This document discusses health and safety issues affecting children worldwide and throughout development. It covers major global health concerns like early childhood mortality and efforts to prevent it through immunizations and access to clean water. Specific safety risks for older children and adolescents discussed include homicide, suicide, and unintentional injuries which remain leading causes of death. The importance of preventative measures to reduce accidents is emphasized.
Introduction to ArtificiaI Intelligence in Higher Education
Ensuring Child Health and Safety Worldwide
1. 6Health and Safety
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Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
ሁ Describe global health concerns and efforts that prevent
childhood mortality.
ሁ Identify common threats to infant, childhood, and adolescent
safety.
ሁ Identify common diseases of childhood and their potential
consequences.
ሁ Examine trends in nutrition and activity and their effects on
health. Compare activity guidelines with
current practice.
ሁ Summarize the effects of malnutrition on development.
ሁ Outline the risks to health posed by overweight and obesity.
ሁ Compare and contrast three major eating disorders.
Section 6.1Worldwide Early Childhood Mortality and
Prevention Efforts
Prologue
After the end of World War II and the beginning of the baby
boomer generation, Americans
became more mobile, giving birth to the suburbs. As people
moved, so did diseases. Screen
2. media, from which most children now get their information
about the world, was virtually
nonexistent in the 1940s. Despite its obvious benefits, screen
media contribute to a sedentary
lifestyle and sometimes promote other unhealthy behaviors
through advertisements. Who
would have thought that new technology would have such a
profound effect on health, safety,
and nutrition? Whereas many adults use technology and the
easier access to information to
stay healthy, children often become heavier and may eventually
die younger because of it.
Family influences are entwined in the 21st century culture, as
well. Compared to the 1960s,
when I was a child, more fathers in North America, Europe, and
elsewhere are involved in the
daily care and upbringing of their children. No doubt, part of
my children’s physical, cogni-
tive, and psychosocial health was influenced by the care that my
wife and I provided. And
that care has been influenced by socioeconomic, historical, and
cultural factors. For instance,
the number of single mothers has grown dramatically since the
1960s. Because single moth-
ers generally have fewer social and economic resources than
two-parent families, it is more
difficult for them to ensure their children’s health and
safety. In addition, previous generations of children were
typically freer to roam their neighborhoods and engaged
in random physical activity; now there is more orga-
nized sports activity that includes safety standards. This
module explores these health and safety issues within a
contemporary context, while also examining significant
historical trends.
3. 6.1 Worldwide Early Childhood Mortality
and Prevention Efforts
The United Nations established the Millennium Development
Goals to reduce the unaccept-
ably high under-5 mortality rate by two-thirds between 1990
and 2015 (United Nations,
2014). Because of their large populations, just five countries
account for half of early child-
hood deaths: India, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Pakistan, and China. However,
worldwide, the annual rate of under-5 mortality dropped from
12.6 million to 6.6 million, a
48% decrease between 1990 and 2012. Though a vast
improvement from when the Millen-
nium Project began, approximately 18,000 children still die
each day, or about 1 out of 20
live births. Sub-Saharan Africa continues to have the highest
rates of child mortality. Due to
wars, disease, and famine, 1 in 10 children do not live past their
fifth birthdays in that part of
the world.
Although the goal of a two-thirds reduction in child mortality
worldwide is likely out of reach
at the moment due to lack of progress in Sub-Saharan Africa,
Southern Asia, and Oceania,
there is nevertheless substantial good news. For instance, during
the decade from 2000 to
2009, the decline in child mortality accelerated, compared with
the previous decade (Fig-
ure 6.1). Gains have been made in combating poverty,
increasing primary school education,
addressing disease and mortality due to AIDS and malaria, and
providing greater access to
4. clean drinking water. Among children under 5 worldwide,
unsanitary conditions and lack of
Critical Thinking
Name one of each type of variable that con-
tributes to the worldwide health and safety of
children: individual, family, community, societal,
and political.
Section 6.1Worldwide Early Childhood Mortality and
Prevention Efforts
clean drinking water contribute to the 15% of deaths caused by
diarrheal diseases. In com-
parison, deaths due to diarrheal diseases in the United States
accounted for less than 0.1% of
deaths in children younger than 5 (Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention [CDC], 2014a).
Figure 6.1: Mortality rate for children under 5 worldwide,
1990 and 2012
ሁ Survival rates began to accelerate in 2000, continuing the
substantial gains of the previous
decade. Nevertheless, the goal of a two-thirds reduction in
mortality of children under 5 is unlikely to
be met by 2015.
U
n
d
e
r-
12. 53
14 15
6
99
53
Source: Adapted with permission from the Millennium
Development Goals Report, United Nations, 2013.
Immunizations
After basic needs of nutrition, warmth, and security are
fulfilled, we can look to provide more
advanced safety. Beginning in early infancy, immunizations
provide an essential avenue for
protection. In developed countries, their widespread use has
made a dramatic difference in
the health of infants and older children. However, a significant
number of American infants
and toddlers do not receive a full program of immunizations.
Based on the most recent
records, coverage of recommended childhood vaccinations
ranged from 53% (hepatitis A)
to 94% (DTaP, for diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis). Fewer
than 1% of infants and children
receive no vaccines (CDC, 2013c; Wooten, Kolasa, Singleton, &
Shefer, 2009).
Childhood immunizations are responsible for the near
elimination of diseases such as polio
and measles and are the best defense against viruses (there are
no cures for viruses; treat-
ments focus on relief of symptoms and the reduction of
13. severity). As Figure 6.2 shows, since
Section 6.1Worldwide Early Childhood Mortality and
Prevention Efforts
the widespread use of measles vaccine
beginning in the 1960s, the number of cases
has been reduced from three-quarters of a
million to fewer than 100 in 2012 (CDC,
2014a).
However, because of an unfounded fear of
vaccine side effects, many parents delay the
administration of childhood vaccines. Spe-
cifically, as noted in Module 2, media reports
in the early part of the 21st century errone-
ously suggested a link between autism and
the MMR (measles-mumps-rubella) vac-
cine, which led to fewer vaccinations and
more disease. As a result, although measles
was virtually eradicated within the United
States by 2000, the number of cases through
July 2014 was already triple the previous
year’s total cases (CDC, 2014a). By year end,
the number of cases was expected to be
higher than every year since 1996.
Figure 6.2: Measles cases in the United States, from 1958 to the
first
part of 2014
ሁ Incidence of measles decreased dramatically after vaccines
were distributed widely, but success
sometimes breeds complacency, as indicated by temporary
17. Section 6.2Safety in Later Childhood and Adolescence
The same pattern has occurred for whooping cough
(pertussis), a highly contagious virus that can cause
serious respiratory problems. In the United States,
cases of whooping cough spiked in 2012 at nearly
50,000 children, more than any year since 1955 (CDC,
2013d). Globally, it affects between 30 and 50 million
children annually, resulting in about 300,000 deaths.
Though older children and adults contract pertussis, as well,
infants are especially vulnerable
and accounted for all nine of the pertussis-related deaths in the
United States in 2013
(CDC, 2014e).
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
Summarize the major health concerns that affect young children
throughout the world.
