Principles of organic farming

2. ORGANIC FARMING
Compiled and Edited By
Dr. V. V. Rupareliya
Department of Agronomy
College of Agriculture
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh

4. Agri-silviculture: Conscious and deliberate use of land
for concurrent or simultaneous production of
agricultural crops and forest trees.
Agro forestry: A land used in which woody plants
(trees and plant) are deliberately combined on the same
land management unit with herbaceous crops and
animals.

5. Aquatic weed: Weeds which are growing in water is
known as aquatic weed.
Bio-fertilizer: It contain live or latent cells of
efficient strain of nitrogen fixing microorganism
used for seed or soil application with the objective
of increasing the number of such microorganism in
soil and consequently improve the nitrogen in soil.

6. Catch crop: fast growing crops grown in the time
interval between two main crops OR fast growing
crops planted between the row of a main crop.
Crop rotation: A planted Sequence of crops planted
in regular succession on the same area of land in
order to conserve nutrient resource and avoid same
pest complex.
Cover crops: A crop which is sown to cover the soil
and prevent it from drying out and being eroded.
Hence leguminous plants which are able to enrich
the soil are often used as cover crops.

7. Chemical fertilizer: Artificially made any in organic fertilizer use as
plant nutrient is known as chemical fertilizer.
Farm yard manure: Faces and urine of farm animals mixed with
litter, mainly straw to absorb the urine. It is generally stored in
manure heaps where bacterial activity release ammonia.
Green manure: the compost which is prepared from freshly
collected green materials of shrubs, herbs and trees is called green
manure. Plants are uprooted and plough back in the field at the time
of flowering.

8. Humic acid: A more or less uniform, dark colored
amorphous substance obtained as a result of
decomposition of organic materials of plant and animal
origin by the microbial flora comparing actinomysists,
fungi and bacterial worm.
Mixed farming: A farming system which involve the
raising of crops and rearing of animals or poultry, the
principles is that land should support animal and
animal support land.

9. Myco herbicide: A bio control agent for weed
control involving import of a pathogen from an area
where it is release to control weeds.
Organic farming: A production system which avoid
or largely excludes the use of synthetically
compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth
regulators and livestock feed additives.

10. Residues: The beneficial effects of application of
organic manure on the succeeding crops due to
unutilized plant nutrients left over by the preceding
crops that were manure.
Silvi-pasture: The practices of growing forage crops
in association with forest crops simultaneously on the
same land at the same time. Grass is growing in
between two rows of trees.
Trap crops: A crop employ to induce germination of
specific parasitic weeds without succumbing to it.
Example- Striga in sorghum.

11. FYM (Farm Yard Manure): It is decomposed
mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with
the litter and left over material from fodder fed to
cattle. FYM contain 0.5%N, 0.2% P and 0.5% K.
Vermiculture: Vermiculture is the process of rearing
and breeding of earthworm.
Vermiwash: It is liquid fertilizer collected after the
passage of water through a column of warm activation.
It is use as foliar application.

12. Composting: Compost is composed of organic matter that is
recycled back into the earth. Organic matter may include lawn
clippings, vegetable scraps from the kitchen, and untreated papers.
These materials are combined and become a nutrient-rich mixture
that enriches the soil.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): The use of different
techniques in combination to control pests, with an emphasis on
methods that are least injurious to the environment and most
specific to the particular pest. For example, pest-resistant plant
varieties, regular monitoring for pests, pesticides, natural predators
of the pest, and good stand management practices may be used
singly or in combination to control or prevent particular pests.

14. Major sources of organic materials are:
1. Cattle shed wastes: Dung, urine, and slurry from
biogas plants
2. Human habitation wastes: night soil, human urine
3. Poultry litter: Dropping of sheep and goat.
4. Slaughter house waste: bone meal, meat meal, blood
meal, horn and hoof meal
5. Fish wastes
6. By-products of agro-industries: oil cakes, bagasse's
and press mud, fruit and vegetables, processing wastes
etc.

15. 7. Crop wastes: sugarcane trash, stubbles and other
related material.
8. Water hyacinth: weeds and tank silt
9. Green manure crops and green leaf manuring
material.

