SSCC has decided to start publishing a Digital Journal as a part of its function as a think-tank. The first issue features articles compiled in the first place by members of the National Association of African American Studies in the United States, as well as pieces from the Balkans and Timor Leste, focusing on peace.

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Impact of Global Conflict on Our Children
Lemuel Berry, Jr., Ph.D., Executive Director
National Association of African American Studies & Affiliates
Since the beginning of recorded history, man has been involved in conflict of some
nature. These conflicts have been attributed to man’s undeniable inability to co-exist, acts
of nature and at times, a combination of the two. Regardless of the cause for these conflicts,
there has always been an affect.
In 2017, there were notable conflicts that involved the Ukraine, Mexico, Afghanistan,
South Sudan, Syria, Iraq, Turkey, Yemen, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Greater
Sahel and the Lake Chad Basin and, the multi-decades of conflict between Israel and
Palestine. Each conflict in its own way was unique, and; was influenced by one or more of
the following: undocumented immigrants, war, famine, military isolation, border issues,
land rights, ethnic armed groups, and interpretive protective rights of one person
(monarch). And while these conflicts continue without apparent resolve in the near future,
the world seeks a way to survive amidst all the turmoil.
There is a tendency for many governments, private agencies and professional
organizations to state that the ultimate goal of their respective units is “World peace and
global equality.” This goal, in nature and scope, is commendable. But, such expectation will
not be realized without global goals funneled through a set of networks. Over the past few
years, a number of organizations (UNICEF, World Health Organization, United Nations,
International Criminal Court, World Economic Forum, and others) have held joint meetings
to establish principles and goals that will contribute to improvement of the quality of life
and reduction of some conflict by the year 2030. There are sixteen (16) sustainable
development goals that these organizations have determined to be achievable. They
include:
1. Eliminate global poverty,
2. Implement a zero-hunger policy and plan,
3. Assure good health and well-being,
4. Provide quality education,
5. Enforce gender equality,
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation,
7. Provide affordable and clean energy,
8. Plan for decent work and economic growth,
9. Improve industry, innovation and infrastructure,
10. Reduce inequalities,
11. Create sustainable cities and communities,
12. Implement responsible consumption and production,
13. Address climate change,
14. Use study of life below water as a mechanism for sustainability development on
land,
15. Implement continuous study of life on land to avoid previous histories (famine,
water rights, country boundaries, etc.) and,

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16. Produce peace, justice and strong institutions.
The aforementioned are indeed hefty goals to achieve in the time period selected (2030).
A challenge to achieving the goals currently include, but are not limited to:
• Countries having different human value systems.
• Monarchs tending not to relinquish power on universal policies to their
countrymen.
• Economies often dictating and influencing change within a country.
• The poor and disenfranchised are often powerless and unable to bring sustainable
change to a culture.
The problems the world is faced with are quite clear. The resolve to change such is not.
A common threat to global conflicts is the ultimate impact these events have on our
children. One such impact is in the area of continuous human trafficking. The United States
defines trafficking as “sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force,
fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act has not attained 18-
years of age,” or “the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a
person for labor or services, using force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to
involuntary servitude, personage, debt bondage, or slavery."1
A Global Problem
According to a September 2017 report from the International Labor Organization
(ILO) and Walk Free Foundation:
• An estimated 24.9 million victims are trapped in modern-day slavery. Of these,
16 million (64%) were exploited for labor, 4.8 million (19%) were sexually
exploited, and 4.1 million (17%) were exploited in state-imposed forced labor.
• Forced labor takes place in many different industries. Of the 16 million
trafficking victims exploited for labor:
o 7.5 million (47%) forced labor victims work in construction, manufacturing,
mining, or hospitality
o 3.8 million (24%) forced labor victims are domestic workers
o 1.7 million (11%) forced labor victims work in agriculture
• 71% of trafficking victims around the world are women and girls and 29% are
men and boys.
• 15.4 million victims (75%) are aged 18 or older, with the number of children
under the age of 18 estimated at 5.5 million (25%).
• The Asia-Pacific region accounts for the largest number of forced laborers – 15.4
million (62% of the global total). Africa has 5.7 million (23%) followed by
Europe and Central Asia with 2.2 million (9%). The Americas account for 1.2
million (5%) and the Arab States account for 1% of all victims.
1 22 U.S.C.-7102(9).