6.2 Safety in Later Childhood and Adolescence
Preventable diseases like polio and measles are a danger to
millions of children, but in the
United States, asthma, diabetes, poor nutritional choices, and
accidents are more immedi-
ate concerns. These conditions result from a complex blend of
individual, family, community,
societal, and political variables—main features of the ecological
perspective. Because health
and physical fitness remain central to development, this section
explores some specific child-
hood risks and ways to keep children physically safe.
Homicide and Suicide
Most people do not think of homicide as a leading cause of
death in childhood, yet statistics
18. tell a different story. Tragically, homicide is the second leading
cause of death for 1 year olds
in the United States, accounting for over 10% of deaths in this
age group. It is also the sec-
ond leading cause of death among teenagers, accounting for
16% of all adolescent fatalities
(CDC, 2014e). Of 1,927 homicides that were recorded, 85%
were due to firearms. Homicide
is particularly disturbing in the black community, where it is
easily the leading cause of death
among adolescents (75% more than accidents, the second
leading cause). The homicide rate
among black adolescents in the United States is five times
greater than among the non-black
population.
Homicides among children and adolescents are quite different in
the United States than those
that occur under military regimes in Africa and some parts of
Asia. Child homicide and the
recruitment and enslavement of children into armies persists in
countries like Central African
Republic and South Sudan, where political unrest is the norm
(Human Rights Watch, 2013).
Children are vulnerable in other countries, as well, including
notable problem areas like Syria
and North Korea. Both government and opposition forces in
these areas will use family neigh-
borhoods, students, and schools as shields, turning children into
targets.
Critical Thinking
How do you think issues regarding immuniza-
tions differ among parents from undeveloped,
rural Indonesia and middle-class families from
the United States?
19. Section 6.2Safety in Later Childhood and Adolescence
Among other adolescent subsets, suicide is more common than
homicide. Overall, each year
about 2% of teenagers in the United States make suicide
attempts that are serious enough
to require medical attention; 1,863 succeed, making suicide the
third leading cause of death
among teenagers (CDC, 2014c). Depression and psychosocial
risk factors for suicide are
explored more directly in Module 11.
Unintentional Injuries (Accidents)
Despite the high rates of homicide and suicide, after the risk of
sudden infant death syndrome
disappears, unintentional injuries (accidents) account for more
deaths during early child-
hood than the next 20 causes combined. Unintentional injury
remains the leading cause of
death throughout the rest of childhood (CDC, 2014e). Due to
stricter safety standards for
infants and toddlers and increased awareness through the media
and educational sources,
death caused by accidents continues to decline. Though nearly
1,400 children under age 5
died as a result of preventable accidents in 2010 (the year for
which the most recent data are
available), that number represents a 13% reduction from only 5
years earlier. Accidental
deaths among older children and adolescents show significant
declines as well.
Parents and caregivers need to be espe-
20. cially vigilant as infants quickly attain more
sophisticated motor skills. Without careful
supervision, very young children can ingest
small objects, toddle into a pool, or run
into the street. School-age children have
their own set of dangers as they partici-
pate in more unsupervised activities. By the
time children reach adolescence, suddenly
there are new threats, due to both cogni-
tive changes and cognitive immaturity, that
often lead them toward high-risk behaviors.
Racial and ethnic differences exist in prone-
ness to accidents, likely because of different
cultural norms. Asian American children,
for instance, have a relatively low rate of
accidents, perhaps due to stricter parental supervision. Factors
associated with an increase
in accidents and death rates in children include being a boy,
spending time in daycare versus
home care, and being raised in a lower socioeconomic urban
area (Jaffe et al., 2011; Khamba-
lia et al., 2006; Schwebel & Gaines, 2007; Sinclair, Smith, &
Xiang, 2006). Differences in socio-
economic status (SES) are particularly pronounced in injuries
related to fires, drownings, and
falls, perhaps because the lack of financial resources or
education leads to deficient preven-
tion efforts or a lack of safe play areas (Birken, Parkin, To, &
Macarthur, 2006; Schwebel &
Gaines, 2007). Outside the United States, low SES has a
similarly strong positive association
with burns, fires, drownings, and poisonings (Burrows, Auger,
Gamache, & Hamel, 2012; Myt-
ton, Towner, Powell, Pilkington, & Gray, 2012).
21. Road and Traffic Safety
Motor vehicle accidents are the leading causes of death of
children aged 2 to 5, accounting
for nearly a third of all childhood fatalities within that age
range (CDC, 2014e). It is estimated
Purestock/Thinkstock
ሁ Part of parenting includes insisting on
preventive measures that reduce the negative
consequences of accidents.
Section 6.2Safety in Later Childhood and Adolescence
that more than 70% of crash fatalities could be prevented by the
proper use of seat restraints
(National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2013).
Additionally, in urban centers world-
wide, more children are killed as pedestrians during the
preschool years than during any
other period of childhood (Wang et al., 2012). Young children
do not inherently understand
the difference between running after a ball in the yard and
running after one in the street. The
lack of judgment combined with a high level of activity may
cause preschoolers to run into
danger, climb to unsafe heights, and explore toxic substances.
The same characteristics that make preschool and early
childhood a joyful and curious time
of life can also lead to dangers. In early childhood, children
walk to school for the first time
and begin to ride their bicycles onto busy roads. As they are
22. given more responsibility, they
still need frequent “refresher courses” on safety. In a
naturalistic study that observed 5- to
9-year-old children crossing at intersections near schools, it was
found that parents modeled
behavior for boys more than girls and did not actually provide
explicit instruction at all. When
they do, safety improves significantly (Barton, Schwebel, &
Morrongiello, 2007; Morrongiello
& Bartona, 2009). As hard as it is sometimes, adults also need
to provide proper modeling. If
parents disobey traffic signals, then their children are likely to
do the same. The good news is
that, among nondrivers, total traffic fatalities have been
dropping (albeit unsteadily) for over
a decade, including a steep 20% drop in the latest year of
reporting (see Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3: Number of traffic fatalities among children 15 and
younger, 1989–2011
ሁ The number of traffic fatalities involving children has
declined significantly over more than
20 years.
<5 years old 5–9 years old 10–15 years old
F
a
ta
li
ty
r
a
24. 900
600
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Source: Adapted from NHTSA, 2010, 2013.
Section 6.2Safety in Later Childhood and Adolescence
Skating and Cycling
In 2007, skateboarding injuries caused an estimated 65,000
emergency room visits by chil-
dren and adolescents, about 2,000 of them serious enough to
require hospitalization. These
numbers are actually an improvement from 2000, when more
than 100,000 skateboard-
related hospitalizations were required (Consumer Product Safety
Commission, n.d.). World-
wide, the use of safety equipment while skating is still not the
norm. However, emergency
medical treatments usually involve lower leg sprains and breaks
rather than traumatic head
injuries (Keilani et al., 2010; Strojek et al., 2011). Of course,
when head injuries do occur,
there is great potential for permanent disability.
Cycling injuries account for another 207,000 emergency room
visits each year among those
aged 14 and under (Stranges, Uscher-Pines, & Stocks, 2012).
Children will, of course, continue
to engage in these activities, but as they become more actively
involved in cycling and skat-
25. ing, protective measures need to be emphasized. Head injuries
in particular can have lifelong
consequences. It is estimated that proper helmet use while
skating and cycling can reduce
catastrophic head injuries by as much as 88% and fatalities by
as much as 85% (Insurance
Institute for Highway Safety, 2013; Mills & Gilchrist, 2008).