16. Farm Yard Manure (FYM)
It is decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm
animals along with waste feed fodder, litter etc.
Preparation method :
 Trenches of 6 m to 7 m length. 1.5 m to 2.0 m width and 1.0
m deep are dug.
 All available litter and refuse is mixed with soil and spread in
the shed so as to absorb urine.
 The next morning urine soaked refuse along with dung is
collected and placed in the trench. A section of the trench
from one end should be taken up for filling with daily
collection.
 When the section is filled up to a height of 45 cm to 60 cm
above the ground level, the top of the heap is made into a
dome and plastered with cow dung earth slurry.
 The process is continued and when the first trench is
completely filled second trench is prepared. The manures

17. On an average well decomposed farm yard manure
contains 0.5%N, 0.2% P2O5 and 0.5% K2O.
Trench method of FYM preparation, use of chemicals
preservatives such as Gypsum, Gober gas plant
slurry can considerably reduce storage and handling
losses of nutrients for improving the quality of FYM.

18. Compost:
The process of decomposing organic waste is
called composting and the decomposed material is called
compost.
 Preparation method
 Farm compost is made by placing farm wastes in trenches
of suitable size. Say 4.5 to 5 m long 1.5 to 2.0 m wide and
1.0 to 2.0 m deep.
 Farm waste is placed in the trenches layer by layer. Each
layer is well moistened by sprinkling cow dung slurry or
water.
 Trenches are filled up to height of 0.5 m above the
ground.
 The compost is ready for application within five to six

19. Composting is done either in aerobic or anaerobic
conditions. Some methods involve both the
conditions.
The advantage of aerobic system is that it is fast
but requires moistening and frequent turning.
Composting is essentially a microbiological
decomposition of organic residues collected from
rural area (rural compost) or urban area.

20. Poultry Manure :
The excreta of birds ferment very quickly.
If left exposed, 50% of its nitrogen is lost within 30
days. Poultry manure contains higher nitrogen and
phosphorus compared to other bulky organic
manures.
The average nutrient content is 3.03% N 2.63% P2O5
and 1.4% K2O.

21. Oil-cakes:
After oil is extracted from oilseeds, the remaining solid
portion is dried as cake, which can be used as manure.
The oil-cakes are of two types:
 Edible oil-cakes: Which can be safely fed to
livestock, e.g.: Groundnut cake, Coconut cake,
etc.
 Non-edible: Oil-cakes which are not fit for
feeding livestock, e.g. Castor cake, Neem cake,
Mahua cake etc.

22. Both edible and non-edible oil-cakes can be used as
manures.
However, edible oil cakes are fed to cattle and non-
edible oil cakes are used as manures especially for
horticultural crops.
Nutrients present in oil-cakes, after mineralization,
are made available to crops 7 to 10 days after
application.
Oil-cakes need to be well powdered before application
for even distribution and quicker decomposition.

23. Bone Meal:
Bones from carcasses of dead animals, slaughter
houses and meat processing industries are the different
sources of bone meal.
Bones are the rich sources of phosphorus and calcium.
Crushed bones are used either in raw form of after
steam sterilization.
The glue separated from bones has commercial value and
the residue in powdered form is used either as manure
or cattle feed.
Bone meal is slow acting and ideal for acid soils and
long duration crops.

24. Guano:
It is an admixture of excreta and dead remains of sea
birds rich in N and P.
It is collected periodically from islands.
The refuse left over after extracting oil from fish in
factories dried and used as manure. Known as fish
guano.
It is comparable to bird guano in its effect on soil and
crops.

25. Crop Residues:
Residues left out after the harvest of the economic
portions are called crop residues/straw.
In the developing countries like India, we are mostly
used as cattle feed. In the developed countries,
harvesting is done using the field itself.
Straw has good manorial value since it contains
appreciable amount of plant nutrients.
On an average, cereal straw and residues contain about
0.5% N, 0.6% P2O5 and 1.5% K2O. The crop residues
can be recycled by way of incorporation, compost
making or mulch material.

