1. LNG Export Terminals: Dominant Noise Source Estimate &
Mitigation Measures
Ankit Chadhaa)
Prakash Ramdossb)
Office of Chief Engineer, CB&I
Two Riverway, Houston Texas 77056
In North America, several LNG export terminals are being developed to liquefy and export
domestically produced natural gas. The liquefaction process requires large mechanical
equipment, such as centrifugal compressors; air cooled heat exchangers; gas turbines;
pumps and electric motors etc. Additional equipment such as pressure control valves, vent
systems and flare systems are also required to ensure safe operation. Community noise
levels from LNG terminals in the United States are regulated by the Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission (FERC), which stipulates a not-to-exceed A-weighted decibel limit
of 55 (dBA) (Lday-night) at the nearest residential receptor. The engineering contractors and
owners are typically tasked with conducting noise impact assessment studies to ensure that
the facility operates in accordance with FERC noise criteria. The objective of this paper is
to educate the reader in assessing noise propagation from an LNG export terminal by
identifying the major equipment, discussing modeling methodology and providing an
overview of practical mitigation measures. Benefits of noise mitigation measures have to be
weighed against practical feasibility before arriving at the appropriate solution. This paper
also provides a source order ranking contribution to identify the dominant far-field noise
contributors.
1 INTRODUCTION
Natural gas when cooled to −260 °F (−162 °C) converts into liquefied natural gas (LNG).
The liquefaction process reduces the volume by a factor of 1/600 and makes storage and
transportation more cost-effective. Several LNG1
export terminals have been proposed and are
currently being developed in USA. An LNG project can be approved for production if a permit
application can demonstrate that project operations do not create any adverse environmental
a)
email: achadha@cbi.com
b)
email:pramdoss@cbi.com

2. impacts. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) stipulates environmental permits
associated with the LNG export terminals in USA.
FERC2
requires that the noise contribution level from the LNG export terminal shall not exceed
55 dBA (Lday-night) or 48.6 dBA (Leq) at the nearest noise sensitive area (NSA). In-plant noise
levels are regulated by the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) and are
commonly referred to as 85 dBA noise limit in the industry. It is important to understand the
distinction between in-plant and far-field noise criteria. A facility satisfying the in-plant noise
criteria may not necessarily meet the far-field community noise limits (and vice-versa) unless the
noise mitigation measures were specifically designed to reduce the noise propagation in the far-
field. The Project Owners have to submit a detailed noise mitigation plan during the Front End
Engineering Design (FEED) stage to demonstrate far-field noise compliance with the FERC
noise limit. The Owners rely on noise impact assessment studies conducted by the engineering,
procurement and construction (EPC) contractors.
It is the responsibility of the EPC contractor to develop a complete model for the facility based
on their previous project experience. During initial stages, complete information is typically not
available, which could result in a lower estimate of noise. For example, preliminary estimation of
noise from compressor piping may not be adequate. Piping sources are different from other
equipment packages for (2) two reasons: 1) no vendor data is available for the piping sources; 2)
sound power level estimates have to be based on approximate length and diameter for the piping.
It is essential for the Owners to review the noise impact assessment studies during the review of
EPC bid packages. An incomplete estimation of sound power level could not only result in
additional mitigation costs but could also impact the compliance during the post-startup noise
test, required by FERC within the first 60 days of commissioning completion. The objective of
this paper is twofold: 1) to identify the dominant noise sources that could impact the community
noise levels; and 2) to provide recommendations about practical noise mitigation measures.
2. DOMINANT NOISE SOURCES & PRACTICAL MITIGATION MEASURES
A LNG Train can consist of several process areas such as: Pretreatment, Acid Gas Removal,
Dehydration, Heavies Removal, Liquefaction, Storage and Loading. Each process area utilizes
mechanical equipment such as Air Cooled Heat Exchangers, Centrifugal Compressors, Gas
Turbine Drivers and other noisy equipment. The capacity rating of mechanical equipment is
dependent upon the production capacity and the liquefaction technology selected for the project.
The Air Product’s proprietary propane precooled mixed refrigerant process (AP-C3MR)3
is the
most common process used in the LNG industry. In C3-MR cycle, natural gas is dried and pre-
cooled to about -35 ºC by using propane. After pre-cooling, the natural gas passes through the
main cryogenic heat exchanger where it is further liquefied and sub-cooled between -150 ºC to -
162 ºC by using a mixed refrigerant. This paper provides sound power level estimates of the
major equipment and practical noise mitigation measures for an LNG train with 4-5 MTPA
production capacity based on the C3MR process. Large centrifugal compressors are used for the
refrigerant compressors and air cooled heat exchangers are used to provide cooling. This section
presents the sound power level estimates and practical noise mitigation measures for the major
equipment.