Drowning and Water Injuries
The second most common cause of accidental death among all
children 14 and younger and
the leading cause among 1- and 2-year-olds is drowning (CDC,
2014e). On average, nearly two
children per day drown, but more than eight times that number
are injured enough that they
require emergency hospital treatment (CDC, 2014f ). Children
who have near-drowning expe-
riences often have mild to severe brain damage, including many
who end up in a permanent
vegetative state.
After children start walking, they are more likely to drown in
swimming pools than anywhere
else (Brenner, Trumble, Smith, Kessler, & Overpeck, 2001).
When children drown in swim-
ming pools they typically do so silently, when parents or
caregivers are only a few steps away.
In fact, most young drowning victims are in the care of one or
both parents and are unsu-
pervised for less than 5 minutes (National Center for Injury
Prevention and Control, 2010).
Adolescents, on the other hand, experience more danger around
natural water environments
like lakes and oceans (Gilchrist, Gotsch, & Ryan, 2010). They
misjudge levels of risk, including
ocean riptides and jumping and diving, and ignore warnings to
26. use life preservers in moving
watercraft. More than 80% of children (and adults) who
drowned in boating accidents were
not taking the simple precaution of wearing a life preserver
(U.S. Coast Guard, 2013).
Falls
Fatal injuries increase through middle childhood and then
accelerate rapidly into adoles-
cence. Rates of injuries and fatal accidents to boys outnumber
girls by a two-to-one margin.
Children have a higher rate of playground injuries in middle
childhood (elementary school
age) than at any other time (Phelan, Koury, Kalkwarf, &
Lanphear, 2001). In response to the
high injury rate from falling, schools have replaced traditional
metal climbing equipment with
larger playground structures (“climbers”) and hard rubber
ground covers with softer materi-
als. As a result, injuries among 6 to 12 year olds from falls have
decreased substantially.
Section 6.2Safety in Later Childhood and Adolescence
F O C U S O N B E H A V I O R : S a f e t y
When my son was about 18 months old, we had a number of
“baby gates” installed in our
house. The problem—for me—was that Max could easily climb
over the 2½-foot obstacle.
One day we were adamant about keeping Max out of a particular
room after he woke up
from a nap, so we installed an additional gate above the first
one, creating a 5-foot bar-
rier. Some time later, I was fortunate to turn just at the moment
27. Max had scaled to the very
top of the “wall” and was swinging his body to the other side.
He had not made a sound.
Although Max was obviously capable of climbing the gates,
coming back down takes quite
a bit more skill for a child who is not yet 2 years old. Had I
stepped out for a moment, Max
would likely have landed in the hospital—or worse. Just like
other circumstances that
result in tragic consequences, I thought my makeshift safety
device would be sufficient
since I would be away for only a few moments at a time. But as
with swimming pools, bath-
tubs, and other situations, it takes only a moment for potential
tragedy to strike.
Concussions
Recently, particular attention has been paid to the dangers of
concussion in American foot-
ball. Information, though mostly anecdotal, about the permanent
brain injuries suffered by
college and professional athletes has also resulted in efforts to
prevent head injuries among
high school athletes and younger children who play in
recreational leagues. Recent minor
changes to rules and equipment are intended to prevent short-
and long-term brain damage,
but there have been no major breakthroughs in prevention.
Recognizing the scarcity of scien-
tific evidence, at the end of 2013 the National Institute of
Neurological Disorders and Stroke
initiated a project to prevent further injuries related to
concussion in high school athletes
(National Institutes of Health, 2013).
28. Safety at Home
Other than motor vehicle accidents, most unintentional injuries
occur in the home. Drown-
ings, burns, poisonings, and falls are largely preventable
(Rimsza, Schackner, Bowen, & Mar-
shall, 2002). Parents of young children need to keep sharp
objects out of reach. Doors need to
be secured so that children cannot wander outside. Electrical
outlets can be protected with
inexpensive covers. Adults also need to always turn handles of
pots and pans away from the
edge of the counter to prevent accidental spills and burns.
Secure cabinets and child locks are
available to keep chemicals and cleaning supplies out of the
reach of children.
It is extremely important for homeowners to look vigilantly for
stored poisons and other toxic
supplies in garages, bathrooms, and elsewhere, but by far the
largest source of childhood
poisonings is medications. Over 90,000 emergency room visits
each year are due to poison-
related medication exposure (excluding recreational drug use), a
rate that is more than twice
as high as for household products like cleansers and automobile
fluids (CDC, 2014f; Schillie,
Shehab, Thomas, & Budnitz, 2009).
Sibling Supervision
Many parents mistakenly believe that because their children can
recite safety rules, they are
safe. Children whose parents assume that verbal
acknowledgement is the same as behavioral
29. Section 6.2Safety in Later Childhood and Adolescence
compliance are more likely to have home injuries
(Morrongiello, Ondejko, & Littlejohn, 2004).
When older siblings (rather than parents) supervise younger
children, more risky behaviors
ensue. Parents then focus on simple rule violations (e.g., “No
throwing books”) rather than
on the consequences of behavior. Parents may think that their
older children have supervi-
sory practices similar to their own, but studies suggest that
older children are more lenient.
Younger children seem to be quite aware that “no parents”
means getting away with behav-
ior that otherwise would not be allowed (Khambalia et al.,
2006; Morrongiello, MacIsaac, &
Klemencic, 2007).
Injury Prevention
Declines in death rates attributable to accidents are probably
due to the combination of
increased awareness, public education about the implementation
of safety products like hel-
mets and seatbelts, and manufacturing improvements in the
products themselves (Currie,
2008). Consistently using car seats and bike helmets and
obeying traffic laws are easy ways to
protect against potential injuries.
Preventing traffic injuries must be a mul-
tifaceted process. Keep in mind the differ-
ent levels of the ecological systems model.
Some designs are individual, like proper
modeling and use of bike helmets by adults.
Others take massive community resources
and planning, like the Harlem Hospital
30. Injury Prevention Program. This program
was implemented in 1988 to reduce the
extremely high rate of accidents in a rela-
tively contained area of New York. New
playgrounds were built, older playgrounds
were refurbished, and school and traffic
education programs were implemented.
A community bicycle safety initiative was
developed along with a number of super-
vised recreational programs for children (Durkin, Laraque,
Lubman, & Barlow, 1999). This
comprehensive program resulted in a 36% reduction in traffic-
related injuries to school-age
children and an impressive 73% decline in head trauma due to
cycling accidents, demonstrat-
ing the profound effect that prevention programs can have on
health and safety.
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
List some common threats to childhood safety. What kinds of
educational programs and
ecological changes can be implemented to diminish such
threats? Search the scientific lit-
erature for at least one example.
Zer05/iStock/Thinkstock
ሁ Parents can take simple measures to increase
child safety.
Section 6.3Illnesses
6.3 Illnesses
31. Although illnesses can become serious, usually the biggest
health concern among infants and
younger children is the common cold, accounting for about 75%
of all childhood illnesses
(Schlesselman, 2006). Colds frequently cause secondary
conditions like ear infections (otitis
media), which occur with much greater frequency in infants and
toddlers than in older chil-
dren (Rovers, Schilder, Zielhuis, & Rosenfeld, 2004). Colds in
infants can cause strain on the
entire family. Parents have to sit up at night with crying
children, leading to increased sleep
deprivation, and it can be difficult to find a friend or relative to
stay home during the day with
a sick child. Doctor’s appointments and missed work add to
overall discomfort and stress.