26. Manure Nutrient (%)
Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus
(P2O5)
Potash (K2O)
Bulky Organic Manure
Farm Yard Maure 0.5-1.5 0.4-0.8 0.5-1.9
Compost (Urban) 1.0-2.0 1.0 1.5
Compost(Rural) 0.4-0.8 0.3-0.6 0.7-1.0
Green manure (averages) 0.5-0.7 0.1-0.2 0.6-0.8
Sewage sludge dry 2.0-3.5 1.0-5.0 0.2-0.5
Sewage allivated dry 4.0-7.0 2.1-4.2 0.5-0.7
Non-edible cakes
Castor cake 5.5-5.8 1.8-1.9 1.0-1.1
Mahua cake 2.5-2.6 0.9-1.0 1.8-1.9
Karanj cake 3.9-4.0 0.9-1.0 1.3-1.4
Neem cake 5.2-5.3 1.0-1.1 1.4-1.5
Safflower cake (undecorticated) 4.8-4.9 1.4-1.5 1.2-1.3
Edible cakes
Cotton seed cake (decorticated) 6.4-6.5 2.8-2.9 2.1-2.2
Cotton seed cake (undecorticated) 3.9-4.0 1.8-1.9 1.6-1.7
Groundnut cake 7.0-7.2 1.5-1.6 1.3-1.4

27. Manure of animal origin
Fish manure 4.0-10.0 3.0-9.0 0.3-1.5
Bird guano 7.0-8.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-3.0
Bone meal (row) 3.0-4.0 20.0-25.0 -
Bone meal (Steamed) 1.0-2.0 25.0-30.0 -
Straw and Stalks
Pearl millet 0.65 0.75 2.50
Sorghum 0.40 0.23 2.17
Maize 0.42 1.57 1.65
Paddy 0.36 0.08 0.71
Wheat 0.53 0.10 1.10
Sugarcane trash 0.35 0.10 0.60
Cotton 0.44 0.10 0.66

29. Vermicompost : is a method of making
compost with the use of earthworms, which
generally live in soil eat bio- mass and excrete it
in digested form.
This compost is generally called
vermicompost. It provides the various macro
elements such as nitrogen (0.74%), P205
(0.97%), K20 (0.45%) and Ca Mg and Micro
elements such Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu, etc.

30. Suitable species
One of the earthworm species most often used
for composting is the Red Wiggler ( Eisenia
fetida).
African Night crawlers ( Eudrilus eugeniae) is
another set of popular composter.
These species are commonly found in organic-
rich soils and live in rotting vegetation,
compost and manure piles.

31. Climate and temperature
The most common worms used in
composting systems are red worms (Eisenia
foetida, Eisenia andrei and Lumbricus rubellus)
feed most rapidly at temperatures of 15–25 °C
(59-77 °F).
They can survive at 10 °C (50 °F).
Temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) may harm
them. Other worms like Perionyx excavatus are
suitable for warmer climates.

32. Type of earthworms
There are about 3000 species of earthworms reported in the
world. Among them 509 species are available in India. These
earthworms are mainly divided into three groups
1. Epigeics: Are the species that live above the mineral soil
surface.
e.g. Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, Perionyx excavates
Above species are prolific feeders and can feed upon a wide
variety of degradable organic wastes.
2.Anecics: Are the species that live in burrows in mineral soil
layers.
3. Endogeics: Are species that inhabit mineral soil horizons
e.g. Lampito mauritii

33. Characteristic of compost worms
The following are the basic characteristics of
earthworm species suitable for vermicomposting:
The worms should have feeding preference to
wide range of organic materials.
It should be efficient converter of plant/animal
biomass to body proteins.
It should be tolerant to diseases, wide
adaptability to environmental factors and have
least inactivity period.

34.  It should have high consumption, digestion and
assimilation rates
 The worms should produce large number of
cocoons.
 Growth rate, maturity from young one to adult
stage should be fast.
 The worms should feed near the surface of
organic matter.

