down to future generations. Experts fear
these consequences due to the lack of safety testing which is very important because it can detect any unintended side effects from GE foods and babies.
Like any technology, genetic engineering offers benefits as well as potential risks. Genetic engineering can negatively affect human health as well as
environmental impacts. For example, genetic engineering can cause allergic reactions or even create new ones. According to the article, Genetically
Engineered foods, "Modified organisms may interbreed with natural organisms and out–compete them, leading to extinction of the original organism or
to other unpredictable environmental effects," ("Genetically engineered foods: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia"). Genetically engineering can
cause this environmental problem directly because an engineered

The Butterfly Effect: The Phylogenetic Tree
The butterfly effect explains a chaotic scenario in which a small event can cause a larger scale event in the future. The metaphor uses butterflies, to
describe how if a butterfly did not flap their wings at a specific time in one location, the tornado in another location far away would not have happened.
This idea in theory, although it explains a physics–based situation, it may pose the question, how exactly did the butterfly get those wings? Scientists
have recently formulated a complete phylogenetic tree that showcases more than 200 species of butterflies and their evolutionary history and relation
to other butterflies. It is because of this completed evolutionary chart that scientists are now able to trace back when and how the butterflies we see
today are what they are. A phylogenetic tree is a scientific blueprint that allows someone to look back at a particular species past and locate the time
in which they gained certain features, as well as evolved into an entirely new sister taxon. A taxa, the plural of taxon, is the specific category, such as a
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Meaning, within the evolutionary tree there are various ant symbols next to certain species. In ecosystems, butterflies act as environmental controllers,
depending and dependent on other species. In regards to the ant species, there is a symbiotic relationship in which the butterfly larvae produces a nectar
for the ants and in return the ants protect the larvae from predators. The relationship between ant and butterfly provides evolutionary changes
throughout the species as in some areas the larvae are without the ant protection, thus needing to be protected through other means causing a shift in
evolutionary characteristics. Furthermore, scientists were also able to begin the study on whether there is a relationship between plants and the evolution
of butterflies, using the now complete

The Earth 's 4.6 Billion Years Of Existence
Throughout the Earth's 4.6 billion years of existence, there have been multiple events that mark geographical changes as well as biological changes.
Each massive event, (such as a mass extinction) marks the beginning of an eon. An example of an eon is the Hadean eon and the Archean eon. Next
are eras, which represents smaller events such as the Paleozoic era. Next are periods which are even smaller such as the Cambrian period. Finally the
epochs are the smallest time classifications which subdivide a period such as the Oligocene epoch.
The Archean eon (the second eon chronologically) spanned from 4 to 2.5 billion years ago, and is known as ancient life (The Hadean Eon) Also, the
eon is subdivided up into four separate eras: Eoarchean, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is what caused a completely iron core and a mantle full of silicate material. (Stanley 255). The atmosphere was mostly built on hydrogen and
helium (Lutgens and Tarbuck). It was at this time that theearth began to separate into its' know known layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core
(Lutgens and Tarbuck).
After several millions of years, the atmosphere started to cool down and provided the production of the first continental crust (Lutgens and Tarbuck).
This event took place about 3.96 billion years ago, and the cooling down of the atmosphere marks the beginning of the Eoarchean era (Lutgens and
Tarbuck). During this timeline, island arcs started to form, and after a long period of time these islands collided with each other because of subduction
(Lutgens and Tarbuck). Due to these collisions, the smaller islands became larger land masses and later became the foundations for a continent
(Lutgens and Tarbuck).
Another aspect of the Archean Eon that is important was the formation of Earth's atmosphere and oceans (Lutgens and Tarbuck). Earth's oceans formed
from volcanic discharges of water vapor (Lutgens and Tarbuck). Due to the cooling of the Earth, the water vapor condensed at the surface and then
formed into liquid water (Lutgens and Tarbuck). The salts that are found in the seawater today are from eroded sediments and