Although in rare instances children experience hearing loss
from untreated or frequent ear
infections, for the most part children emerge from early
childhood unscathed by the
common cold.
Children born in lower-SES families are more likely to have
health problems than those born
to middle- and upper-income families (Séguin, Xu, Potvin,
Zunzunegui, & Frohlich, 2003). A
number of associated variables contribute to this finding.
Compared to children from middle-
and upper-income families, lower-SES children are more likely
to have health problems at
birth, to have more chronic conditions like asthma and diabetes,
to be hospitalized frequently,
to be exposed to poorer air quality, to experience more
noise and more stress, and to have parents with less
education and fewer resources to understand health-
related issues (Case, Lubotsky, & Paxson, 2001; Diabe-
32. tes Public Health Resource, 2010; Evans, Bullinger, &
Hygge, 1998). Given all these factors, it is not surpris-
ing that children from lower-income families miss more
school and experience the consequences that go along
with receiving less education.
Asthma
Asthma is the most common chronic disease in children. It
causes breathing airways to
become inflamed and narrow, leading to shortness of breath, a
feeling of tightness in the
chest, and coughing. For unknown reasons, rates of asthma have
been rising worldwide. In
the United States, it is currently at its highest level ever; over
10 million children are afflicted.
About 7 million children had an asthmatic episode within the
previous 12 months (Akin-
bami et al., 2012; Bloom, Cohen, & Freeman, 2012). Asthma
causes constriction of the air-
ways and induces wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath.
Fortunately, under ordinary
conditions it can usually be controlled and does not inhibit
physical growth and development
in any noticeable way. Factors that affect severity and
responsiveness to medication include
tobacco smoke, air pollution and other air contaminants,
respiratory infections, stress, and
myriad genetic markers (National Heart, Lung and Blood
Institute, 2013; Ober, Hoffjan, &
Hoffjan, 2006).
Research into the specific causes of asthma is generally
inconclusive, though there is prob-
ably a complex interaction among environmental and genetic
variables (Belsky et al., 2013).
For unknown reasons, it is more prevalent in wealthier countries
33. but leads to higher mortal-
ity in developing countries. Prevalence also increases in groups
that move from rural areas
to more urban areas. These findings imply that some kind of
environmental effect is related
to industrial development. Interestingly, despite stronger
environmental safeguards in the
Critical Thinking
Name some advantages and disadvantages of
home schooling that might specifically affect
children who have one of the chronic diseases
mentioned in this section.
Section 6.3Illnesses
United States, Mexican children born in the United States have
a higher prevalence of asthma
than those born in Mexico (Eldeirawi et al., 2009). In general,
immigrant children and adoles-
cents have a lower rate of asthma than do those who are native
born, a pattern that occurs in
other countries, like Sweden, as well (Bråbäck, Vogt, & Hjern,
2011; Singh, Yu, & Kogan, 2013).
Further variations occur within other demographic groups, as
indicated in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4: Asthma prevalence in U.S. children, 2012
ሁ Scientists have few clues to explain the wide demographic
variation in asthma prevalence in those
under the age of 18.
P
37. isp
an
ic
M
ex
ica
n
Source: Adapted from National Health Interview Survey,
National Center for Health Statistics, CDC , 2013.
Diabetes
On average, diabetes has much more serious consequences than
asthma. Diabetes refers to a
group of diseases that occur when high levels of sugar in the
blood are not regulated properly
by the body’s normal systems. The increased incidence of
diabetes in childhood is now a wor-
risome trend. A long-term scientific projection foresees a near
doubling of the diabetic popu-
lation by the year 2050 (Boyle, Thompson, Gregg, Barker, &
Williamson, 2010). There are two
main kinds of diabetes. Type I diabetes occurs when the body
fails to produce the hormone
insulin and thus requires a daily delivery of it, usually by
injection. It is a lifelong condition
that puts individuals at increased risk for cardiovascular
disease, kidney and nerve damage,
and circulatory problems that may lead to serious infections.
With proper insulin manage-
ment, children can live otherwise healthy, productive lives. As
Figure 6.5 shows, the rate of
Type I diabetes varies significantly among racial and ethnic
38. groups. For unknown reasons,
non-Hispanic whites have the highest rate of this type of
diabetes.
Section 6.3Illnesses
Figure 6.5: Rates of new cases of Type I and Type II diabetes,
by age
and race/ethnicity
ሁ Rates of Type I and Type II diabetes vary significantly as a
function of age and race/ethnicity. The
percentage of cases that are Type II increases substantially
beginning in preadolescence.
Type 1 diabetes Type 2 diabetes
Rate (per 100,000 per year)
0 20 3010 40 50
All
Non-Hispanic white
Ages 9 & under
Ages 10−19
African Americans
Hispanics
Asians/Paci�c
39. Islanders
American Indians
All
Non-Hispanic white
African Americans
Hispanics
Asians/Paci�c
Islanders
American Indians
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National
Diabetes Statistics Report: Estimates of Diabetes and Its Burden
in
the United States, 2014. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services; 2014. Retrieved from
http://www.cdc.gov/
diabetes/pubs/statsreport14/national-diabetes-report-web.pdf. In
this report it is figure on top of page 4.
Type II diabetes was previously called adult-onset diabetes
because most cases were diagnosed during adulthood. In
Type II diabetes, the body does not use insulin efficiently and
then compensates by overproducing it. Over several years, the
compensatory mechanisms break down and medical inter-
ventions to boost insulin levels are necessary. The condition
can be particularly pronounced beginning in adolescence, as
there is a natural process of insulin resistance during puberty
(Katz et al., 2011). Regardless of when it occurs, symptoms
appear somewhat slowly. Therefore monitoring and preven-
40. tion are key to diabetes management. By far the strongest
environmental risk factors for Type II diabetes are a sedentary
BSIP/SuperStock
ሁ Children who have Type I diabetes eventually learn
to give themselves injections.
http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/statsreport14/national-
diabetes-report-web.pdf
http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/statsreport14/national-
diabetes-report-web.pdf
Section 6.4Nutrition and Activity
lifestyle and poor nutrition that lead to overweight and obesity
(Anhêa et al., 2013). And
unlike Type I diabetes, Type II diabetes can be prevented and
often reversed with lifestyle
changes, even in teenagers (Buchanan & Xiang, 2010; Inge et
al., 2009).
Other Effects of Illnesses
Many children suffer from more severe illnesses, like sickle cell
disease or cystic fibrosis. Cys-
tic fibrosis is a life-threatening genetic disease that affects an
estimated 30,000 children. Usu-
ally beginning by age 2 years, children develop thick, sticky
mucus deposits in their lungs,
which leads to impaired breathing and frequent lung infections,
and results in short stature.
In general, childhood diseases like these often result in greater
inactivity. They ultimately
affect a child’s ability to participate in the same activities as
peers. Missed school days trans-
41. late to disadvantages in cognitive development and lost social
opportunities. Participation
in team sports is sometimes limited. And many children find it
embarrassing to use inhalers
or take medication. Side effects from medication also affect
cognitive development, as sleep
may be disrupted and concentration in school is affected.
Following a strict diet or medical
routine may cause frustration and anxiety. Further, research
supports a direct link between
chronic conditions like asthma and increased stress and
depression (Peters & Fritz, 2010).