35. Benefits of vermicompost
Soil
It improves soil aeration
Enriches soil with micro-organisms (adding
enzymes such as phosphatase and cellulase)
Enhance microbial activity in the soil
Attracts deep-burrowing earthworms already
present in the soil
Improves water holding capacity of the soil

36. Plant growth
 Enhances germination, plant growth and
crop yield
 Improves root growth and structure
 Enriches soil with micro-organisms (adding
plant hormones such as Auxin and
Gibberellic acid)
Environmental
 Minimizes the pollution hazards

37. Methods of vermicompost:
In general, there are three methods of
Vermicomposting under field conditions.
 Vermicomposting of wastes in field pits
 Vermicomposting of wastes in ground heap
 Vermicomposting of wastes in large structures

38. Field pits:
It is preferable to go for optimum
sized ground pits and 10 x 1 X 0.5 m (L x W x
D) can be effective size of each
Vermicomposting bed. Series of such beds are
to be prepared at one place.

39. Ground Heaps:
Instead of opening of pits,
vermicomposting can be taken up in ground
heaps. Dome shaped beds (with organic wastes)
are prepared and vermicomposting is taken up.
Optimum size of ground heaps may be series of
heaps of dimensions 5.0 X l.0 x 1.0 m (LxWxH).

40. Composting in large structures:
Vermicomposting is taken up in
large structures such as series of
rectangular brick columns, cement tanks,
stone blocks etc., which are filled with
organic wastes and composting is taken up.

41. Each of these three methods has got
advantages as well as limitations e.g. in (ii) and (iii)
there would not be any mixing of soil with
vermicompost unlike pit system, less incidence of
natural enemies.
But they need frequent watering (more of
labour) compared to pit system. Similarly in places
water is scarce (less rainfall tracts), pit system is
good while in high rainfall areas (ii) and (iii) are
advantageous as there would be proper drainage.

42. STEPS (THIS IS IRRESPECTIVE OF
METHODS)
I. Selection of site: It should be preferably black soil
or other areas with less of termite and red ant
activity, pH should be between 6 to 8.
II.Collection of wastes and sorting: For field
composting, raw materials are needed in large
quantities. The waste available to degradable and
non-degradable should be sorted into degradable
and non degradable (be rejected).

43.  Pre-treatment of waste:
 Lignin rich residues Chopping and subjecting to
lignin degrading fungi and later to vermibeds.
 Crop stalks and stubbles-Dumping it in layers
sandwiched with garden soil followed with watering
for 10 days to make the material soft and acceptable
to worm.
 Agro-industrial wastes: Mixing with animal dung
in 3: 1 proportion and later subjecting it for
Vermicomposting.

44. Insecticidal treatment to site:
Treating the area as well as beds (in
case of pit system) with chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 3.0
ml litre to reduce the problem of ants, termites and
ground beetles.

45.  Filling of beds with organic wastes:
Wastes are to be filled in the manner
given below and each layer should be made wet
while filling and continuously watered for next 10
days. In heaping and corn posting in special
structures, the waste is to be dumped serially as done
in pits.
 Excepting 3rd and 4th layer (which is the material
to be degraded) each layer should be 3 to 4 inch
thick so that the bed material is raised above the
ground level.
 Sufficient quantity of dry and green wastes are to
be used in the beds.

46.  Introduction of worms in to beds:
The optimum number of worms to be introduced is
100 Nos/m length of the bed. The species of earthworms
that are being used currently for compost production
worldwide are Eisenia Foetida, Eudtrluseu geniae,
Perionyx excavatus, Lumbricus rubellus etc.
 Provision of optimum bed moisture and temperature:
Bed moisture:
By watering at regular intervals to maintain moisture
of 60 to 80% till harves of compost. Temperature
requirement for optimal results is 20-30°C. by-thatching
(during summer)

47.  Monitoring for activity of natural enemies and
earthworms and management of enemies with
Promising products : Leaf dust of neem, Acorus
calamus rhizome dust, neem cake etc.
 Harvesting of vermicompost and storage: Around
90 days after release of worms, the beds would be
ready for harvest.

48. • Stop watering 7 days prior to harvest so that
worms settle at the bottom layer. Collect the
compost, shade dry for 12 hours and bag it in
fertilizer bags for storage.
• Harvest of worm bio-mass: The worms are to
be collected and used for subsequent vermi
composting.

