IFFCO's journey to become a leading fertilizer producer in India

1 CIT/ME/SEMINAR/219
Chapter-1
COMPANY PROFILE: IFFCO
1.1 INTRODUCTION
During mid- sixties the Co-operative sector in India was responsible for distribution of 70 per
cent of fertilisers consumed in the country. This Sector had adequate infrastructure to
distribute fertilisers but had no production facilities of its own and hence dependent on
public/private Sectors for supplies. To overcome this lacuna and to bridge the demand supply
gap in the country, a new cooperative society was conceived to specifically cater to the
requirements of farmers. It was an unique venture in which the farmers of the country
through their own Co-operative Societies created this new institution to safeguard their
interests. The number of Co-operative Societies associated with IFFCO have risen from 57 in
1967 to 39,824 at present.
Indian Farmers Fertilizer Co-operative Limited (IFFCO) was registered on November 3,
1967 as a Multi-unit Co-operative Society. On the enactment of the Multistate Co-operative
Societies act 1984 & 2002, the Society is deemed to be registered as a Multistate Co-
operative Society. The Society is primarily engaged in production and distribution of
fertilisers. The byelaws of the Society provide a broad frame work for the activities of IFFCO
as a Co-operative Society.
IFFCO commissioned an ammonia - urea complex at Kalol and the NPK/DAP plant at
Kandla both in the state of Gujarat in 1975. Another ammonia - urea complex was set up at
Phulpur in the state of Uttar Pradesh in 1981. The ammonia - urea unit at Aonla was
commissioned in 1988.

In 1993, IFFCO had drawn up a major expansion programmed of all the four plants under
overall aegis of IFFCO VISION 2000. The expansion projects at Aonla, Kalol, Phulpur and
Kandla were completed on schedule. All the projects conceived as part of VISION 2000 had
been realised without time or cost overruns. All the production units of IFFCO have
established a reputation for excellence and quality. Another growth path was chalked out to
realise newer dreams and greater heights through Vision 2010. As part of this vision, IFFCO
has acquired fertiliser unit at Paradeep in Orissa in September 2005. As a result of these
expansion projects and acuisition, IFFCO's annual capacity has been increased to 3.69
million tonnes of Urea and NPK/DAP equivalent to 1.71 million tonnes. In pursuit of its
growth and development, IFFCO had embarked upon and successfully implemented its
Corporate Plans, „Mission 2005‟ and „Vision 2010‟. These plans have resulted in IFFCO
becoming one of the largest producer and marketeer of Chemical fertilisers by expansion of
its existing Units, setting up Joint Venture Companies Overseas and Diversification into new
Sectors.
IFFCO has made strategic investments in several joint ventures. Indian Potash Ltd (IPL) in
India, Industries Chimiques du Senegal (ICS) in Senegal, Oman India Fertiliser Company
(OMIFCO) in Oman and Jordan India Fertiliser Company (JIFCO) are important fertiliser
joint ventures. As part of strategic diversification, IFFCO has entered into several key
sectors. IFFCO-Tokio General Insurance Ltd (ITGI) is a foray into general insurance sector.
Through ITGI, IFFCO has formulated new services of benefit to farmers. 'Sankat Haran
Bima Yojana' provides free insurance cover to farmers along with each bag of IFFCO
fertiliser purchased. To take the benefits of emerging concepts like agricultural commodity
trading, IFFCO has taken equity in National Commodity and Derivative Exchange (NCDEX)
and National Collateral Management Services Ltd (NCMSL). IFFCO Chattisgarh Power Ltd
(ICPL) which is under implementation is yet another foray to move into core area of power.
IFFCO is also behind several other companies with the sole intention of benefitting farmers.

At IFFCO, the thirst for ever improving the services to farmers and member co-operatives is
insatiable, commitment to quality is insurmountable and harnessing of mother earths' bounty
to drive hunger away from India in an ecologically sustainable manner is the prime mission.
All that IFFCO cherishes in exchange is an everlasting smile on the face of Indian Farmer
who form the moving spirit behind this mission.
IFFCO, to day, is a leading player in India's fertiliser industry and is making substantial
contribution to the efforts of Indian Government to increase foodgrain production in the
country.
1.2 IFFCO MISSION
 IFFCO's mission is "to enable Indian farmers to prosper through timely supply of reliable,
high quality agricultural inputs and services in an environmentally sustainable manner and to
undertake other activities to improve their welfare“
 To provide to farmers high quality fertilizers in right time and in adequate quantities with an
objective to increase crop productivity. To make plants energy efficient and continually
review various schemes to conserve energy. Commitment to health, safety, environment and
forestry development to enrich the quality of community life. Commitment to social
responsibilities for a strong social fabric.
 To institutionalise core values and create a culture of team building, empowerment and
innovation which would help in incremental growth of employees and enable achievement of
strategic objectives. Foster a culture of trust, openness and mutual concern to make working
a stimulating and challenging experience for stake holders. Building a value driven
organization with an improved and responsive customer focus. A true commitment to
transparency, accountability and integrity in principle and practice. To acquire, assimilate
and adopt reliable, efficient and cost effective technologies. Sourcing raw materials for
production of phosphatic fertilisers at economical cost by entering into Joint Ventures outside
India.