3. 2.1 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
The air cooled heat exchangers (ACHE), also referred as Fin-Fans and are one of the most
dominant noise sources in LNG export terminals. Selection of air cooled heat exchangers is a
critical decision as their performance directly impacts the LNG production. The ACHEs are
primarily used to remove heat during liquefaction process, i.e., refrigeration, cooling and
condensation. The process streams flow through tubes and the fan pulls/pushes ambient air
around the tubes.
Noise Generation: ACHEs have four main sources of noise generation: fan, drives, motor, and
structural vibrations. Noise from air cooled heat exchangers depends upon the fan tip speed, fan
diameter, input power, pitch angle and tip clearances. The high elevation of air cooled heat
exchangers (40’–55’) further contributes to the noise propagation in far-field.
Expected Sound Power Levels: An LNG train of 4-5 MTPA production capacity can have
approximately 250-300 fans (6’-12’ diameter) with a usual arrangement of 2-3 fans per bay. Fan
sound power levels are specified based on the far-field project noise criteria and can vary
depending upon the proximity of nearest NSA location. Typically, low-noise fans are specified
with a sound power level of 93-98 dBA per fan. Assuming a total of 250 fans per LNG train,
total sound power level for the air cooled heat exchangers is expected to range between 117-122
dBA.
Practical Mitigation Measures: Practical Noise Mitigation Measures for air cooled heat
exchangers include: selecting a low-noise fan or a design with an aerodynamic profile; limiting
the fan tip speed below 7800 feet/minute (40 meter/second) or lower; and using V-belts instead
of T-belts. In case of highly stringent noise criteria, super low-noise fans can also be considered.
Note that use of low-noise and super low-noise fans could potentially impact the plot plan and
should be addressed early. The cost factor for a super low-noise fan can be approximately 4-6
times the cost of a standard fan assembly.
Noise from air cooled heat exchangers can be divided in two categories: inlet and discharge.
Discharge noise can be attenuated either by a discharge silencer or a barrier wall on top of the
fan deck – both these options also improve air circulation by separating the hot discharge air
from the inlet air. A combination of these mitigation measures can provide a total reduction of
10-15 dBA from the standard fan option.
Two additional noise mitigation measures that can also provide noise reduction but could
potentially impact the LNG production include: Variable speed drives (VSDs) to lower the fan
speeds; and use of acoustical baffles to reduce inlet noise.
2.2 Centrifugal Compressors
LNG export terminals use large centrifugal compressors for refrigeration. These large
compressors are driven by either a gas-turbine driver or an electric motor. The large centrifugal
compressors are typically the Propane and Mixed Refrigerant Compressors, other centrifugal
typically compressors include: Residue Gas Compressors, Regeneration Compressors, and Boil-

4. off Gas Compressors etc. Regeneration and BOG compressors can be reciprocating compressors
as well.
Noise Generation: In a centrifugal compressor, noise is generated by turbulence at the
compressor blades/impellers and is radiated by the compressor casing. Noise is broadband with
peaks corresponding with the blade passing frequencies. This interior noise travels into the
suction and discharge piping and is radiated through pipe casing. The estimation of
suction/discharge piping from centrifugal compressor is a critical component for the LNG
facility and is discussed in detail in the following section.
Expected Sound Power Levels: Sound power levels for the large centrifugal compressors
(Propane/Mixed Refrigerant) is expected to range between 115-122 dBA; therefore, the
compressor strings (including the driver and helper motor) are also dominant noise sources
inside the liquefaction train.
Practical Mitigation Measures: Noise mitigation measures for centrifugal compressors include:
acoustical blankets over the compressor casing; acoustical shed/building for the compressor skid.
Fully enclosed buildings are generally less preferred in the LNG industry as it creates
maintenance and accessibility issues. Additional equipment for ventilation and fire detection may
be required. The acoustical enclosure may also impose heavy structural requirements if the
design requires a crane for maintenance operations.