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• Human trafficking does not always involve travel to the destination of
exploitation: 2.2 million (14%) of victims of forced labor moved either internally
or internationally, while 3.5 million (74%) of victims of sexual exploitation were
living outside their country of residence.
• Victims spend an average of 20 months in forced labor, although this varied with
different forms of forced labor.
Human Trafficking is Big Business
• Human trafficking earns profits of roughly $150 billion a year for traffickers,
according to the ILO report from 2014. The following is a breakdown of profits,
by sector:
o $99 billion from commercial sexual exploitation
o $34 billion in construction, manufacturing, mining and utilities
o $9 billion in agriculture, including forestry and fishing
o $8 billion dollars is saved annually by private households that employ
domestic workers under conditions of forced labor
• While only 19% of victims are trafficked for sex, sexual exploitation earns 66%
of the global profits of human trafficking. The average annual profits generated
by each woman in forced sexual servitude ($100,000) is estimated to be six
times more than the average profits generated by each trafficking victim
worldwide ($21,800), according to the Organization for Security and Co-
operation in Europe (OSCE).
• An estimated 120 million girls – about 1 in 10 have experienced sexual abuse.
• OSCE studies show that sexual exploitation can yield a return on investment
ranging from 100% to 1,000%, while an enslaved laborer can produce more
than 50% profit even in less profitable markets (e.g., agricultural labor in India).
• In the Netherlands, investigators were able to calculate the profit generated by
two sex traffickers from a number of victims. One trafficker earned $18,148 per
month from four victims (for a total of $127,036) while the second trafficker
earned $295,786 in the 14 months that three women were sexually exploited
according to the OSCE.
• While sexual exploitation generates profits, forced labor saves costs. In one case,
Chinese kitchen workers were paid $808 for a 78-hour work week in Germany.
According to German law, a cook was entitled to earn $2,558 for a 39-hour work
week.
The Number of Prosecutions of Human Trafficking is Alarmingly Low
• According to the 2017 State Department Trafficking I Persons (TIP) report, there
were only 14,894 prosecutions and 9,071 convictions for trafficking globally in
2016.
o 1,251 prosecutions, 1,119 convictions and the identification of 18,296
victims occurred in Africa

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o 2,137 prosecutions, 1,953 convictions and the identification of 9,989 victims
occurred in East Asia & the Pacific
o 2,703 prosecutions, 1,673 convictions and the identification of 11,416
victims occurred in Europe
o 2,996 prosecutions, 1,187 convictions and the identification of 3,292 victims
occurred in the Near East
o 6,297 prosecutions, 2,193 convictions and the identification of 14,706
victims occurred in South and Central Asia
o 1,513 prosecutions, 946 convictions and the identification of 8,821 victims
occurred in the Western Hemisphere
• Of the estimated 16 million forced labor victims worldwide, only 1,038 cases of
forced labor were prosecuted globally in 2016, according to the U.S. Department
of State.
• In 2016, the Department of Justice convicted a total of 439 human traffickers, up
from 297 in 2015 and 184 in 2014.
Trafficking of children has been a world-wide problem for decades. On average, 1.2
million children are trafficked annually. These unfortunate children are taken from family
and friends through a number of practices (kidnap, promise of a job, war, famine, etc.). Only
a very small percentage will ever be reunited with family. As an outcome, these children
will experience poor health, unbearable living conditions, brutality, sexual exploitation,
pregnancy, non-communicable disease, neglect, lack of nutrition, emotional/psychological
issues and violence, etc.
Data that reflects the number of children trafficked is at times incomplete due to
poorly kept records, failure to report on an annual basis, governments failure to mandate
reporting, and governments actually engaged in the business of child trafficking for
economic purposes. However, the following data represents current documented numbers.
Child Trafficking by Continent
• Asia/Pacific: 250,000 children
• Latin America and the Caribbean: 550,000 children
• Africa: 200,000 children
• Transition Economies: 200,000 children
Trafficking: Children vs. Adults
Continent Children Adults
Africa and Middle East 62% 38%
Americas 31% 69%
South Asia, East Asia & Pacific 36% 69%
Europe and Central Asia 18% 82%
A clear observation from available data recognizes that industrial countries have the
lowest percentage of child trafficking.

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Although trafficking may appear in many forms, the following represents the most
common practices.
FORCED LABOR involving children under the minimum age, or 14 being forced to work.
UNICEF estimated that 150 million children ages 5-14 were forced to work in developing
countries.
SEXUAL EXPLOITATION involving boys and girls of all ages for acquisition of cash or a
service is a common practice in all countries. This form of child exploitation also includes
child sex tourism, trafficking for sex trade, use of children in sex shows and, promotion and
distribution of pornography.
ARMED FORCES have taken children to serve as spies, be involved in military conflicts and
bartering for political gain.
PROFESSIONAL BEGGARS may require the child to work up to eighteen (18) hours per
day.
CRIMINAL PURPOSES The crimes include transportation of drugs, pick pockets, selling
pirated DVD’s, bag theft, working on cannabis farms, etc.
DOMESTIC SERVITUDE such as cleaning, child care and cooking.
Prevention
There are a number of laws and practices that are expected to reduce the number of
children trafficked. Data does not clearly identify how successful the practices have been. In
addition, it is apparent that multiple practices must be implemented per country because of
the diverse type of situations involving children.
Initially, it is very important to review assessment(s) of the UNICEF tier system. This
respected agency ranks countries by tier. Tier 1 recognizes countries whose government
meets Trafficking Victims Protection Acts (TIP) minimum standards. Tier 2 identifies
countries whose government does not meet minimum standards; but are making
significant strides to come in compliance and, Tier 3 list those countries who do not meet
minimum standards and are not making significant effort to respond to TIP minimum
standards.
All three classifications may be viewed in the UNICEF Report and from individual
country reports. The data often varies due to different reporting formats, practices in the
collection of data and avoidance in reporting numbers that will reflect negatively on a
country or individual.
A number of preventative measures directed toward child trafficking have been
created and, to the best of the sponsoring agency’s ability, been enforced. The practices are
definitely welcomed. However, they fail to meet and successfully address all facets of child
trafficking. The following are examples of programs/practices currently being practiced.