1.3 Company Vision
To augment the incremental incomes of farmers by helping them to increase their crop
productivity through balanced use of energy efficient fertilizers, maintain the environmental
health and to make cooperative societies economically & democratically strong for
professionalized services to the farming community to ensure an empowered rural India.
1.4 Company Approach
To achieve our mission, IFFCO as a cooperative society, undertakes several activities
covering a broad spectrum of areas to promote welfare of member cooperatives and farmers.
The activities envisaged to be covered are exhaustively defined in IFFCO‟s Bye-laws

Chapter-2
AMMONIA PLANT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
IFFCO Kalol plant consists of 1100tpd ammonia plant, 1650 tpd urea plant and associated
offsite / utility facilities. Ammonia plant is designed and engineered by M/s. M.W. Kellogg,
USA add on pre-reformer unit is designed by M/s HTAS, Denmark.
2.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The process described herein is based on the Kellogg catalytic high pressure reforming
method for producing ammonia starting with natural gas feed. The design is based on
an anhydrous liquid ammonia production rate of 1100 MT/D using a natural gas as well as
naphtha feed, NG is having approximate composition as follows and is available at a
minimum pressure of 10.0 kg/cm²g.
Component Mol %
 Nitrogen (N2) 2.0
 Methane (CH4) 89.4
 Ethane (C2H6) 5.0
 Propane (C3H8) 1.9
 Iso butane (i-C4H10) 0.4
 Normal butane (n-C4H10) 0.6
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.7
 LHV (calculated, dry basis) 9085 KCal/Nm3
(965.7 BTU/SCF)
 Total sulphur(calculated as H2S) Less than 3 volume ppm
The ammonia unit has been designed to deliver 1020 (42.5 MT/hr) of liquid ammonia at 43
°C (110 ° F) and 21 kg/cm2g (300 Psig) to battery limits as feed to the urea plant. The

balance of ammonia product will be delivered to battery limits at -33 °C (-28 °F) for storage
at atmospheric pressure. However, sufficient refrigeration and pumping capacity has been
provided for delivery of total ammonia, product at -33 °C during period when the urea Plant
is shutdown. The ammonia plant has been also designed to deliver 1200 MT/day of carbon
dioxide product (100% basis) to battery limits as feed to the urea plant at 0.3 Kg/cm2
g (4.3
Psig) and 45 °C (113 °F).
Fig 2.1 Ammonia Plant
2.3 Raw synthesis gas preparation
2.3.1 Desulphurisation
 The natural gas feed which is available at battery limits at a minimum pressure of 10.0
Kg/cm2
g and a temperature of 27 °C (80°F) is compressed to 37 Kg/cm2
in NG
compressor before sending it to desulphurisers. The desulfurization system consists of
two vessels 101-D and 102-D, each containing activated carbon for the removal of
mercaptan sulphur and hydrogen sulfide.
 Each of the vessels is designed to handle all of the sulfur expected in the feed gas.
 As soon as the activated carbon in the first vessel is saturated with sulfur the feed gas is
switched to the second Desulfurizer to permit steam regeneration of the carbon in the first
vessel.

 Each of the Desulfurizer is capable of approximately one week of operation before
regeneration.
 Regeneration of a charge of activated carbon is accomplished by steaming at 177°C (350
°F). Steaming for eight to sixteen hours will normally complete the regeneration.
Connections are provided at the bottom of the vessels for the introduction of superheated
steam.
2.3.2 Naphtha Prereformer
 Naphtha Pre-reformer was installed in Sep 1997 to produce 350 T/day Ammonia. Pre
reformer system is basically an adiabatic converter using highly active catalyst based
on nickel. By passing naphtha through pre-reformer before mixing with NG, naphtha
feed is converted to mostly methane & therefore the gas mixture passing through
reformer will be similar to NG.
2.3.3 Deaeration
 Naphtha from storage tank is sent to de-aerater (F-101), in which oxygen is removed by
stripping with off gases from PGR Unit.
2.3.4 Desulphurisation
 Desulphurisation section contains two reactors first hydrogenator (R-110) loaded with
CO-MO based hydrogenation catalyst followed by the sulphur absorber (R-111),
containing Zinc Oxide absorption catalyst.
2.3.5 Hydrogenation
 Naphtha feed stock is mixed with hydrogen rich recycle gas & heated to 380°C in
feed stock preheater (E-110 A/B) and fired heater (H-110). In hydrogenator the
following reaction takes place.
RSH + H2 ‡ RH + H2S

2.3.6 Sulphur absorption
 The gases coming from hydrogenater where in the sulphur is absorber by sine are
passed through sulphur absorber absorb the hydrogen sulphide.
H2S + ZnO ‡ ZnS + H2O
2.3.7 Naphtha prereforming
 The desulphurised Naphtha coming from the hydrogenator & sulphur absorber along
with surplus hydrogen is mixed with process steam & heated to 490°C in pre-reformer
feed pre-heater (H-111). The mixture is now sent through the Pre-reformer (R-112), in
which all higher hydrocarbons react with the steam to form a mixture of H2, CO, CO2 &
CH4. This mixture is then added to pre-heated NG/ steam mixture at inlet of primary
reformer. The Prereformer is an adiabatic chemical reactor containing pre-reforming
nickel catalyst, which has reforming activity at low temperature.
2.3.8 Primary reforming
 Desulphurised natural gas is first preheated by steam in feed preheater150-C to 93 °C
(200 °F) before entering the preheat coil in the reformer convection section. The
Primary Reformer 101-B is designed for mixed firing of associated gas and naphtha. The
feed gas at 232 °C (450 °F) is then combined with superheated steam in an amount
equivalent to a steam-carbon ratio of 3.5 to 1.0.
 The combined gas-steam mixture is then preheated to 535°C (1000°F) through heating
coil in convection zone of primary reformer. This is then mixed with the gases from pre-
reformer and this mixture is distributed to catalyst tubes suspended in the radiant section
of the furnace. It passes down flow in contact with nickel reforming catalyst inside the
tubes. The effluent gas picks up heat in the riser tubes leaving the radiant section so that
final gas temperature at the primary reformer exit is approximately 810 °C (1490°F).
There are 42 reformer tubes and one riser in each header making total 336 catalyst tubes.
The material of construction of the tube is G-4852 modified (35% Ni, 25% Cr, 115%
Nb).They are machined from inside and are manufactured by S&C, Germany. By
reforming, CO, and H2 are formed as :
CH 4 + H2O ‡ CO + 3 H2