49. Different organic material layers for the preparation
of vermicompost:
7th layer
A thick layer of mulch with cereal
straw
Top of previous layer
6th layer
A layer of fine soil (Black/garden
soil) (Top of bed)
Top of previous layer
5th layer Dung/FYM/Bio gas sludge Top of previous layer
4th layer Green succulent materials Top of previous layer
3rd layer Dry crop residues Top of previous layer
2nd layer Dung/FYM/Bio gas spent sludge Top of previous layer
1st layer
Coconut coir waste/sugarcane trash
etc
Bottom of bed

51. Ever since organized crop husbandry
came into existence, the seed has been
the lifeline and source of sustenance.
Quality of the seed is very important to
obtain good germination and optimum
plant density. To produce quality seeds,
production techniques and appropriate
seed management methods are very
important.

52. SEED PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT METHODS:
• Seed Production Site: Selection of a suitable site is very
important for developing seeds for better seed setting,
controlling pest and diseases and enhancing seed production.
Generally, coastal areas with a high temperature and
relatively high humidity are not suitable for seed production.
• Selection of the season: Seed production is highly
successful in areas of moderate rainfall and humidity. A
warm dry climate is suitable for the production of disease-
free seed.
• Pre-Sowing Management: Heterogeneous seed material has
to be made homogeneous by first removing those seeds that
are discolored, shriveled, immature, disease-infected,
damaged by insects, fungus or by mechanical handling.
Appropriate sieves can be used to grade the seeds.

53. • Nutrient Management: Organic nutrient
management involves application of good quality
compost, bio-fertilizers, biodynamic preparations
and liquid manures. All measures towards
maintaining the soil fertility and productivity should
be undertaken. The details of composting and other
methods of nutrient management are discussed in
chapter 3.
• Insect Management: Appropriate insect
management practices have to be adopted to
maintain healthy plants. Besides, sprays of
botanicals, close watch of the crop and removal of
the affected plants in bunds and surroundings can
reduce insect infestations.

54. SEED TREATMENT
1. To prevent the spread of soil-borne
and storage pathogens which cause
plant diseases.
2. For toughening against drought and
environmental shocks.
3. To improve germination,
4. To prevent attacks of soil-born insects
when sown.

55. TREATMENT TECHNIQUES:
1. Pelleting: Pelleting is a technique of seed treatment with leaf powders
of Albizzia amara, Pongamia pinnata. Vitex negundo,Prosopis
juliflora, etc. The growth-promoting substances in these leaf powders
stimulate the germination of the seeds so treated.
Method:
• Boil 100 grams of rice in 500 ml of water for 30 minutes. Collect 200-300 ml of rice
gruel. Locally available sticky materials like jaggery or sugar can also be used.
Jaggery solution can be prepared by boiling about 25 grams of jaggery or sugar in
500 ml water for15-20 minutes.
• The boiled jaggery/sugar water of hot rice gruel is cooled before use.
• Depending on availability, any of the leaves of Albizzia amara, Pongamia pinnata,
Vitex negundo, Prosopis julifloraare collected, dried and crushed with a pestle and
mortar. A blender or mixer can also be used to powder the leaves. The leaf powder is
sieved and 200-300 gmis weighed.
• One kilogram of seed is dipped in 200-300 ml of cooled rice gruel or jaggery solution
for one minute and the seeds are spread on a polythene sheet. Leaf powder (200-300
gm) is spread on one kg of jaggery or rice gruel treated seeds and mixed thoroughly to
obtain a uniform coating. The treated seeds are shade dried after which they are
sown.

56. • The rice gruel or jaggery solution should be cooled
before treating the seeds, otherwise the germination
will be affected.
• The seeds should get a uniform coating of jaggery
or rice gruel solution.
• Leaf powder should be very fine otherwise it will
not stick on the seed surface.
Precautions:

57. 2. Seed fortification: Seeds are soaked in water for 6-24 hours, dried in the shade and
then sown. Such treatment of seeds improves their germination. The growth of the
plant is more vigorous and consequently the yield improves.
Method:
Tiny seeds (Chilly, Tomato, Brinjal, etc.) are placed in between wet blotting paper or
tissue paper for 6-24 hours. Seeds bigger in size (like Peas, Beans etc.) are placed in
a wet gunny cloth for 24 hours and only then sown. Seed Treatment Techniques
Popular amongst farmers.
a) With Cow Urine: It facilitates germination and prevents seed-borne diseases.
Method:
• Prepare a cow urine solution by diluting one part cow urine in ten parts of water.
• Soak the seeds in the cow urine solution for 15 minutes.
• Dry the seeds in shade and sow immediately.
b) With Cow’s Milk: It prevents yellowing of leaves and leaf spot diseases.
Method:
• Prepare a solution by diluting one part cow milk in five parts of water.
• Soak the paddy seeds in the above solution for 30 minutes.
• Dry the seeds in the shade and sow immediately.