These effects once again point to the powerful interactions
among physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial factors in development.
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
Describe the causes, treatments, and consequences of chronic
diseases of childhood.
6.4 Nutrition and Activity
Ordinarily, proper nutrition and daily activity are two of the
most essential components
for lifelong health. Due to a cultural change in these
components of well-being, American
children born in the 21st century are projected to be the first
generation since the Ameri-
can Revolution to have a life expectancy that is shorter than
their parents’ (Olshansky et
al., 2005). Consequences of poor eating habits and a sedentary
lifestyle can lead to serious
health complications in adulthood. We are beginning to see that
trend now, as large-scale
studies are consistently discovering that poor childhood
nutrition and lack of activity are
associated with a heavier adult weight, diabetes, and
42. cardiovascular diseases (He et al.,
2014; Kaikkonen et al., 2013). This section provides further
details on these important
health factors.
Section 6.4Nutrition and Activity
Historical trends have cut in to the traditional dinner hour as
stay-at-home parents are no
longer the norm and children’s extracurricular activities often
affect daily routines. However,
planning—and preparing—dinners together can have nourishing
advantages. The earlier
that parents can begin a dinner routine that excludes toys,
television, electronics, and other
distractions, the healthier mealtime can be. That elusive
“quality” time that parents strive for
will become a natural outgrowth of the “quantity” time that
family meals provide.
Nutritional Needs
The rapid growth cycles during infancy and adolescence
bookend a period of slower physical
growth. As most children begin to exclusively eat solid foods in
their second year, many par-
ents in the United States go to great lengths to ensure that their
children are eating enough.
But since the rate of growth begins to slow after infancy,
children need less food to fuel growth.
Even though height (length) increases by nearly 10 inches (25
centimeters [cm], a whopping
50%) in the first year of life, children gain, on average, just 5
inches (12.7 cm) in the second
year (refer back to Figures 5.9 and 5.10).
43. If provided with good choices, toddlers and preschoolers are
actually quite good at control-
ling their nutritional intake. Many adults worry about how much
children are eating, but they
should focus instead on what they are eating. Anxious parents
may stuff their children full of
pizza, hamburgers, fried chicken nuggets, and macaroni and
cheese several times a week—or
even daily—because of worry about their children starving.
However, if offered a number of
nutritious choices at mealtime, children will learn to self-
regulate. Alternatively, when the
culture encourages young children to eat more than they
naturally want to consume, overeat-
ing behaviors are rewarded and it can set a precedent for a
lifelong weight problem.
Meals can consist of a number of options that are low in fat and
high in fiber and include fruits
and vegetables. On a daily basis, children need to consume
proteins that are found in meat,
soy, rice, beans, most dairy, and peanut butter. It is also
important to pay particular attention
to foods high in iron, including dark leafy vegetables, iron-
fortified cereals, and meat and sea-
food, in order to prevent fatigue associated with iron-deficiency
anemia. Finally, calcium-rich
foods are needed to build healthy bones and teeth. Milk and
other dairy products are usually
the best sources, but calcium can also be found in soy,
vegetables, nuts, and some fish.
F O C U S O N B E H A V I O R : W h a t ’ s f o r D i n n e
r ?
Is there a connection between family dinners and
44. overall health? Studies find that family meal times
are associated with a lower chance of obesity and
greater overall health (Fulkerson, Larson, Horning,
& Neumark-Sztainer, 2014). Additionally, children
who sit down to meals with their parents have a
lower incidence of antisocial behavior and conduct
problems. Family dinners and parental engagement
can have a protective effect against poor grades,
smoking, drinking, and drug use (The Importance of
Family Dinners VI, 2010).
Comstock Images/Exactostock/SuperStock
Section 6.4Nutrition and Activity
F O C U S O N B E H A V I O R : P r o v i d i n g H e a l t h
i e r F o o d
O p t i o n s
Studies have demonstrated what many nutritionists have
suggested for years: Children
will opt for healthier breakfast foods if given a choice. In one
study, researchers randomly
assigned 91 children who were attending a summer camp into
two groups. All were
offered milk, orange juice, fresh fruit, sugar packets, and an
assortment of cereals. One
group had a choice of high-sugar cereals like Fruit Loops and
Frosted Flakes and the other
had a choice of low-sugar cereals like Cheerios and Rice
Krispies (Harris et al., 2011).
Although the low-sugar group used more sugar packets on their
cereal, they still consumed
less than half the amount of refined sugar overall, compared to
45. the high-sugar group.
Furthermore, 54% of the low-sugar group ate fruit, compared to
only 8% of the high-sugar
group. Importantly, both groups rated their meals as equally
enjoyable. Total calories con-
sumed did not differ significantly, as the high-sugar group made
up for eating less fruit by
consuming larger portions of cereal.
Thus, it appears that children will indeed choose healthier food
options if given an alterna-
tive, and that less healthy options like high-sugar cereals
prevent the consumption of more
nutritious food.
It may seem self-evident, but research confirms that children
generally follow the nutritional
habits of their parents. It is the reason that comparatively more
Japanese children eat fish
and American children eat hamburgers. If children initially
reject certain foods, adults should
neither immediately rush to find substitutes nor remove those
items from future menus. In an
extensive survey of adolescent dietary habits, it was found that
teenagers who ate more fruits
and vegetables had parents who also ate more fruits and
vegetables. Parents who drank more
soda predicted teenagers who drank more soda and ate more fast
food. Therefore, parents
can have either a positive or a negative effect on their
children’s eating behavior (Diamant et
al., 2009).
In underdeveloped countries, researchers have looked at the
nutritional backgrounds of
46. school-age children and how cognitive, social, and emotional
functioning is affected. Chil-
dren who take in more nutrients are more involved with their
peers, express more positive
emotions, and display less anxiety, compared to peers who are
poorly nourished (Barrett &
Radke-Yarrow, 1985; Grantham-McGregor & Baker-
Henningham, 2005; Leavitt, Tonniges, &
Rogers, 2003). Well-nourished children show more curiosity,
which translates directly to a
keener involvement in school-related activities. In addition,
they are more persistent when
they become frustrated, display more self-confidence, and show
more alertness and better
energy, all attributes associated with better school performance.
From a purely pragmatic perspective, it is fairly obvious that a
full stomach affects learning.
Hungry children (and adults) do not concentrate as well because
they are thinking about being
hungry, getting food, and eating. When there are more
distractions, whether internal (hunger
pains) or cognitive (thinking about the next meal), learning and
concentration are compromised.
As children enter elementary school, their exposure to
unhealthy food choices generally grows.
Schedules become denser, with homework, after-school
activities, and visits to friends’ houses.
Foods high in fat and sugar often become part of the daily diet.
Though some parents try to be
Section 6.4Nutrition and Activity
47. extra vigilant in restricting certain foods, there are sometimes
social ramifications of forbid-
ding cake and ice cream at parties and candy consumption
during holidays. These nutritional
issues do not necessarily have a profound impact on daily
functioning. A temporary diet of
cheeseburgers, pizza, and ice cream will not affect memory and
concentration. As in many
other areas of life, moderation is key. As is discussed in Module
12, children need to balance a
burgeoning sense of autonomy and initiative with the potential
for social disapproval.