2.3.9 Ammonia synthesis
 The gas from the separator 106-F, with its ammonia content reduced to about 2.1 % is
heated in 120-C against a portion of the compressor discharge and then against the
converter effluent in 121-C. The converter feed stream then enters the synthesis
converter 105-D shell side at approximately 132 °C. The synthesis converter consists of
a high pressure shell containing a catalyst basket and an Inter changer 122-C. The
catalyst basket is a cylindrical basket which fits inside the pressure shell of the vessel,
leaving the annulus between the two. The catalyst basket contains four catalyst beds. In
order to maintain all the catalyst at an optimum temperature for maximum yield,
provision is made to inject cold feed gas as quench in the space between the beds.
Located above the catalyst sections is 122-C which preheats fresh inlet gas against hot
reacted gas from the last catalyst bed. A bypass tube is provided to permit introduction
of feed gas without preheating and provides temperature control to the top catalyst bed.
 In the presence of the iron catalyst, a portion of the total hydrogen and nitrogen
combines at an elevated temperature of approximately 380 °C to 430 °C and a pressure
of 131 Kg/cm²g to yield ammonia in a concentration of about 12% in the effluent from
the last catalyst bed. The hot effluent from the bottom bed passes up through a center
return pipe into the tubes of the interchanger giving up heat to the incoming fresh feed
on the shell side. From the interchanger inside the converter shell side. the converter
effluent at 315 °C flows to the BFW heater 123-C where the gas is cooled to 150 °C
Then the converter effluent undergoes heat exchange with the feed to the converter in
121-C, lowering the converter effluent temperature to 43 °C ( 110 °F).
 This cooled gas passes to the last shell of the second cases of the synthesis gas
compressor 103-J for recycle back to the converter. A portion of this gas is vented to the
PGR plant as continuous purge to control the concentration of methane and argon inerts.
Prior to delivering the purge gas to the PGR plant it is chilled in 125-C to -23 °C (-10
°F) for recovery of liquid ammonia at 108-F which is combined with the liquid ammonia
product from the ammonia separator.

 In PGR plant, the gases stream is liquified at 46 kg/cm2
g and -187 °C by cryogenic
process and hydrogen Separated out. The hydrogen gas is, then, sent to 103-J suction for
further process along with main stream. The remaining gas from PGR is sent to primary
reformer for burning.
 Before passing the gas to cold box in PGR plant for liquification and separation,
ammonia is removed from the gas stream by water spray and 4% NH4OH is stored for
off sites / urea plant use. The total ammonia product from the ammonia separator 106-F
and the liquid from the high pressure purge separator 108-F are combined in letdown
drum 107-F. The resulting flash in the drum release most of the inerts which were
dissolved in the high pressure liquid. This flashed vapour is mixed with other flash and
purge gases to be used as furnace fuel. The liquid ammonia is then flashed down to the
refrigeration system.
2.3.10 Ammonia refrigeration
 The ammonia refrigeration system serves the synthesis section utilizing compressed and
condensed recirculated ammonia vapors as refrigerant. The purpose of the system is to
provide refrigeration for ammonia condensation in the synthesis loop and recovery of
ammonia product delivered to the battery limits is also taken from the refrigeration
systems.
 Hot refrigerant ammonia vapor from the second case of the refrigerant compressor 105-
J is cooled in 127-C, condensed at 43 °C (110 °F) and sent to the refrigerant receiver
109-F. The uncondensed vapors are chilled to 1.1 °C (34°F) in 126-C and the condensed
ammonia returned to 109-F. Part of the liquid from the refrigerant receiver is flashed
down to the first stage refrigerant receiver is flashed down to the first stage refrigerant
flash drum 110-F.
 Ammonia product, equivalent to 42.5 T /hr, is also withdrawn from the refrigerant
receiver and is sent directly to the battery limit at 43 °C and about 21.1 kg/cm2
g (300

Psig) to serve as feed for the urea plant. A small portion of liquid ammonia from 109-F
is pumped by 120-J is used as injection in shift effluent circuit.
 Liquid in the drum 110-F is circulated through a chiller 117-C by a thermo syphon
circuit. Then chiller cools a portion of the synthesis gas compressor effluent to 22°C (71
°F). The remaining liquid from the drum is split into three streams. Two are let down
through the flash gas chiller 126-C and the synthesis gas compressor interstage chiller
129-C respectively. These two streams then go into the second stage refrigerant flash
drum 111-F. The third stream is flashed directly into 111-F.Vapours from 111-F enter
the second case of 105-J. The liquid from 111-F is split into two streams, i.e. to 118-C &
125-C.
2.3.11 Steam
 The entire steam requirement of Ammonia plant is met by auxiliary boiler which
generates 230 Tons/hr steam at 105 kg/cm2
and 416 °C . The fuel used associated gas and
naphtha.(Associated gas is supplied by ONGC through pipeline upto battery limit and
naphtha is supplied by IOC through rail wagons.) D.M. water is received from off sites
plant. 105 atm steam is let down to 38 atm.
2.3.12 Cooling water
• The cooling water requirement of 8000 Nm3
/hr at 32 °C design temperature is supplied
by off sites cooling towers at 4 kg/cm2
g pressure and hot water at 40 °C is returned
back to cooling towers at 2 kg/cm2
g pressure. The cooling water is mainly consumed in
127-C, and two surface condensers apart from other heat exchangers.
2.3.13 Instrument air
 Instrument air is produced by passing the part of air from 101-J through air dryer. The
Instrument air is dry having due point -40 °C and dust and oil free. Instrument air is used
for process control instrumentation.