58. c) With Wood Ash: It prevents seedling rot.
Methods:
 Prepare a solution by mixing ten grams of ash (approximately
two tablespoons) with one liter of water.
 Dip vegetable seeds in the above solution for 15-30 minutes.
 Dry seeds first in the shade and sow immediately.
d) Hot Water Treatment: It controls pathogens which develop in
seeds when they are stored for a long period.
Method:
1. Boil water till it reaches 55 C. Check the temperature with a
thermometer.
2. Soak the seeds in it for 10-15 minutes. Dry the seeds first in the
shade and then in the sun. Seeds may be stored in insect proof
containers and used when required.

59. 1. Seed Treatment With Biofertilizers:
Bio fertilizers are preparations containing efficient strains of
nitrogen fixing, phosphate-solubilising or cellulolitic micro
organisms used for inoculating seed or soil with the object of
accelerating microbial processes in order to enhance the
availability of nutrients in an assimilable form. Biofertilizers are
widely used in organic farming. Some of the bio fertilizers
commonly used is listed below.
a) Azospirillum and azotobactor:
These are non-symbiotic and free-living nitrogen fixing organisms.
They fix 20-30 kg N/ha. They also produce growth promoting substances
like indole acetic acid, gibberellins, cytokines and vitamins. In addition, they
also produce anti-fungal substances. The use of azospirillum and
azotobactor @ 2 kg per 100 kg of seed is recommended. They improve the
root system, thereby increasing the uptake of nutrients. They can be used in
crops like rice, sugarcane, cotton, sorghum, maize, barly,and vegetables like
tomato, brinjal, cauliflower, cabbage, etc.

60. b) Rhizobium: Rhizobium
It is used in leguminous crops. It fixes
atmospheric nitrogen symbiotically. Rhizobium
strains are specific to each crop. It is very important
that the inoculants should be used only for the
recommended crop. These inoculants are available
in the form of charcoal based cultures in 200 gm,
500 gm, and 1kg packages. The cost of these
inoculants ranges Rs. 50 to 150/Kg.

61. c) Phosphorus Solubilisers:
Phosphorus is an important plant nutrient which is not readily
available as it is found fixed in the soil. Some heterotrophic
bacteria like Pesudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. Have
ability to solubilise inorganic phosphorus from insoluble
sources by secreting organic acids. These microorganisms
can be used for all crops and can solubilise 20-30% of
insoluble phosphates found in the soil.
* Agriland PSM Powder. * Phosphate Solubilizing
Microorganisms.
* 107 – 109 cfu/gm. * Strains : Bacillus polymyxa.
* Useful in all the crops as seed dresser @ 5-10 gm/kg seed
and as soil input @ 500 – 1000 gm/acre along with 40-50
kg manure.

62. Methodology and Seed Treatment:
 Prepare a 5% jaggery solution (boil 50 gm of jaggery in one
litre of water.)
 After cooling, sprinkle the solution over the seeds and mix
well.
 Mix one kilo of biofertilizer with the seeds until a uniform
coating is formed over the lot (Follow the recommended dose
mentioned on the biofertilizer pack for different crops.)
 Dry the treated seeds in the shade and then use for sowing.
Precautions:
1. The Jaggery solution should be cooled before treating the
seeds.
2. The bio fertilizer should be from an authentic source.
3. The bio fertilizer pack should be checked for date of packing
and expiry.