F O C U S O N B E H A V I O R : P r o m o t i n g H e a l t h
y H a b i t s
During the weeks in which mandatory state testing takes place,
schoolchildren are
implored to “come on time, get a good night’s sleep, and eat a
good breakfast.” Many
schools provide extra snacks and even have policies against
assigning homework during
the testing period. Schools clearly understand that good sleep
and nutrition contribute to
educational attainment.
However, healthy sleep and nutrition are not just relevant to
testing. They are emphasized
during school testing for a reason. Even though standardized
testing usually does not fac-
tor into school grades, parents and educators can use the
opportunity to reinforce the con-
nection between healthy habits and educational achievement.
Effect of Breakfast on Growth and Development
Nutritional deficiencies on the scale found in poor African and
48. South American countries do
not generally exist in the United States, though certainly
developing children do not always
receive the nutrition they need. Either because of family
economics or because of family
dynamics, many children go to school hungry. Although there is
ample outcry about breakfast
being the “most important meal of the day,” the public never
really hears the science behind
the rhetoric.
Children who eat breakfast generally make more healthful food
choices, are more likely to
maintain a healthful weight, engage in more physical activity,
and show substantially fewer
risk factors for diabetes and other diseases (Deshmukh-Taskar,
Nicklas, Radcliffe, O’Neil, &
Liu, 2013). A meta-analysis (a research review that combines
the results from a number
of studies) on classroom learning reported a strong positive
correlation between breakfast
and overall academic performance (Adolphus, Lawton, & Dye,
2013). There was evidence for
increased concentration, reasoning ability, problem solving, and
creativity. Eating breakfast
consistently was associated with better school attendance, better
grades, and overall achieve-
ment. Others have also found overall positive gains for children
who eat breakfast, especially
in the areas of problem solving, memory, complex visual
organization, and overall cognitive
functioning (Boschloo et al., 2012; Ellis et al., 2008).
When children are reinforced for making regular, healthy food
choices, they have a better
chance of having positive eating habits throughout their
49. lifetimes. In contrast, as children get
older, more of them skip breakfast as they begin to make more
independent choices. Between
adolescence and adulthood, mean number of days eating
breakfast drops about 25% (Nie-
meier, Raynor, Lloyd-Richardson, Rogers, & Wing, 2006). All
racial and ethnic groups show
similar average declines, and more girls skip breakfast than
boys. Once again, it appears that
Section 6.4Nutrition and Activity
routines formed in adolescence have an effect on later eating
habits, as a decrease in the
breakfast habit is consistently associated with weight gain and
health risk factors in adoles-
cence and early adulthood (Jääskeläinen et al., 2013; Shafiee et
al., 2013).
Activity
Another essential component of the health equation concerns
activity. According to both evo-
lutionary insight and contemporary research, the importance of
daily physical activity cannot
be underemphasized. Yet, like nutrition, there has been a
cultural shift in habits recently. The
World Health Organization (2010a) and the CDC (2008)
continue to reaffirm that school-
age children should accumulate at least 60 minutes of physical
activity each day. Yet despite
numerous public campaigns to support physical fitness (e.g.,
Michele Obama’s “Let’s Move”),
part of the continuing trend in weight gain is due to a more
sedentary lifestyle among chil-
50. dren. Meanwhile, hours of physical education in school have
been decreasing in the United States and elsewhere (e.g.,
Swaminathan, Selvam, Thomas, Kurpad, & Vaz, 2011).
In the United States, standards for physical activity in school
are often ignored, replaced by testing and accountability mea-
sures that are inherent in the push to improve academic test
scores. One example is found in California, which is frequently
held up as a model for health and fitness. The most recent
California education standards allow for an average of just 20
minutes of daily physical activity in grades 1–6 and 40 minutes
per day in grades 7–12. The de-emphasis on physical move-
ment is especially evident in kindergarten and school district-
sponsored preschools, where no minimum standards cur-
rently exist (California State Board of Education, 2005/2010).
Further, when physical education is included in an elemen-
tary curriculum, it is often devoid of the unstructured play
that researchers say is crucial for cognitive enhancement,
physical health, and psychosocial development (Pellegrini,
2005; Ramstetter, Murray, & Garner, 2010). Instead, it usu-
ally includes formulaic standards like California’s 58 first-
grade physical education goals and the 41 goals that Califor-
nia’s sixth-grade teachers are expected to meet. California is
not alone. In one nationwide
sample, over 30% of kindergarteners did not have recess time
(Pellegrini, 2005). In Arizona,
as a response to a lack of physical activity in general,
elementary schools can now “consider”
providing a recess period. But if they do, it “shall consist of
structured physical activity outside
or inside the classroom” (Azleg.gov, 2011; emphasis added).
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
51. How have nutrition and exercise among children changed in
recent years? What are the
potential health effects of these changes?
Omgimages/iStock/Thinkstock
ሁ When parents model healthy
lifestyles, their children are
more likely to follow suit.
Section 6.5Malnutrition
6.5 Malnutrition
In much of the world, activity is less of a concern because
getting sufficient nutrition is a
daily struggle. When nutrition intake is deficient either because
of not enough food or not
enough specific nutrients, it is called malnutrition. Without
proper nutrients, malnutrition
leads to physical, cognitive, and social consequences (Anjos et
al., 2013). About one-third of
the world’s children suffer from undernourishment before they
reach age 5; in some African
and southern Asian countries, the proportion is considerably
higher (Patwari, 2013; United
Nations Development Programme, 2013). Though poverty
certainly contributes to under-
nourishment in the United States, there is not the widespread
serious malnutrition that is
evident in war-torn countries like Afghanistan and severely
impoverished areas in countries
as diverse as India and Fiji.
Due to undernutrition, about 165 million children around the
52. world suffer from stunted
growth (stunting) and 3 million childhood deaths occur before
the age of 5, representing 45%
of all deaths in that age range. Stunting as a marker for
malnutrition is associated with poorer
motor skills and arrested mental development (McDonald et al.,
2013). Maternal malnutri-
tion during pregnancy often leads to insufficient fetal growth,
which causes another 800,000
neonatal deaths (Black et al., 2013; Katz et al., 2013). The good
news is that these kinds of
consequences have declined recently due to interventions that
specifically target areas where
undernutrition is widespread.
Marasmus and Kwashiorkor
It is estimated that up to 16% of children worldwide suf-
fer malnutrition that results in two specific life- threatening
nutritional diseases. When children have a severe pro-
tein deficiency because they have not consumed enough
calories in general, their bodies waste away in a condition
called marasmus. It is most common among children dur-
ing their first year. Marasmus is caused by starvation, when
there is insufficient breast milk (usually due to malnutri-
tion in the mother), or formula and food are unavailable.
Children become extremely thin and fragile, and their weak
bodies are at higher risk for disease.
Kwashiorkor is a condition caused by insufficient protein
intake, even in children who sometimes maintain a mini-
mal calorie intake. When children eat only starchy foods
that lack protein, the body begins to break down its own
reserves. A distended stomach is the hallmark of kwashior-
kor and is often seen in photos of starving African children.
It also causes severe swelling in the feet, loss of teeth and
hair, immunity problems, and a multitude of other compli-
53. cations. Kwashiorkor most often occurs after the age of one,
when children are weaned from the breast and alternative
protein sources are not available. Therefore, in areas where
malnutrition is common, the World Health Organization (2013)
and the United Nations
Development Programme (2013) recommend that mothers of
infants at risk for malnutrition
continue breastfeeding until their children are at least 2 years
old.