The Role Of NASA In Esa's Exomar Rover
The discovery of water on Mars and traces of it on the moon has caused many scientists and people to become thrilled. The evidence of water in other
planets is hope for the possibility of life too. NASA is planning to send a rover over to Mars in 2020, to find any evidence of life (NASA In ESA's
ExoMars Rover). The ExoMars Rover will be able to identify chemicals present in the atmosphere and in rocks and provide evidence for questions
such as the existence of life on the Red planet (NASA In ESA's ExoMars Rover). Mars is one of the millions of planets that scientific community is
hoping to finds signs of life on. The news of life on a different planet would momentous for people worldwide. It would be a discovery that would clear
up several ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Search for Extra–Terrestrial Intelligence(SETI) has been searching for life for more than fifty years and have yet to find anything (Waldrop
442). SETI has ran on $2.5 million annual costs from powerful telescopes to hundreds of dishes worldwide and have managed to find no signs of other
life forms (Waldrop 444). The search of life outside of Earth remains to be unanswered and now many ask, where are they? Through SETI's large
budget and expensive equipment the possibility of life on other planets becomes very slim. However, the lack of evidence for any possible forms
of life does not justify the possibility of life forming in other unobservable places. The possibilities of life formation in other solar systems can be
countless. In "Where Are They?," Nick Bostrom states that there are over 100 billion galaxies in what we can observe of the universe and our
galaxy alone has 100 billion stars (Bostrom 2). This alone provides the reason to believe that somewhere in our observable universe there are many
planets with similar conditions and probability of life forming. It took Earth approximately 3.5 billion years to allow life to form that started with
single celled prokaryotes to humans (Bostrom 3). The prokaryotes only formed after earth provided an ideal state in which life could be formed. It
is also known that many of the galaxies contain stars and planets much older than ours (Bostrom 2). This gives endless amounts of time frames in
which life of began in galaxies far way or nearby. The points of evolution become countless within each galaxy, yet the visibility of technological life
civilizations like ours is nowhere to be seen. This means there is something preventing these civilizations from passing our current level of civilization.
This known as the Great Filter, a theory, in which specific steps are prevented in the timeline of the evolution of

Dinosaurs Extinction
You're on a weekend adventure at the Omaha Zoo. Your hopes are high to regard the roaring lions, see the sea lions, and look at the lush plant life
throughout the zoo. However, as you look around, you realize that the animal enclosures are barren:wastelands of cement and trash. Then you see a
small sign that reads, "Extinct." You discover that ninety–five percent of animal and plant life that were once main attractions of the zoo no longer
encompass the earth. Extinction is a reality that faces us today, and it is becoming even more prevalent as we progress into the future. Extinction might
seem like a far–off problem for [Noah's flood joke?] science fiction to deal with, but it isn't; and it is important to know how and why extinction
happens in our world today. Human beings play a larger role in extinctions that what might be obvious at first glance: examining extinctions of the past
and present allows us to predict our own potential demise.
As Queen said... AOBTD
As far as extinctions of the past go, dinosaurs are the best known example of worldwide devastation of a single species. The origin of the dinosaur
destruction that marks the end of the Cretaceous era is a scientific enigma. Although scientists are uncertain of the exact cause of this mass extinction,
according to columnist Ker Than in a 2013 issue of National Geographic, there are just a few viable hypotheses. One point scientists are sure on, is
that the reason for this mass extinction event is a natural

Disappearing Machiya
3.1 Disappearing Machiya Due to ageing of the building, the number of Machiya are decreasing year by year and facing the possibility of
extinction today. Expensive maintenance costs for owners and stricter disaster or fire prevention regulations in japan are also big concerns. Since the
Japanese economy started receding about 15 years ago, existence of Machiya are in the crucial states are this has in turn affecting Kyoto city in its
historical and traditional factors. According to a survey conducted in 2003, more than 50% of matey residents stated that finical problem is the
impacting seriously on maintaining a Machiya. Between 1996 and 2003, about 13% of Machiya were destroyed. Over 80% of existing Machiya have
lost some of their distinct... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It was built circa 1935 and had been empty for the last ten years. It is composed of the original structure (omoya) and a first–floor extension to the
south and west sides circa 1965–80. The particular L–shaped addition created a novel linkage between the omoya and garden which would rarely be
seen in a newly–built house, effectively capturing the "timeline" of the house. Machiya can never be built again under Japan's current law, since the
construction of new Machiya is prohibited since end of World War II. Thus, restoration of historic machiya is only way for Japanese carpenters and
craftsmen to maintain a link with a rich building tradition. The restorations began when groups of concerned citizens from Kyoto called for efforts to
protect the matey and to create positive motivational influences for their preservations. Machiya in Kyoto were included on the World Monuments
Watch in 2010 and 2012 to focus attention on these local

Persuasive Essay On Endangered Animals
Endangered animals are species that are in danger of extinction. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, they are 7 categories
that gauge their status. These 7 are extinct, extinct in wild, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, near threatened, and least concern. Contrary
to popular belief, these endangered species exist not only in Africa, but all around the world. We all are affected by this catastrophe. Jennifer Bove puts
it perfectly in her article titled "Why It Matters When Species Go Extinct" by saying "Like pieces of yarn in a woven tapestry, the removal of one can
start unraveling the whole system." She is saying that if an animal is lost due to endangerment, there is always going to be a repercussion that effects
the whole ecosystem, or in her words, tapestry. With De–extinction, the problem is nullified in general. By developing the species through replacing
the nucleus in the host's unfertilized animal egg with the nucleus of a somatic cell of the species presented, we can produce a solution to the problem
of endangered species. I am applying to The Natural Conservancy grant to conduct research on the method of de–extinction and the effect it will have
on endangered animals and conservation efforts.
Many biologists and ecologists have been trying to find a solution to the problem of endangered animals for some time now. Some say the best way to
solve this problem is with drones that monitor the movements of animals. Others