Chapter-3
UREA PLANT
3.1 Introduction
The 1650 tons/day single stream urea plant, built at IFFCO; Kalol is designed and
constructed by Humphreys and Glasgows. It is based on stamicarbon stripping process which
differs from conventional process. Stamicarbon stripping process requires lower pressure and
temperatures for conversion of CO2 and NH3 into urea and conversion efficiency is more.
The carbamate which is intermediate product is stripped off back to CO2 and NH3 in this
process.
3.2 Urea manufacture ( conventional process)
Although there are several processes currently used for the manufacture of urea, the
underlying principle for all these process is the same, viz. the reaction of ammonia with
carbon dioxide at elevated pressure and temperature to form ammonium carbamate followed
by the conversion of the carbamate into urea along with one mole of water per mole of urea.
The chemical equations involved are
2 NH3 + CO2 ‡ NH2CO2NH4 + 38,000 Cal
NH2CO2NH4 ‡ NH2CO NH2 + H2O - 7,700 Cal,
The various steps involved in the manufacture of urea are :
 Formation of ammonium carbamate and its dehydration to urea
 Separation of urea from the unconverted carbamate
 Recycling of the unconverted carbamate and excess ammonia.
 Concentration of urea solution to form prills or crystals.

Fig 3.1 Urea Plant
3.3 Stripping process
The stripping process differs from the conventional in the mode of recovering and recycling
the unconverted ammonium carbamate. The carbon dioxide feed is utilised in the stripper to
strip the unconverted carbamate into NH3 and CO2 without letting down the pressure. The
stripped off-gas is condensed along with fresh ammonia feed in the condenser which also
operates at the autoclave pressure. This condensation at elevated pressure and temperature
raise LP steam. The carbamate then enters the autoclave by gravity thereby avoiding the
pumping of the highly concentrated and corrosive liquid.
3.4 Main section of the plant are as under
1) CO2 Compression.
2) Synthesis and recirculation.
3) Evaporation and prilling.
4) Prills cooling system.
5) Effluent treatement - desorption / hydrolysis.
3.5 CO2 compression

Carbon dioxide from the ammonia plant is cooled in the CO2 cooler (H 1104) and is then
mixed with the small quantity of air via an anti corrosion air blower (K1102) to prevent
corrosion. The carbon dioxide with oxygen and inerts is then compressed to 155 atm by the
Hitachi CO2 centrifugal compressor (K-1801). Optionally CO2 can be compressed to 155 atm
by the old CO2 compressors (K1101 1&2).All these compressors are driven by steam
turbines.
3.6 Synthesis and recirculation
Ammonia at 43 °C and about 22 atm is taken directly from the ammonia plant and fed to the
urea plant at a point up stream of the ammonia filter, & liquid ammonia (cold NH3) from the
offsite ammonia storage tank is pumped by the ammonia loading pump (P3101 A/B) to the
ammonia preheater (H1102), and then to the HP ammonia pump P - 1102 A/B/C which
pressurises ammonia to 155 atm.
This discharge from the HP ammonia pump is split into two streams. The first passes to the
HP carbamate condenser (H1202) and the second to the base of the autoclave (V1201) where
it mixes with the gas / liquid mixture from the HP carbamate condenser (H1202) and also
carbamate solution discharged under gravity from the HP scrubber (H1203).

Chapter-4
OFFSITES PROCESS DESCRIPTION
4.1 Introduction
The offsite plant of IFFCO is the combination of more or less eight or nine different
independent plants, i.e. water treatment plant, steam generation plant , cooling tower, effluent
treatment plant & instrument air compressor, nitrogen generation plant, naphtha, ammonia
and fuel oil storage and handling plant and emergency power generating plant. The main
function of the offsite plant is to supply steam (for processing and drive different equipment)
cooling water, (cool different equipment) compressed air (to operate pneumatic instruments),
nitrogen (to purge different equipment‟s to avoid explosion) naphtha (fuel for ammonia
plant) ammonia (Kandla plant and on emergency to urea Plant) and to treat effluent from
different plant. Brief description of different plants is given below.
4.2 Water treatment plant
Source of water supply for IFFCO is the subsoil water to be supplied by Gujarat Industrial
Development Corporation through network of tube wells. Water from tube wells contains
mineral salts e.g. chlorides, sulphates and carbonates of sodium, calcium, magnesium and
iron salts. To remove these salts a demineralised water treatment plant has been provided for
the entire quantity of make up water for cooling tower and for boiler feed.
The demineralized water treatment plant, consists of five parallel streams of strongly acidic
cation exchanger units, each of 164 m3
/hr capacity. There are four streams of mixed bed
exchanger having a combination of strongly acidic cation and strongly basic anion resin.
Three of the five streams of strongly acidic cation and weakly basic anion exchanger units
will be in operation while the 5th will be either under regeneration of stand by. The output of
the plant is 492 m3
/hr. Three of the four mixed bed units will be in operation and 4th with be
under regeneration of stand by. There is one degassor section which removes CO2 from
water. Water the raw water tank is pumped to the cation exchanger, (where tank is pumped to
the cation exchanger), where different salts of the water converted into corresponding acid.

The acidic water then enters into anion exchanger where the acidic water is converted into
deminaralised water. But this water contain little carbonic acid and silicic acid because weak
base anion cannot convert weak acids. So weak acids like carbonic acid and silicic acid
became unconverted. The chemical reactions in cation exchanger and anion exchanger will
be as under (typical).
 Cation exchanger
R H2 + Na2 SO4 ‡ H2SO4 + R Na
Ca SO4 R Ca
Mg SO4 R Mg
(Exchange reaction)
R Ca + 2 HCl ‡ R H2 + Ca Cl2
R Na Na Cl2
R Mg Mg Cl2
(Regeneration reaction)
 Anion exchanger
R OH + Na2 CO3 ‡ R CO3 + Na OH
Ca CO3 Ca (OH) 3
Mg CO3 Mg (OH) 2
(Exchange reaction)
R CO3 + Na OH ‡ ROH + Na 2 CO3
(Regeneration reaction)