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The World Health Organization and ten international agencies developed a program
called INSPIRE.2 The program has seven strategies:
1. Implementation and enforcement of laws,
2. Norms and values change,
3. Safe environments,
4. Parental and caregiver support,
5. Income and economic strengthening,
6. Response services provision, and
7. Education of life skills.
The WHO anticipates that adhering to these preventive measures will reduce violence
against children.
U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) is very comprehensive and
addresses the child’s rights during military conflict and in peace. Optional protocols to the
CRC on sex trafficking and armed conflict addresses the state of child prostitution and child
pornography. The protocol also addresses forced labor, marriage, adoption, organ trade
and participation in military conflict.
The European Union (EU) and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
launched Global Action to prevent the trafficking of persons and smuggling of migrants.
Tariff Act of 1930 (US) was amended in 2016 to close the consumptive demands,
effectively barring all products made by convict, forced or indentured labor.
International Labor Organization (ILO) Worst Forms of Child Labor convention
requires ratifying countries to take immediate action to prohibit and eliminate the worst
forms of child labor, which include various forms of slavery, morales of children,
commercial sexual exploitation of children, health and safety.
Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA – 2000) is the first federal law to respond
to sex trafficking and labor trafficking in the United States.
Proposed Prevention Policies
Reduction in Foreign Aid
The following recommendations will contribute to the reduction in child trafficking
if implemented by governments.
• A reduction of U.S. aid to governments with Tier 2 or 3 rankings should be
implemented until such time as significant strides are documented to reduce
child trafficking. All of the countries listed are heavily involved in trafficking and
as such, should experience a reduction in aid from the United States.
2 Hillis, S., Mercy, S., Amobi, A., Global Prevalence of Past Year Violence Against Children: A Systematic
Review and Minimum Estimates. American Academy of Pediatrics 2016; 137(3) e20154079.

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Foreign Aid Recipients
Country Amount of Aid Tier Ranking
Afghanistan $650,000,000 2
Jordan $635,000,000 2
Kenya $632,000,000 2
Tanzania $534,000,000 2
Uganda $428,525,000 2
Zambia $428,525,000 2
Nigeria $413,300,000 2
• International Corporate Legislation on freezing and recovery of assets of
international corporations involved in child trafficking should be a practice.
• Homeland Security (US) must strongly enforce the Mann Act of 1910, The
Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, the Civil Asset
Forfeiture Reform Act of 2000 and Protect Act of 2003.
• U.S. Corporation Legislation Penalties should be imposed on corporations and
businesses found to be out of compliance of the law. The penalties are often not
as stiff as needed. A review of penalties and their enforcement should be visited
periodically.
• War Crimes Against Humanity should be charged to all foreign leaders who have
not taken appropriate steps to eradicate all forms of trafficking and, as such,
should be tried before a war criminals court.
• Crisis border investigations on children entering a country should be the norm.
• A strict liaison policy between social services cross borders should be enforced.
• Specialized training for professionals who work with children must include up-
to-date information on legislation, safe guards and child protection
issues/practices globally, working with children seeking asylum and, the impact
of migration and displacement of children.
In conclusion, providing awareness of the child trafficking problem across borders,
within communities, among health agencies, labor organizations, military, global business
and governments will further reduce the level of child trafficking. Placing appropriate
pressure on countries not responding to TIP, continuous engagement and open discussion
is also invaluable in the eradication of child trafficking. Human (child) trafficking is a global
problem, and as such, requires a global response.

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Bibliography
Anderson, B. and O’Connell Davidson, J. Trafficking – a Demand led Problem? A Multi-
Country Pilot Study. Stockholm: Save the Children, 2002.
Godziak, E. On Challenges, Dilemmas, and Opportunities in Studying Trafficked Children.
Anthropological Quarterly, 81(4): 903-923.
Greenbaum, V. Jordan. Child Sex Trafficking in the United States: Challenges for the
Healthcare Providers, Plos Medicine, Nov. 2017.
Hillis, S., Mercy, J. and Amobi, A. Global Prevalence of Past Year Violence Against Children: A
Systematic Review and Minimum Estimates. American Academy of Pediatrics 2016;
1376(3) i20154079.
International Organization for Migration (IOM). Data and Research on Human Trafficking: A
Global Survey. Switzerland: IOM, 2015.
Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe. Permanent Council Decision No.
557:OSCE Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings, 2003.
United Nations. Human Rights and Human Trafficking. NY: United Nations, 2004.
United Nations. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punishing Trafficking in Persons, especially
Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime. NY: United Nations, 2000.
U.S. Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report. DC: Department of State, 2009.