Another approach to attenuate noise generated inside the compressor casing is with the use of
Duct Resonator Arrays4
(DRAs). The DRAs can be installed in the diffuser region of the
compressor or as spool pieces applied to the inlet/discharge pipes. The DRAs are expected to
reduce the sound levels by approximately 7-10 dBA in the design frequency. This noise
attenuation solution does not have any adverse effects on the compressor performance as it does
not create additional pressure drop or it does not affect compressor performance. The resonator
arrays also provide significant reduction in the piping vibration.
2.3 Centrifugal Compressor Suction & Discharge Piping
In-plant and far-field noise levels are dominated by suction and discharge piping associated
with refrigerant centrifugal compressors. Piping sources are different from other equipment
packages in the facility mainly for (2) two reasons: 1) no vendor data is typically available for
the piping sources; detailed isometric showing the piping routes and lengths are generally not
available during early design stages. For these reasons, the EPC contractor tends to estimate the
noise contribution from piping sources and accordingly apply the acoustical insulation and other
mitigation measures to meet the project noise criteria.
Noise Generation: The sound pressure level from the uninsulated suction/discharge compressor
piping is expected to range between 95-105 dBA at 1 meter from the pipe surface. The piping
sources include: suction and discharge piping, recycle lines such as anti-surge lines and hot-gas
bypass loops etc. Sound power levels from each of these lines is relatively large. For example,
consider one suction line of 42-inches in diameter and 500 feet in length from the suction drum
to the compressor nozzle. Total sound power level for this suction pipe can be calculated as
shown in the equation below:

5. Lw = Lp + 10 *log (2*pi ()*(1+D’/2)*l) (1)
where Lw is the sound power level; Lp is the sound pressure from un-insulated pipe at 3 feet
(103 dBA); D is the pipe diameter (42 inches or 1.07 meter); D’ is the pipe diameter plus
insulation thickness (50 inches or 1.27 meter); and l is the length of the pipe (500 feet or 152
meters).Table 1 below shows a sample calculation of sound power level for this suction pipe in
accordance with ISO 156655
.
Table 1: Sample Calculation of Piping Sound Power Level per ISO 15665
Octave-band Center Frequency, Hz
dBA63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Un-attenuated Sound Pressure Level at
1 meter from Suction Piping, dB
89 88 91 94 96 100 93 91 103
Acoustic Insulation Insertion Loss, dB 0 3 9 26 36 45 40 40
Attenuated Sound Pressure Level, dB 89 85 82 68 60 55 53 51 76
10*log(2*pi*(1.64)*152) 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
Total Sound Power Level, dB 121 117 114 100 92 87 85 83 108
The attenuated sound power level presented in table above does not include the distance
attenuation along the pipe. ISO 15665 suggests that downstream attenuation shall be calculated
by using the following formula:
Lp (x,r) = Lp (1,r) – β*(l/D’) (2)
where Lp (1,r) is the sound pressure level at a distance of 1 m away from the noise source, at the
same distance r from pipe axis as in Lp (x,r); r=1+D’/2 in meters; β=0.06 for gas lines.
The total sound power level for the suction pipe by utilizing the downstream attenuation can be
calculated as shown in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Sample Calculation of Piping Sound Power Level per ISO 15665 Downstream
Attenuation
Length (Suction
Drum-Compressor
Nozzle), meter
Sound Pressure
Level, dBA
Calculated Sound
Power Level
0-65 76 76 + 10*log(2πr * 65) =104
65-130 73 73 + 10*log(2πr * 65) = 101
130-152 70 70 + 10*log(2πr * 22) = 98
Total Sound Power Level (152 m) 104+101+98 = 106 dBA
Table 2 shows that the total sound power level for the suction will be reduced by 2-3 dBA by
considering the distance attenuation. Branch connections to the pipe could further reduce the

6. acoustics energy in the downstream pipe and should be included during the sound power level
calculation. Commercially available noise propagation software can be used to model the piping
as line sources and utilize the length attenuation in the downstream noise propagation as per ISO
15665.
Expected Sound Power Level: The overall length of piping can range between 5000’-7500’ per
LNG train depending upon the plot plan. The total sound power level for piping sources, after the
application of acoustical insulation, is expected to range between 117-120 dBA per LNG train. In
order to ensure that an EPC contractor successfully demonstrates noise compliance during the
post-startup compliance test, it is imperative to correctly estimate the piping sound power levels
and accordingly select the appropriate acoustical insulation system. During pre-FEED stages, a
conservative estimate of the overall piping route shall be made based upon the location of
suction drum and air cooler connections from the suction and discharge compressor nozzles
respectively.