Now out of 492 tons of water, 385 tons goes to cooling tower as make up water, rest 107 tons
goes to de-gasser tower, where water sprayed from the top and air is blown from the bottom.
This counter current action of water and air breaks the Carbonic acid into water and CO2
(H2CO3 = H2O + CO2) and CO2 is vented away. Now the water from degasser tower is
collected in the de-gasser sump, from where it is pumped to the primary mixed beds and
from there it goes to the secondary mixed bed, both the beds contains both strong acidic
cation resin and strong base anion resin. Here the silica and residual salts are removed and
water after the secondary mixed bed is absolutely neutral water having pH 6.8 to 7.0 and
silica 0.005 ppm. This water is then stored in the deminaralised storage tank, from where it
can be used in different plants.
Now after 9 hours of continuous operation, when the cation and anion bed became exhausted
the beds can be regenerated with 5% HCl and 4% NH4OH solution respectively. After 12
hours of continuous operation, both the mixed bed will be regenerated by 5% HCl and 4%
NaOH solution. After regeneration the unit will be ready for next operation. The effluent is
sent to effluent treatment plant plant for treatment and disposal. For regeneration purpose,
31% HCl is stored in 3Nos. 200 tons capacity (each) HCl storage tanks. Two tanks are made
from FRP and one tank is MSRL. The material of construction of the entire plant is MS with
rubber lining.
4.3 Cooling tower
Cooling towers at IFFCO kalol are induced draft type and are having box like wooden
structure with pine wood internals. Cooling tower is employed to contact hot water coming
from urea and ammonia process cooling system with atmosphere for the purpose of
evaporative cooling of water and allowing its re use in the process. The function of wooden
internals is to increase the contact surface between air and water. The cooling of water occurs
only on its surface, therefore, it is essential in the cooling tower that water is broken as much
as possible and as often as possible into fine particles in order to present maximum water
surface. To achieve this the interior of the cooling tower is fitted with the strips. The water
coming in contact with these strips breaks into small particles and air flow from the bottom is
constantly changing its direction, in its path upwards due to horizontal strips. Due to this

counter current flow, there is an intimate mixing of air and water is cooled down and
collected in the concrete basin below the louvers.
The cooling tower consists off 14 motor driven induced draft fans for cooling the water.
There are 7 cooling water pumps. Three are turbine driven and 4 are motor driven. The steam
for the turbine driven pumps is supplied from offsets boiler at a pressure of 40 atm.

Chapter-5
TURBINE
Turbine is an efficient device to convert potential / pressure / heat energy into useful
mechanical energy.
5.1 TYPES OF TURBINE
1. HYDRALIC TURBINE
2. GAS TURBINE
3. STREAM TURBINE
5.1.1 Hydraulic- Turbines
Generally applied in Hydro-electric power generation. Feed-stock water stored in a high
altitude dam to provide sufficient hydrostatic head (potential energy) for the production of
mechanical work.
Eg. Pelton, Francis, kaplan
5.1.2 Gas- Turbines
Generally used in industries and aeronautical-jet engines. In the industries where gas at
elevated temperature and in sufficient quantity is available, gas turbines are preferably used
as recovery turbines also. Where no other sources of power such as steam or electrical
available, the gas turbines are the only alternative.
Eg. Impulse + Reaction ; open-cycle and closed cycle
5.1.3 Steam - Turbines
Have wider range of applications in comparison to hydraulic and gas turbines due to
availability of steam. Generally in process- plants, steam is generated as a by product. For
example, in a typical ammonia plant producing 900 Tonnes/day of ammonia, the steam
production is around 220 tons / hr a by- product.

Here we are having only steam turbines and so we will discuss only the scope of steam
turbines.
Fig 5.1 Turbine
5.2 STEAM TURBINES
A steam turbine may be defined as form of heat engine in which the potential energy of
steam is changed into useful work in two distinct steps. First, the available heat-energy is
converted into energy motion, called kinetic-energy, by the expansion of the steam in a
suitably this kinetic - energy is converted into mechanical-energy or useful work by directing
the steam jet against blades or buckets mounted on a revolving rotor, or by the reaction of
the jet itself in the expanding passage if the passage revolves. The steam turbine consists of
basically of a rotor carrying the blades.
5.3 GENERAL TERMS AND NOMENCLATURE FOR A STEAM
TURBINE
1. Unit :-Means complete set of a turbine in a workable conditon.

2. Nozzles : Stationary parts fitted to turbine casing in which static pressure drop of steam
causes conversion of thermal energy into kinetic energy. These may be in the form of
convergent, divergent or convergent divergent section.
3. Blades or buckets : These are fitted on the rotor and may be pure impulse blades or
impulse rection blades.
4. Guide blades or stationary blades : Turbines are most often designed with rows of
blades in sequence. Intervening between them are stationary guides or blades which are
provided to reverse the direction of flow of steam, before it enters to a row of blades after
leaving the preceding row.
5. Casing shell or Cylinder : Main stationary part of a turbine in horizontally or vertically
split form in which stationary blades and nozzles / diaphragms are fitted.
6. Shaft, Rotor or Spindle : Main rotating part of a turbine on which discs and blades are
fitted.
7. Diaphragm : Nozzles chambers or housing fixed to the cylinder for holding the nozzles.
5.4 APPLICATION OF STEAM- TURBINES
Steam turbines have become very popular now a day due to power crisis. Steam turbines are
used because large plants generally have a surplus of steam and it is necessary to use up the
energy in the surplus steam. Thus reducing operating costs. Steam turbines are also used
because of the ease of control of speeds and power. The governor systems having been so
well designed that we can control and hold and exact 50 c/ s frequency, electrical generating
systems so close that only a very small fraction of an error is noticed in 24 hrs of operation.
Steam turbines are equally suited for constant speed and variable speed drives. Steam
turbines are generally high speed units and are generally connected to drive centrifugal
pumps, compressors, heavy fans, blowers, generators, propellers etc. either direct connected
or geared, as may be required to obtain the best efficiency of both the driving and driven