Burger/Phanie/SuperStock
ሁ This young child shows the
tissue wasting associated with
marasmus.
Section 6.6Overweight and Obesity in Childhood
Lasting Consequences of Malnutrition and Undernutrition
Children who survive nutritional diseases suffer lasting damage
to the body and brain (Müller
& Krawinkel, 2005). The effects of malnutrition on brain
development are cumulative, affect-
ing later attention and learning ability, overall intelligence, and
motor coordination. Dramatic
evidence of the effects of malnutrition is provided by studies of
mothers during times of war
that were also marked by famine. For instance, during the World
War II Siege of Leningrad
beginning in 1941, German troops cut off the food supply to the
city for nearly 2½ years.
During and after this period, fewer children were born, and
those who were had a higher
incidence of prematurity and low birth weight (Antonov, 1947).
54. Similar results were found in
1944–1945 Holland, when the country was subjected to a
blockade by the Germans. Like the
consequences in Leningrad, there were increased numbers of
miscarriages, stillbirths (babies
born dead), and birth abnormalities (Stein, Susser, Saenger, &
Marolla, 1975).
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
Describe two specific nutritional diseases and the different
ways that inadequate nutrition
affects the developing child.
6.6 Overweight and Obesity in Childhood
In addition to the clear evidence that malnutrition leads to
deficits in physical, cognitive,
social, and emotional functioning, there are also problems
associated with eating too much
food. Obesity is defined as a body weight that is 20% higher
than normal for a particular
height. For consistency in research and for medical purposes,
the body mass index (BMI)
is calculated as a ratio of weight to height and standardizes the
terms overweight (BMI of
25–29.9) and obesity (BMI of 30 or more).
The number of children in the United States who are overweight
is approximately double the
rate of obesity at any one age. Overall, about 17% of children
and adolescents in the United
States are obese; rates are even higher among children from
lower-income families (CDC,
2014g). The proportion of preschoolers and school-age children
who are obese has about tri-
pled since 1980. Though the rate for preschoolers has been
dropping recently, among school-
55. age children, it is the highest ever, at 19%. Additionally, the
rate among girls has dropped
or remained steady in recent years, while the rate among all
boys continues to rise (Ogden,
Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2012).
Research strongly suggests that, probably due to early nutrition
and activity habits, young chil-
dren who are overweight are particularly susceptible to obesity
during adulthood (Thomp-
son & Bentley, 2013). One study compared BMI at seven
different periods for more than 1,000
children aged 2 to 12. When children were obese before the age
of 5, they were more than
five times as likely to be overweight at 12 years old than those
who were not obese in early
childhood (Nader et al., 2006). About half of obese 6 year olds
will become obese adults; the
proportion rises to 70–80% for obese adolescents (Guo, Wei,
Chumlea, & Roche, 2002). As a
Section 6.6Overweight and Obesity in Childhood
consequence, childhood obesity is associated with multiple
health problems later, including
a host of cardiovascular diseases and pulmonary, endocrine, and
even orthopedic problems
as extra weight puts added strain on bones and systems related
to movement (Barlow et al.,
2007; Inge et al., 2013).
Behaviorally, being overweight is associated with delayed
motor development beginning
in infancy (Slining, Adair, Goldman, Borja, & Bentley, 2010).
56. This finding is not surprising
since extra weight limits mobility for anybody. Remember that,
in infancy, motor develop-
ment is intimately connected to brain development, exacerbating
long-term effects of being
overweight.
Causes
The rise in obesity rates among children, from less than 5% in
the 1960s to nearly 20% today,
cannot be attributed to genetics because human genetics do not
change in such a short period.
There is no doubt that biology and genetics influence body type
and how people react to cer-
tain foods (e.g., craving a particular kind of taste). But with few
exceptions, obesity occurs
because of an imbalance between caloric intake and energy
usage. In rare cases, a genetic
component is identified. Prader-Willi syndrome, for instance, is
a specific genetic disorder.
It is characterized by feeding difficulties during infancy that
soon change to a preoccupation
with food and overeating. However, this syndrome is rare,
occurring in only 1 out of every
25,000 births (Chen, Visootsak, Dills, & Braham, 2007).
Prevention
Intervention programs to reduce childhood obesity can be
successful. Parental education and
involvement remain key components, but programs designed
specifically for at-risk elemen-
tary school children have also enjoyed success (American
Academy of Pediatrics, 2007; Topp
et al., 2009). Healthy habits can be gained with a simple after-
school education and fitness
program. In one study, 63 children aged 5 to 10 years
57. participated in a 14-week interven-
tion program. The children had 90 minutes of physical
conditioning twice a week; an addi-
tional 90-minute session was divided equally into physical play
and nutrition education. After
the intervention period, significant gains in fitness and nutrition
were attained. Gains were
sustained without parental involvement, even when there was
less-than-ideal participation
among the children. More general programs have also been
successful. Among a group of 8-
to 12-year-old children, a program of education and physical
conditioning was instrumental
in lowering BMI and increasing physical activity over only a
12-week period. Importantly,
children who participated in this after-school program appeared
to maintain the changes a
number of months later (Crabtree, Moore, Jacks, Cerrito, &
Topp, 2010)
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
Distinguish between overweight and obesity in research and
summarize how they contrib-
ute to children’s health.
Section 6.7Eating Disorders
6.7 Eating Disorders
Adolescence complicates the issue of overweight and obesity,
since teenagers ordinarily need
to increase their caloric intake to keep up with accelerated
growth. But adolescents are also
becoming increasingly aware of body image. For some, that
increased focus can lead to psy-
58. chological eating disorders. Survey data show that eating
disorders affect 4% of adolescents,
but only 0.2% suffer impairment that causes extreme personal
distress. Those who suffer
from eating disorders have a distorted view of what is
considered normal and may not recog-
nize their own distress (Merikangas et al., 2010).
Anorexia Nervosa
Anorexia nervosa is a severe body-image disorder in which
individuals refuse to eat because
of an obsession to maintain an unrealistically thin body.
Anorexia is much more common in
girls than boys. It has been reported that there may be as many
as nine times more girls as
boys who are affected, but recent studies show the gap closing
(Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, & Kes-
sler, 2007; Swanson, Crow, Le Grange, Swendsen, &
Merikangas, 2011). Anorexia often begins
during early adolescence and can be difficult to treat. It has
been reported that up to 10% of
anorexics die within 10 years and as many as 20% die within 20
years, usually from heart or
other complications related to tissue starvation. Though
anorexia has the highest mortality
rate of any mental disorder, a major national survey found the
average duration among those
who recovered was only 1.7 years, so recovery is not
necessarily out of reach (Attia, 2010;
Hudson et al., 2007).
Bulimia Nervosa
Whereas anorexia nervosa is characterized by forced starvation,
bulimia nervosa involves
bingeing, consuming large quantities of food, and then purging
though vomiting or the use
59. of laxatives, enemas, or diuretics. Bulimics may cycle through
bingeing and purging sev-
eral times each day. Though the weight of someone with
bulimia can remain fairly stable,
serious complications are just under the surface. Because of the
frequent contact with
stomach acid due to vomiting, there is usually damage to the
throat and teeth, and scarring
of the mouth. Gastric reflux is common. Like anorexia, bulimia
is most often diagnosed in
wealthier Caucasian girls, but the frequently cited lower
prevalence in some other groups
has been challenged recently (DeLeel et al., 2009; Swanson et
al., 2011; Walcott, Pratt &
Patel, 2003).