Practical Mitigation Measures: Noise mitigation measures for piping include: acoustical
insulation; in-line silencers in the discharge lines; limiting the overall pipe length as much as
possible. Acoustic insulation systems can be classified into A, B, C and D type systems. ISO
15665 provides the material description and material losses for A, B, and C acoustic insulation
systems. Note that currently ISO 15665 does not show a Class D type system; however, the
suppliers6
offer a Class D insulation system that is widely used in the LNG facilities especially
on the suction, discharge, and recycle piping for the large centrifugal compressors. Figure 1
below shows a sketch with highlighted suction, discharge and recycle pipes that typically require
acoustical insulation.
Figure 1: Schematic showing the sample of acoustical insulation on centrifugal compressors in a
typical LNG facility
ISO 15665 recommends vibration isolation pads between the pipe supports and acoustical
insulation to reduce the structure borne noise from piping. In power plant applications, the piping
noise can be treated with an acoustical barrier/shroud; however, in case of liquefaction facilities
an acoustical barrier/shroud is not a practical solution as the main pipe rack runs under the
ACHE structure and any obstruction to the cooling air flow will directly impact the LNG
production output.
On the suction side, the use of inline silencers is generally not preferred as the first mitigation
measure given the potential risk of silencer fibers being sucked in to the compressor interior and
could potentially damage the interiors of the compressor; however, it is known to be used on the
Compressor
Air Cooler
GT/Electric
Motor Driver
Next Process
Equipment
Suction Piping Discharge Piping
Suction
Drum
Hot Gas Bypass Valve
Compressor

7. discharge lines only if absolutely required to meet the far-field project noise criteria. If the inline
silencers are used on the discharge lines, it is recommended to insulate the pipe length between
the compressor nozzle and the silencer.
2.4 Reciprocating Compressors
LNG is stored in insulated cryogenic tanks at the export terminal before being shipped to its
final destination. The outside ambient heat continuously generates boil-off gas (BOG), which
subsequently results in an increase of pressure inside the storage tank. In order to maintain a
designated pressure inside the tank, LNG vapor is continuously removed using a BOG
compressor. Typically reciprocating compressors can be used as BOG compressors and BOG
booster compressors although centrifugal compressors can also be used if the required boil off
gas volume is quite large.
Noise Generation: Reciprocating compressors are positive displacement type compressors and
are generally used for low volume operations. In a reciprocating compressor, the inertia forces
resulting from piston movement and other rotating parts are the main source of noise generation.
Expected Sound Power Level: The sound power level for BOG reciprocating compressors is
expected to range between 105-115 dBA. Noise is also radiated through the compressor
inlet/discharge piping.
Practical Mitigation Measures: Noise mitigation measures for reciprocating compressors include
acoustical shed/building for the compressor skid. As discussed earlier, fully enclosed buildings is
generally not a preferred mitigation solution. A best practicable mitigation measure for
reciprocating compressors includes acoustic insulation of all pulsation dampeners and
inlet/discharge piping.
2.5 Gas Turbine Drivers
The gas turbines are used as drivers for the large centrifugal compressors inside the
liquefaction train. A typical arrangement of a compressor string in a LNG facility is shown in the
Figure 2 below:
Figure 2: Example of a typical LNG Compressor String with Gas Turbine
The compressor string arrangement can vary depending upon the overall project requirements.
The selection of drivers is generally driven by several factors and directly impacts the overall
availability of the facility. Technological advancements to improve the aerodynamic design and
maximize efficiency are being made especially to cater to the LNG industry7
.
GT LP MR MP MR
Helper
Motor
GT Propane HP MR
Helper
Motor

8. Noise Generation: A gas turbine consists of several noise generating components: Combustion
Air Inlet and Associated Duct; Gas Turbine Casing; Combustion Exhaust Duct/Stack; and
auxiliary equipment. In colder climates, GT air inlet anti-icing system can be noisy and should
be included in the noise model with other GT equipment.
Expected Sound Power Level: Typically, the manufacturers provide sound power levels for the
complete package; depicting power levels for each item. Most of the GT’s used in the LNG
industry are common in the power industry and the overall sound power level is 110-115 dBA
excluding stack noise. The Stack sound power level depends upon the process operation such as
heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs) or waste heat recovery units; (WHRUs) systems; and
the type of silencers in the exhaust ducts.