units and convenient operation and maintenance also. The impulse type turbine is best suited
for use in high pressure steam region and for small steam quantities. This is mostly used for
high speed drives. For attaining low speed reduction gear is installed. The reaction type
turbine is chiefly used for lower pressure steam region where large volume of steam is
handled. This is preferable to medium drives.
5.5 Advantages of Steam turbine over steam engine
Both steam turbine and steam engine are heat engines deriving its energy form expansion of
steam from high pressure to a lower pressure, but steam turbines have advantages over the
steam engine :
 First of all, steam turbines are very flexible in design from high, inlet pressure and
temperature to very low exhaust vacuums resulting in vast improvements in thermal
efficiency.
 Turbines can be designed for high speeds so as to directly drive high speed machines and
achieve a possible reduction in physical size.
 Turbines can be designed to extract steam at any point in the expansion for feed water
heating to achieve further improvements in thermal efficiency. In addition where
controlled process or heating steam is required, turbines are designed to extract steam at
one or two specific pressures.
 The governing of a high speed turbine and the extraction of steam at controlled
pressures are made possible by the development and continued improvement in steam
turbine control.
 Uniform turning moment and variable speed operation always possible.
 Simplicity of construction, design, reliability and less vibration problem are also main
factors for its superiority over the reciprocating steam engine.
5.6 CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINES
Steam turbines may be classified as below :
A ) According to the method of steam expansion.

1. Impulse
a) Simple or single stage
b) Pressure-compounded
c) Velocity compounded
d) Pressure- velocity compounded.
2. Reaction
3. Impulse - reaction
B) With respect to the rotor or shaft
a) Axial -flow
b) Radial-flow
c) Tangential-flow
C) With respect to sequence
a) Single flow
b) Double flow
c) Compound-cross or tandem connected
d) Re-entry or repeated flow
D) According to drive connections
a) Generator drive
b) Mechenical dirve

E) According to operating conditions
a) High pressure condensing
b) High pressure non-condensing
c) Induction
d) Extraction
e) Induction extraction
f) Exhaust
g) Reheating
5.7 Impulse turbines
In the pure impulse turbine the steam expands only through fixed nozzles, with a decrease in
pressure and an increase in velocity in which process the energy in the steam is converted to
kinectic energy. The steam then impinges against the moving blades causing rotation and
mechanical work. No expansion takes place as the steam passes through the blading.
5.7.1 A simple or single stage impulse turbine
This may be said to be a single pressure stage turbine with a single velocity stage and
consists of one or more nozzles and a single row of rotating blades. The steam expands from
its intial to its exhaust pressure through the nozzles, resulting in steam jets of high velocity
impinging against the single row of blades. This turbine is not very economical, and is
generally used non-condensing unit where low pressure outputs are required such as for
small pumps, compressors, generators, fans etc. up to about 50 HP or whose high steam
consumption is of no consideration, such as for emergency units.
5.7.2 Multi-stage impulse turbines

This arrangement consists of a series of simple impulse turbines on the same rotor, each of
these froms a stage. It is so designed that the steam expands through only a portion of the
total pressure range in the nozzles of the first stage on leaving the buckets or blades of the
first wheel, steam enters the second stage nozzles and expands through a further pressure
drop. The jet impinges ( Impulse ) on a second row of revolving blades. The operation is
repeated in every stage until the steam is fully expanded in the final stage to exhaust ( back)
pressure. Further description illustrates the conception of the multi-stage impulse turbine.
5.8 Reaction-turbines
In this turbine steam expands through both the moving and fixed ( reversing) blades
accompanied with-drop in pressure. The moving blades or buckets are fixed on the rim of a
rotating drum. The relative amount of expansion varies with particular design. No distinct
line exists between impulse and reaction turbines, as the majority of the so-called impulse
turbines have more or less reaction.
In the commonly used reaction type of turbine, which is known as the parsons turbine, the
rotor increase in diameter in steps with corresponding steps in the casing. One of these steps
constitutes an expansion. The blades in the first step or expansion are relatively short and
increase in length proportionately as the steam increases in volume, as it is expanded in
advance from the row of blades to the next. The fixed or the reversing blades are attached to
casing directly ahead of each row of moving blades. The steam enters the casing and first
passes through a row, of stationary blades which direct the steam at the proper angle to the
adjacent row of moving blades. This operations are repeated as many times as are required to
fully expand the steam from intial to exhaust pressure.
5.8.1 Impulse- reaction turbines
These are combination of impulse and reaction types with generally one or two velocity
compounded stages at the inlet end and the reaction blading through the remainder of the
unit. Main advantage is that the compact impulse wheel replaces the somewhat long and
relatively slender high pressure drum or rotor of the reaction turbine, there by decreasing the
length of the unit and the amount of space required for its installation, and at the same time
reducing its cost as well as the tendency of the slender reaction rotor to vibrate.

5.9 Comparison between Impulse and reaction turbines
1. In a impulse turbine steam is expanded in nozzles where as in reaction turbine in both the
stationary and moving blades, steam is expanded.
2. An impulse stage of the same diameter as a reaction stage will absorb about 50 % more
energy at approximately the same efficiency. This means that to obtain the same water rate
reaction turbine should have about twice as many rows of revolving buckets of the same
wheel diameter as an impulse turbine.
3. To prevent an excessively long turbine reaction blades are made much narrower than
impulse blades and, therefore, weaker.
4. In reaction turbine in larger number of rows of moving blades necessitates the use of a
drum rotor instead of individual wheels as in impulse-turbines.
5. Small mechanical drive turbines are always impulse as the cost of a reaction turbine would
be prohibitive.
6. The inlet and exit angles of impulse blades are nearly equal and, therefore, have no
appreciable inherent end thrust, the exit angle of reaction blades is much less than the inlet
angle which produces considerable end thrust.
5.10 Advantage of impulse type turbines
1. Very little end thrust which can be carried by a relatively small thrust bearing.
2. Turbines can be quickly started as clearances are large i. e. heating of unit takes lesser
time.
3. No reduction in efficiency as the radial clearances at top of blades have no effect and
leakage between stages is slight, as the diameter of the rotor which must be sealed against
leakage is small in comparison with turbine wheel diameter.
4. If rubbing takes place the wheel will rub against the diaphragm and the turbine can be shut
down before serious break-down occurs.