Sociocultural variables, including messages from peers and the
media, familial influences, low
self-esteem, and biological factors have all been suggested as
agents of influence in anorexia
nervosa and bulimia nervosa (e.g., Polivy & Herman, 2002;
Wade et al., 2008). Certainly cul-
ture must have a large impact on these eating disorders, since
they are found almost exclu-
sively in areas that hold up thinness as the ideal body type
(Harrison & Hefner, 2006). For
instance, prevalence is higher in the United States than in any
other country; these disorders
are virtually nonexistent in Asia, except among the upper
classes in Japan and Hong Kong,
which are strongly influenced by Western culture (Makino,
Hashizume, Tsuboi, Yasushi, &
Dennerstein, 2006). Though some general environmental,
cognitive, and biological factors
appear to be prerequisite to eating disorders, research that
supports any one theory does not
60. exist (Attia, 2010). Consequently, treatment is also
multifaceted, incorporating a combination
of behavioral, cognitive, and family treatment.
Section 6.7Eating Disorders
F O C U S O N B E H A V I O R : W a r n i n g S i g n s o f
a n E a t i n g
D i s o r d e r
• Sudden, dramatic weight loss
• Distorted view of “normal” weight and body image
• Obsession with weight, calories, cooking, recipes, or the
fat content of foods
• Ritualistic behaviors—eating only in one place, eating
only one kind of food at a time,
chewing for a prescribed period
• Dieting despite less-than-ideal weight
• Harshly self-critical
• Fear of gaining weight
• Purging after meals (and secretive, regular trips to the
restroom at mealtimes)
• Frequent use of diet pills, laxatives, or diuretics
• Lying about eating (faking illness or pretending to have
eaten already)
61. • Frequent strenuous exercise
• Swollen salivary glands (disproportionately large cheeks)
• Depression
Prolonged starvation:
• Brittle bones and hair
• Lanugo—soft, fine hair on the face and body
• Organ system failure
Binge Eating Disorder
Unlike anorexia and bulimia, binge eating disorder does not
involve harmful compensatory
behaviors like excessive exercise, purging, and periodic self-
starvation. Therefore, those with
binge eating disorder are usually overweight. Binge eating
disorder is marked by rapidly eat-
ing unusually large amounts of food several times per week,
leading to physical discomfort.
Individuals typically feel shame when they overeat, which leads
them to binge while alone. As
in the adult population, binge eating disorder among adolescents
is the most common kind
of eating disorder. It affects between 1.6% and 3.0% of the U.S.
teenage population (Stice,
Marti, & Rohde, 2013; Swanson et al., 2011). Little is known
about the causes of binge eating
disorder, though researchers have suggested it is associated with
depression or is caused by
differences in brain chemicals and hormones (e.g., Gadalla &
Piran, 2008).
62. Because psychological eating disorders have great cultural
variance, and because they typi-
cally begin during adolescence, once again the issues of nature
versus nurture and continuous
versus discontinuous development are apparent. It is likely that
biological changes influence
thinking, personality, and emotional development, which causes
teens to be more vulnerable
to eating disorders. These kinds of factors related to cognition
are the focus of the next two
modules.
Summary and Resources
S E C T I O N R E V I E W
Name and distinguish characteristics of the three most common
eating disorders.
Wrapping Up and Moving On
Throughout the world, great variation exists in threats to
childhood health. Whereas disease
and malnutrition affect substantial numbers of children in
underdeveloped countries, unin-
tentional injuries are the biggest concern elsewhere. Other
health concerns have arisen as
new technology and changed cultural attitudes have shifted
eating patterns and overall activ-
ity levels. Individuals generally eat more food that is high in fat
and calories and low in nutri-
tion than in previous generations. In tandem with lower levels
of physical activity, including
time for physical education in school, there is now an epidemic
of overweight and obese chil-
63. dren. Food and eating are also involved in three primary eating
disorders, which first appear
most commonly during adolescence.
Summary and Resources
• Concentrated efforts have contributed to a drop in
worldwide child mortality, but
millions of children still die from preventable diseases.
• Homicide and suicide are often overlooked health dangers
that have a significant
effect on the adolescent population. There are specific warning
signs for suicide, but
homicide seems to be a more entrenched problem, even
affecting a significant num-
ber of preadolescent children.
• The prevalence of homicide and suicide are highly
dependent on demographic char-
acteristics. Lower-income minorities in the United States have a
comparatively high
homicide rate.
• In developed countries like the United States, accidents
kill more children overall
than any other cause. In addition to pedestrian and automobile
accidents, children
are at risk for drowning, other water injuries, and poisonings.
Safety and prevention
efforts significantly decrease mortality rates.
• Though a cold is the most common childhood illness,
millions of children have
asthma and diabetes, often contributing to cognitive and
psychosocial problems.
64. • Healthy exercise and activity are necessary complements
to good nutrition. Parents
and schools need to prioritize this essential part of
development.
• Children clearly benefit from better nutrition and positive
eating habits that can be
established in childhood. Some parents are overly concerned
with their children
who are fussy eaters, whereas others may not be modeling
appropriate eating hab-
its. Adults may inadvertently model the potential for lifelong
negative consequences,
including obesity.
• Appropriate physical movement should be a daily, habit-
forming activity. Recent
trends show a continued de-emphasis on this essential
component of health.
• Partly because of available social programs, life-
threatening malnutrition is rare in
the United States. However, marasmus and kwashiorkor are
serious problems in
less-developed countries.
Summary and Resources
• Whereas some children develop health problems by eating
too much, others develop
anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, which are characterized
by not enough nutri-
tion. Though these eating disorders are together the most fatal
65. mental disorders,
evidence indicates that they can often be relatively short term.
Key Terms
anorexia nervosa An eating and
body image disorder characterized by
self-starvation.
asthma The most common chronic dis-
ease in children. Causes breathing airways
to become inflamed and narrow, leading to
shortness of breath, a feeling of tightness in
the chest, and coughing.
binge eating disorder An eating disorder
marked by rapidly eating unusually large
amounts of food several times per week,
leading to physical discomfort.
body mass index (BMI) A number calcu-
lated as a ratio of weight to height, which
provides a standard to indicate underweight,
normal weight, overweight, or obesity.
bulimia nervosa A disorder of weight con-
trol characterized by cycles of bingeing and
purging.
diabetes A chronic disease that occurs
when high levels of sugar in the blood
are not regulated properly by the body’s
systems.
kwashiorkor A consequence of malnutri-
tion caused by insufficient protein intake.
66. Characterized by a distended stomach and
other swelling.
malnutrition A condition that results from
insufficient intake of nutrients from food.
marasmus A condition of malnutrition that
is characterized by wasting.
meta-analysis An extensive research
review that combines the results from a
number of studies.
obesity Body weight that is 20% higher
than normal for a particular height, defined
by a body mass index score of 30 or more.
whooping cough (pertussis) A virus that
causes respiratory problems.
Web Resources
See links below for additional information on topics discussed
in the chapter.
Asthma
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Asthma/Asthma_
WhatIs.html
Baby Boomers
http://www.bbhq.com/whatsabm.htm
Body Mass Index (BMI)
http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/dnpabmi/