Practical Mitigation Measures: Noise mitigation measures for GT’s include: silencer for
combustion air inlet; acoustical enclosure for the gas turbine with silenced ventilation
inlet/discharge; silencer to attenuate noise from the Stack Top noise. The amount of attenuation
required for Stack noise is another critical component and should be addressed during early
design stage as the pressure drop is critical in these applications and it can potentially create an
upper limit on the maximum noise attenuation possible. Noise mitigation measures for lube oil
coolers include utilizing low-noise air fans.
2.6 Miscellaneous Process Equipment
This section provides a brief description of noise generating components, expected sound
power level and practical noise mitigation measures for miscellaneous process equipment.
Control Valves: A typical LNG train consists of several severe service control valves for several
critical and severe service applications. Few examples include: Compressor Anti-surge, Hot-Gas
Bypass, Gas-to-flare systems, Flow-pressure Regulators etc. The control valve noise is
aerodynamic and is primarily generated by the energy release during the pressure drop, flow
turbulence, rapid expansions or decelerations of the flow. Noise is generated downstream of the
control valve and travels both upstream and downstream. However, the upstream noise is
reduced by the control valve trim and so in practice noise in the downstream piping is generally
dominant and requires acoustical insulation based on the noise levels. Practical mitigation
measures include: use of multi-stage, multi-path trims to breakdown the sudden pressure drop
into several stages. A common analogy used to explain the benefit of multi-stage trims: a person
taking the stairs to get to the ground floor is less likely to get hurt than the one who directly
jumps from roof to the ground. In the latter case, the pressure drop happens in one stage and in
first analogy the pressure drop is divided in to multiple stages.
Flare Systems: Flare systems are typically used to safely release hydrocarbon in case of
emergency scenarios. The overall release rate during emergency flaring scenarios can range from
3,000,000-6,000,000 lbs/hour. There are two kinds of flare systems: Ground Flare & Elevated
Flare. Sound power level for normal scenarios can range between 105-115 dBA and is generally
not a dominant noise contributor in the far-field as the release rate is a small fraction of the
overall design capacity of the flare system. During emergency conditions sound power level can
range between 140-150 dBA. Far-field noise assessment of flare noise, during emergency
scenarios, is typically not required by FERC as these are unlikely events and the primary

9. objective is to ensure safety of personnel. Typically, a sterile radius or restricted area may be
specified around the flare system to meet the in-plant noise requirement depending upon the
project noise criteria.
Hot Oil Heaters: Hot Oil Heaters are typically used to provide hot oil during start-up and
maintenance operations. Noise generating sources for a Hot Oil Heater include: Burner systems;
Air Blower & Motor; Combustion noise inside the refractory etc. Heater casing is typically built
of ¼” steel plate plus a 6” thick inner refractory layer, which typically attenuates the breakout
noise from the casing. The combustion exhaust is vented through a stack, which is another
source of radiating internal generated noise to the outside environment. The stack consists of
convection coils that utilize the combustion heat to heat up the oil – the principle somewhat
similar to a WHRU in a Gas Turbine, which is a typical configuration in power industry and
other gas conditioning facilities. The overall sound power level for a hot oil heater package can
range between 100-110 dBA and is generally not a dominant noise contributor in the far-field.
Mitigation measures include low-noise burner designs, air inlet silencers, low-noise fans, and
acoustical insulation of piping ducting (if required).
Thermal Oxidizers: Thermal Oxidizers are primarily used in Acid Gas Removal (AGR) areas to
burn the acid gas removed from natural gas. Typical noise generating sources for thermal
oxidizers include: air blower; motor; burner; and combustion noise. Mitigation measures include
low-noise burner designs, air inlet silencers, low-noise motors/fans, acoustical insulation of
piping ducting (if required).
3. NOISE MODELING APPROACH
CB&I has a comprehensive approach for developing a noise propagation model. The
primary focus is to utilize technical field experience to develop a noise mitigation design to have
minimal effect on the overall operations. CB&I is continuously striving to update in-house
database of sound power levels based on the vendor supplied information and field
measurements. Post-startup compliance tests are conducted to validate the models and to
evaluate the effectiveness of applied noise mitigation measures. CB&I has extensive experience
to design noise mitigation measures of other process plants such as Ethylene8
plants and other
O&G facilities.
The first step is to generate a sound power level table based on the master equipment list. The
next step is to import the source information into commercially available acoustical software –
SoundPLAN. Atmospheric conditions and Ground absorption factor (G) are also considered in
the noise propagation calculations. Site terrain is modeled based on the topographical maps.