5. Heavy section impulse blading with heavy blade roots permits use of blading having low
stresses.
6. Impulse turbines can be used as a mechanical drive very low duty to heavy duty drives.
7. Design and construction comparatively very simpler.
5.11 Disadvantages of reaction straight and impulse reaction turbines
1. Heavy end thrust which must be absorbed by a balancing piston with resulting large steam
leakage, or by a very large thrust bearing.
2. Longer time required for starting up due to close clearances.
3. Rapid decrease in efficiency due to wearing of balance piston surface.
4. Any rubbing of rotating and stationary blades will result in serious damages.
5. Blading is highly stressed due to use of light section.
6. Failure of balancing piston or thrust bearing will wreck the whole turbine unit.
7. Generally in low pressure stages longer blades without shrouding are fitted only fastened
with lacing wire which affect the rigidity of blade fixing.
8. Maintenance problem comparatively more difficult.

Chapter-6
MECHANICAL PARTS & CASE STUDY
6.1 LUBRICATION
Lubrication of moving machineries which are having oscillatory motion, reciprocating
motion or rotating motion etc. plays vital role for their longer-life, safe operation, efficient
running and over all performances. Main motive behind the lubrication is to cool the contact
surfaces, to separate them by providing a film in between the two moving parts, to take the
load coming on the stationary parts in all working conditions, to dissipate heat generated out
of friction and to carry away unwanted micro particles present in the system. For achieving
these objectives various methods of lubrication and a variety of lubricants are used. Various
methods of lubrication may comprise the pressure feed or forced feed, gravity feed, ring feed
splash or submerged oil system, feed wick and drop feed etc. General kinds of lubricants may
come under solid (grease, graphite powder) and fluid forms (oil & some gases). Greases may
be Na-base, lime-base, lithium base, soda-lime base and Al-base. Oil may be minerals,
vegetables and animals product. But at present practice mineral oils for most of the
lubrication systems are employed.
6.2 Properties of lubricants
The duties of lubricants are many and varied in scope, the lubricant is called upon to limit
and control,
a ) Friction
b ) Metal to metal contact
c ) Overheating
d ) Wear
e ) Corrosion
f ) Deposits

6.3 Lubricating oils Viscosity and viscosity index
Viscosity is the most important property of a lubricant which offers a resistance to flow. It is
measured in poise, centipoises, stokes, centistokes, eglar, redwood, S.S.U., or SAE units.
Absolute viscosity is obtained by multiplying Kinematic viscosity with its density. Viscosity
is influenced by temperature, pressure , and shear ( fluid motion ). Required viscosity of the
lubricant can be obtained by blending of two or more oils of different viscosities.
Viscosity index is the empirical system of expressing rate of change of viscosity of a
lubricant with change in temperature. The index number can be negative or can be greater
than 100.
Viscosity Index = Viscosity at 100°F - Viscosity at 212°F
Viscosity at 100°F
Oils with high viscosity index are desirable for use as lubricants. In cold starting, flatter
temp. Viscosity curve means less energy requirement.
6.4 Cloud and pour point
Petroleum oils when cooled may become plastic solids with the result either partial
separation of wax or congealing of hydrocarbons may take place.
In some oils, separation of wax becomes visible at temperatures slightly above the
solidification point.
This temperature is known as cloud point. With some oils, wax does not separate prior to
solidification or in some oils, wax separation is not visible. For such oils, cloud point can not
be determined.
Pour point is the temperature at which the oil in solidified condition will just start flowing on
gradual heating under prescribed condition. These are the temperatures below which oil
should not be used.

6.5 Flash and fire point
The flash point of oil is the temperature at which the oil, when heated, will generate
sufficient amount of flammable vapours which will flash momentarily when brought in
contact with flame. This is the temperature beyond which lubricant can not be used.
Fire point is the temperate above flash point at which the, oil, when heated, will continuously
generate vapours which will burn continuously when ignited. Generally, flash points are 30
to 50°F lower than fire points. Flash and fire points are dependent upon origin of the crude,
viscosity and method of refining. Generally, paraffinic oils have higher flash and fire points
as compared to naphthenic oils. Flash point and fire points are the good indications of
inflammability.
6.6 Acid & base number and corrosion
Each lubricating oil contains additives which may be acidic or basic in nature. Also, due to
oxidation, relative changes in oil take place. Further as an oil ages, the acidity increases. Acid
number or base number is the indication of acidity or basicity of an oil.
The acid number of used oil, in no way indicates the corrosive action of the used oil in
service. Certain detergent additives used to counteract acidic bodies which cause deposits
and corrosive wear are basic or alkaline in nature. Certain phosphorus and sulphur additives
are used to check corrosion in oils.
The use of oiliness additives such as fatty oils in some instances may result into bearing
corrosion especially where cadmium and certain alloy lead base bearings are used.
6.7 Oiliness
Oiliness of oil is the property of producing of an oil film on the surface. This is the
phenomenon which becomes strongly evident only when the oil film separating rubbing
surface is exceedingly thin. Oiliness depends on both the lubricant and the surface to which it
is attached. Oiliness in the property which causes a difference in friction when the lubricants
of same viscosity at the same temperature and pressure of the film are used with the same

bearing. Oiliness ensures adherence of oil film to the bearing resulting into less friction and
wear when the lubrication is in boundary region and also ensures protective covering against
corrosion.
6.8 Toxicity
For safe and easy handling of an oil, it should be non-toxic.