Extinction Of Dinosaurs Extinction
The extinction of dinosaurs could have been caused by many different things. One main reason that is thought around the world is that dinosaurs went
extinct because an asteroid fell onto earth at speeds that are too fast for the human mind to even imagine. This idea was thought when and asteroid
crater was found near mexico. Also to support the facts many scientist found traces of rare metal onto the earth's surface. This metal is not very
common here but is really common in outer space. Today we will be looking at why these huge creatures died of the face of the planet in just a matter
of months.
One reason, these greatebeastes were exterminated was that they alter the asteroid hit the ground a huge ball of dust and debris was sent into the earth.
This dust covered the earth in just a matter of hours. This was crucial to their extinction because the sun was blocked plants did not receive and sun
light and herbivorous ( plant eating animals) could not get any food from the plants because most of the plants died. This was just one of the first
reasons that the dinosaur race was wiped of this earth. You may ask how big the asteroid had to be, well put it into perspective the asteroid was about
the size of 110 empire state buildings and had the weight of 211,000 empire states buildings put together. This asteroid was the biggest asteroid to ever
hit earth that we know of. This big of a hit throw 70 billion tons of soot out of the earth and that dust polluted the skies. If

Argument Synthesis Essay
In the article, the Burning Question, the issue of biomass energy via wood pellets was brought to question. This subject has deeply divided scientists,
primarily from the chemistry and environmental science disciplines, economists, and politicians. Currently the use of wood pellets for energy, under
the European Union, is classified as a carbon–neutral fuel. The argument for this designation lies in the regeneration of trees to take up the carbon
released from burning past trees. However, many scientists call foul, basing their argument on the substantial lag period between burning trees and the
regeneration of them. This period has led many to worry that such actions will worsen the current global warming crisis. Biomass energy plants produce,
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I did know that, especially in the United States, wood pellets were an increasingly common fuel for winter heating. I was not aware that pellets
were also being used for the creation of electricity in Europe, but I suppose the two are quite similar. I did find the argument quite interesting;
however, it was a quite similar one to that of many environmental vs. economic gain based arguments before. What I did find intriguing, though,
was how the data, timeline, numbers, and conclusion could differ so vastly based on which side of the argument a scientist was on. So, I guess
what I learned from this article was that there is an emerging international wood pellet trade; however, the arguments are similar to those that I
have been previously exposed to, with this argument being slightly more in depth. Two things that were not discussed in this article, which I think
are pretty crucial, were that wood pellets are a form of renewable energy, if maintained responsibly, and that the ash from the wood pellets,
depending on their temperature of combustion, can be used as fertilizer on fields. My personal view on this topic is in favor of the use of wood
pellet fired power plants as long as the harvest of timber is highly managed with programs for reforestation. However, I am opposed to the designation
of wood pellets as a carbon neutral fuel. The substantial lag period of over 40 years and the augmented production

Extinction Of Dinosaurs Research Paper
The extinction of the dinosaurs has caused great controversy all over the world. There are many theories of how they were killed, such as; an asteroid
impact, volcanic activity, climate change, and eggs that took too long to hatch. Their extinction allowed humans to rule the Earth in their place. One of
the most widely accepted theories is the asteroid. In section 5, "Death of the Dinosaurs", of a book written by Donald Prothero, he states that, "By
1990, the debate was no longer whether the impact occurred–that was clearly established" (Prothero). An article in TIME magazine states that, "About
66 million years ago, a six–mile wide (10 km) asteroid struck the coastline of the Yucatan peninsula" (Kluger). This theory was created in 1978... Show
An article from Florida State University states that, "Groundbreaking research led by a Florida State University professor establishes a timeline of
anywhere from three to six months depending on the dinosaur" (How). For a long time, scientists thought that it took 11–85 days for a dinosaur egg to
hatch. They thought this because it is similar to the birds' incubation time, and birds are very similar to the dinosaurs. Gregory Erickson, the Professor
of Biological Science at Florida State University, discovered that it actually takes three to six months for the eggs to hatch.
Erickson and his team of researchers first found dinosaur embryo fossils. The article ,released by Florida State University, says, "Erickson and his team
ran the embryonic jaws through a CT scanner to visualize the forming dentition. Then, they extracted several of the teeth to further examine them under
sophisticated microscope" (How). The teeth gave the team evidence of how long the dinosaurs were developing. The same article states that, "Growth
lines on the teeth showed researchers precisely how long the dinosaurs had been growing in the eggs"