Each noise radiating element is modeled based on its noise emission pattern. Air cooled heat
exchangers; motors; pumps; valves; are modeled as point sources. Building and large surfaces
are modeled as industrial buildings to follow the source geometry. Piping sources are modeled as
line sources with sound power level calculated in accordance with ISO 15665.
The sources are modeled into distinct equipment groups to identify dominant noise sources in the
far-field. For example, the groups may include: Air Cooled Heat Excangers, MR PR
compressors, Centrifugal Compressor Piping, Utility Area, BOG Compressors etc. This approach
is beneficial to design a cost-effective noise mitigation measure by identifying the highest
contributor and applying the noise mitigation at the loudest source.

10. Figure 3 below shows a source order ranking contribution chart for different equipment groups
from two (2) LNG trains. The bars show the A-weighted noise contribution level from
equipment groups at a far-field location from the facility. Note that LNG Train #2 (T2) is closer
to the receptor. Four cases have been presented with progressive noise mitigation measures: Case
#1: Base case with few selected mitigation features; Case #2: Case #1 + Additional mitigation to
attenuate the noise contribution from MR PR Piping group (T1, T2 MR PR Piping); Case #3:
Case #2 + Additional mitigation for Air Cooler group (T1, T2 Air Cooler) by possibly switching
to a low-noise cooler; Case #4: Case #3 + Additional mitigation to attenuate noise from
Compressor String group (T1, T2 Compressor Strings). Figure 3 below shows the noise
contribution levels in four (4) different shades of gray: Dark-Light = Noisy-Quieter Design.
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
GroupNoiseContributionLevel,dBA
Figure 3: Source Order Ranking Contribution for 2 LNG Trains at a far-field receptor
4. CONCLUSION
Noise mitigation plan for an LNG export terminal should be developed during the early
design stages of the project. In order to ensure that noise mitigation design meets the applicable
noise criteria, it is critical to specify noise limits on major equipment packages to validate the
requirements with vendor’s noise guarantees. As demonstrated in this paper, the noise modeling
approach should include the dominant noise sources to develop a complete noise model. Key
points to note while developing the noise mitigation design for a LNG export terminal include
the following:
1. Start working on the design early as possible;
2. Develop a realistic estimate of sound power levels based on the process, plot plan, pipe-
routes, equipment sizes, and type of operation;

11. 3. Select best-suited practical mitigation measures to provide maximum noise reduction
without affecting the LNG production capacity;
4. Continuously update the acoustic database/library based on actual field measurements;
Upfront commitment of time and resources to develop a noise mitigation plan is the most cost-
effective approach and is a necessity to achieve compliance with project noise criteria.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express gratitude and respect for Paul Fruyt van Hertog, Joe Bhavsar and
David Wrigley for giving advice, answering questions, and pointing to relevant references. The
authors also thank CB&I management to allow the writing of this paper
6. REFERENCES
1. Proposed North American LNG Terminals. Refer link:
http://www.ferc.gov/industries/gas/indus-act/lng/lng-export-proposed.pdf
2. 18 CFR 380.12 – Environmental Reports for Natural Gas Act Applications. Refer link:
http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2012-title18-vol1/pdf/CFR-2012-title18-vol1-sec380-
12.pdf
3. Pillarella, M.R., Liu, Y.N., Petrowski, J. and Bower, R.W, The C3MR liquefaction cycle:
Versatility for a Fast Growing, Ever Changing LNG Industry, presented at the Fifteenth
International Conference on LNG, Barcelona, Spain, April 2007.
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COLETTE; Inigo EUGUI; Ole Georg HAAHEIM, “Verification of a Duct Resonator
Array for Larger Pipe Diameters” presented at Inter-Noise 2014 in Melbourne,
Australia.
5. Standard ISO 15665: Acoustics, Acoustic insulation for pipes valves and flanges.
International Organization for Standardization. 2003.
6. Swift. M. J., Horoshenkov. K.V “Thermo-Acoustic Properties of Elastomeric Pipeline
Insulation”, Noise & Vibration Emerging Methods NOVEM 2009, Oxford.
7. Pelagotti, Antonio. "LATEST ADVANCES IN LNG COMPRESSORS."
8. J. Bhavsar. Noise Control in Ethylene Plants. 2008 Spring Meeting & 4th Global
Congress on Process Safety
9. Engineering Noise Control: Theory and Practice. Bies D. and Hansen C. 2003. Published
by Taylor & Francis, 2003.
10. Standard ISO 9613-2 Acoustics – Attenuation of Sound During Propagation Outdoors.
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Standardization).