Chapter-7
HEAT EXCHANGERS
7.1 Introduction
The name “heat-transfer equipment” as used in this article, includes all those devices which
are used for the purpose of transmitting heat from a hot fluid to a colder fluid under all
conditions of temperature and pressure.
The pieces of equipment included in this report are largely unfired pressure vessels, such as
coolers, heaters, heat exchangers, steam generators, waste-heat boilers, vaporizers, reboilers,
chillers, partial condensers, and final condensers. Excluded is flame-fired equipment, such as
boilers.
In all of the mechanical equipment to be considered, the hot and cold media are separated by
a solid boundary wall which does two things ( 1 ) keeps the two fluids apart and (2) permits
heat to flow from the hot to the colder fluid. In most cases, this boundary is a metal tube or
pipe wall. In this equipment the most common mechanism by which heat is transferred is
forced convection, since both fluids are usually under forced flow.
7.2 Equipment & Function OF HEAR EXCHANGER
1. Chiller: Cools a fluid to a temperature below that obtainable if water only were used as a
coolant. It uses a refrigerant such as ammonia.
2. Condenser: Condenses a vapor or mixture of vapors, either alone or in the presence of a
non-condensable gas
3. Partial Condenser: Condenses vapors at a point high enough to provide a temperature
difference sufficient to preheat a cold stream of process fluid. This saves heat and eliminates
the need for providing a separate preheater.
4. Final Condenser : Condenses the vapors to a final storage temperature of approximately
100°F. It uses water-cooling, which means the transferred heat is lost to the process.

8. Heater :Imparts sensible heat to a liquid or a gas by means of condensing steam.
9. Reboiler :Connected to the bottom of a fractionating tower, it provides the reboil heat
necessary for distillation. The heating medium may be either steam or a hotter process fluid.
10. Steam Generator :Generates steam for use elsewhere in the plant by using the available
high level heat in tar or heavy oil.
11. Vaporizer :A heater which vaporizes part of the liquid.
12 Waste-Heat boiler :Produces steam, similar to steam generators, except that the heating
medium is a hot gas produced in a chemical reaction.

Chapter-8
BEARINGS
8.1 Introduction
Bearing is very important part for any equipment. Bearing allows shaft to rotate at the lowest
possible coefficient of friction and carries the axial/ radial loads. If bearings are not
employed, the coefficient of friction for dry surfaces which is in the range of 0.24 to 0.40 will
dissipate large amount energy of the prime mover and this huge amount of heat will generate.
However with properly lubricated bearings the coefficient of friction will drastically reduce
and will b in the range of 0.005 to 0.10. Thus, it will save considerable amount of energy
which would have been wasted otherwise. Several types of bearings are available for specific
duty.
8.2 Bearing classification
1. Radial bearing : A bearing applied to a rotating shaft to hold its axis in line and prevent
movement in a radial direction.
2. Thrust bearing: A bearing applied to a shaft to prevent free endwise movement.
3. Angular bearing : A bearing to limit a shaft against both radial and axial movement.
4. Guides or ways: Bearings to permit end control the rectilinear movement of a sliding
machine element, as a ram or cross-head or slide.
5. Sliding surface bearings: In such bearings the two contact faces kept separated by a film
or lubricant like oil, grease, graphite etc.
6. Rolling contact bearings: In such bearings the two machine elements, moving and
stationary parts are kept away with balls and rollers in between and include all types of ball
and roller bearings.
7. Self-aligning bearings: The parts automatically align themselves when assembled and
loaded.

8.3 Bearing selection
Generally, the type of bearing in a particular equipment is selected by the equipment
manufacturer / designer. However, following factors are considered for the selection of a
particular type of bearing
( a ) Radial / Thrust load
( b ) Nature of load i.e. constant, fluctuating, cyclic load.
( c ) Speed in rpm.
( d ) Shaft diameter.
( e ) Type of lubrication and their properties.
( f ) Temperature.
( g ) Corrosive service.
( h ) Bearing life.
For heavy equipment running at very high speeds and having high loads, plain journal
bearings with force feed oil lubrication are used e.g. Centrifugal Compressors, Turbines etc.
For equipment running at medium speed having medium loads, the roller/ ball bearing with
oil / grease lubrication are used. e.g. motors, pumps etc.
The rolling contact (anti friction ) bearings are having following five main parts-
(1 ) Inner race ring.
( 2 ) Outer race ring.
( 3) Cage or separator.
( 4 ) Balls or rollers.
( 5 ) Seals.

These bearings are manufactured from steel, alloy steel and stainless steel. The balls/ rollers
and contact surface of the inner/outer races are hardened suitably to withstand wear and tear.
The brass, Babbitt, lead and gunmetal are widely used for plain journal bearing as these
materials possess very good bearings properties.
8.4 SAFETY RELIEF VALVES
With modern process industry becoming more and more complex in design and operation,
the safety of the mankind, equipment and the plant has become of utmost importance. Hence,
different kind of precise control devices are provided which will control various parameters
in order to make the operation safe, such as temperature control, flow control, pressure
control by precise instrumentation. For example, the steam pressure in boiler is controlled
automatically be controlling fuel firing in furnace. In spite of this, the emergency arises and
pressure becomes uncontrollable due to failure of such control devices, may be due to failure
in air supply or power supply in instrument or due to mal-functioning of the instrument.
However, in a continuous process plant, boiler can not be shut down.

CONCLUSION
So this is all about the learning‟s at Indian Farmers Fertilizer Co-operative Limited (IFFCO)
within 45 DAYS. To do my summer training in IFFCO was a phenomenal learning
experience for me. This one month was a joy ride for me in the mechanical field, and now on
completion of my training I can say that I have gained very sound knowledge in mechanical
field.

SAFETY MEASURES
 Always wear helmet for protection of head.
 Always wear spectacles for protection of dust
 Wear dust mask to protect dust from entering nose.
 Wear gloves while doing oily work.
 Always wear shoes to protect our self from electric shock.

IFFCO's journey to become a leading fertilizer producer in India

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