The World 's Terrifying Impact On Earth Justifies New...
"Humanity's terrifying impact on Earth justifies new Anthropocene epoch" is the title of an article published in the Guardian newspaper in October
2014, the purpose of this essay is to assess if this statement was and is true. The geologic timescale comprises of Eons, Eras, Periods, Epochs and
Ages, all of which fit into each other with Eon being the largest. Key geological events in the life of the planet are used to mark the transition from
one of these chapters to another. Fig 1 has been created to illustrate where we currently are in the geological timescale and the dates and events that
led us here. Fig 1: Where we are today – based on the Geologic Timescale (ICS 2016) Eon – long period of time Era – major division of geological
time Period – unit of geological time during which a system of rocks formed Epoch – unit of geological time that is a subdivision of a period Age –
subdivision of geologic time that divides an epoch into smaller parts Subdivisions of the Holocene have not been agreed; Early, Middle and Late
Sub–series/Sub–epochs have been proposed, Journal of Quaternary Science (2012). Fig 2: Units in stratigraphy and geochronology As well as the
units for the geologic timescale there are also units for stratified rock (time–rock units) as shown in Fig 2 and defined in Fig 3. There have been
proposals since 1990 (Zalasiewicz et al 2004) that the distinctions between these timescales is now redundant with the introduction of Global Stratotype
Sections

A Study Of Microbial Theory
Traditionally, the study of microbial model systems in ecology has been limited, although the advent of molecular tools such as next generation
sequencing has advanced the understanding of microbial community patterns and processes. This has resulted in a growing focus on studying
fundamental ecological processes such as assembly and stability on microbial communities (Fierer, Ferrenberg, Flores, et al., 2012). Because of their
simplicity, microbial model systems are in contrast with the complexity of the macro–ecological communities, allowing researchers to establish and test
fundamental ecological mechanisms relevant to macro–ecological processes (Jessup, Kassen, Forde, et al., 2004). However, the current focus of
microbial ecology is on characterizing simple community properties such as alpha & beta diversity, relative abundance, and phylogenetic or taxonomic
overlap (Baberan, Casamayor & Fierer, 2011). Here, we aim to move past species inventories and abundance data towards understanding species
interactions using a network approach, allowing us to characterize the ubiquitous building blocks of pharynx community common to all subjects of our
study. Like macro–communities, fundamental ecological processes such as niche selection, dispersal or drift, play part in the formation and stability of
the human microbiome. By using microbial communities as model systems, characterizing their ecological properties, assembly mechanisms and
community dynamics, we can gain deeper

Analysis Of Elizabeth Kolbert's The Sixth Extinction
"In pushing other species to extinction, humanity is busy sawing off the limb on which it perches" (The Sixth Extinction, 268). This powerful quote, by
Stanford ecologist Paul Ehrlich, accurately sums up the main message conveyed in Elizabeth Kolbert's most recent and most successful book, The Sixth
Extinction: An Unnatural History. Elizabeth Kolbert is an experienced journalist and author who is currently working as a "staff writer at The New
Yorker." While Elizabeth Kolbert has written on a variety of topics across her vast career, she is most notorious for her articles and books that discuss
various environmental issues, particularly ones involving climate change. Several of her articles and books the environment have even won ... Show
This extinction event has been dubbed the "Sixth Extinction" by many catastrophists (scientists who study mass extinction events) and is considered
to have the disastrous potential to wipe out the majority or all of life on Earth: including humans. One of the reasons why Kolbert was able to
effectively convey this message to her readers is because her book exposes her readers to several environmental problems that are relatively unknown
to the general public, by using several first–hand accounts of her visits to several fragile and diverse ecosystems across the world, where the effects of
climate change and other environmental issues can be visibly observed to be taking a significant toll on local biodiversity.
An example of this in The Sixth Extinction can be seen when Elizabeth Kolbert discusses the major environmental impacts caused through the
intentional or accidental introduction of invasive alien species to new environments. According to the Convention on Biological Diversity, a treaty
created by the United Nations Environment Programme, an invasive alien species is any introduced species that has established itself in a foreign
ecosystem and "is an agent of change [that] threatens native biological diversity" where it has been introduced. Even though the introduction of
non–native species is a major problem across the globe, most people are largely unaware of its effects. When the issue of invasive species is brought up
in The Sixth Extinction,

The Sixth Extinction Chapter Summary: An Unnatural History

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