63. Cross inoculation groups of rhizobium
Rhizobium
Species
Crop Group Legume Type
R. leguminosarum Pea group Pisum sp., Vicia sp., Lens
sp
R. phaseoli Bean group Phaseolus sp.
R. trifoli Clover group Trifolium sp.
R. meliloti Alfalfa group Melilotus sp., Medicago
sp., Trigonella sp.
R. lupini Lupini group Lupinus sp., Ornithopus
sp.
R. japonicum Soybean group Glycine sp.
Rhizobium sp. Cowpea group Vigna sp., Arachis sp.

65. Introduction
Increased use of herbicides has, however,
resulted in multiple problems. The environmental
safety has been doubted with increased pollution
hazards. Further, weed species are developing
resistance to toxicants. A number of mechanical,
ecological and chemical methods of weed control have
been developed over centuries of experience.
In order to prevent the accumulation of chemical, it
is necessary to find alternative weed management
techniques leading to minimum loss in crop production
and least distance to the ecosystem. Weed can be
managed by the following methods

66. 1.Preventive methods
2.Cultural methods
3.Mechanical methods
4.Soil solarization
5.Biological method
6.Allelopathy

67. 1.Preventive methods
Preventive methods of weed control include weed-free crop seed, weed free manure,
clean harvesting equipment and plaughing implements and elimination of weed infestations
in and around irrigation channels and cultivated fields.
Weed free crop seed
In vegetable seed production, weed seed get mixed with crop seeds get
dispersed far and wide. Care is needed to separate weed seed from crop seeds far
better management of weeds. Mirabilis jalapa, a common weed of wasteland has
seeds similar to papaya and often get mixed unintentionally resulting in poor quality
papaya seeds.
Weed free manure
• To get weed free manure is a difficult task and much of the weed problems arise due to
this factor.
• Parthenium hysterophorous grows very well in and around manure pits where organic
matter is in abundance. When manure is brought from such places, the seeds are
establishing themselves in the new site.
Clean irrigation channels
Weed seeds are also carried far and wide through irrigation channels infested
heavily with weeds. Seeds of portulaca oleralea (Luni) are carried through water
channels from long distances into vegetable field of okra, tomato, bringal, garlic and
radish.

68. 2.Cultural methods
The cultural methods of weed control include the use of smother
crops and crop rotation/ intercropping/trap cropping.
Smother crops
Smother crops are highly competitive with the weed species
infesting an area for light, nutrients and moisture. Example of smother
crops is barly, millets, rye, sorghum, alfalfa, clover, cowpea and
sunflower. Care should be taken that the crop do not became problem
by themselves.
Cover crops
Velvet bean puts up vigorous growth, accumulate greater
biomass and covers the ground fairly well in a short period,
smothering weeds and effectively conserving soil moisture.

69. Crop rotation/ inter cropping/ trap cropping.
• Smother crop may be grown in rotation with less competitive crops. Inter
cropping is intended to protect the inter space from losses through weed.
• Crop rotation is particularly effective against parasitic weeds and other crop
associated weed.
• The trap crops which induce germination of parasitic weeds without being
parasitized also reduce weed intensity. The important parasitic weeds are
broom rape ( orbenche spp. )
• Parasitizes mainly solanaceous crops) and dodder, cuscuta spp. Parasitizes
mainly leguminous crops.
• Parasitic weeds are host specific. Stimulus is required for triggering
germination of weeds. Incidence of orbenche spp. On solanaceous crops can
be minimized by rotating with sorghum.
• Incidence of cuscuta spp. On leguminous crops can be minimized by rotating
with cereal crops.

70. Optimum plant density
Maintenance of plant population in any crop and its
early establishment helps crops to complete better with
weeds due to smothering effects.
Drip irrigation
Applying water only to rooting zone as in case of
drip irrigation would curtail the growth of weed in inter
row spaces.

71. 3. Mechanical methods
This methods includes such practices
as hand weeding, hoeing, moving, flooding,
smothering with non leaving materials, burning
and machine tillage. Out of these, hand
weeding, hoeing and deep tillage are most
effective methods.
4. Soil solarization
• Harvesting of solar energy through soil solarization will be the key proposition for
controlling the soil borne pests including weeds.
• This is an eco- friendly technology used to kill weed seed in soil. It involves
mulching of the soil with clear plastic films so as to trap the solar heat in the
surface of the soil.
• Sheets should be spread in such way there is no gap between sheets and soil
surface.
• The increasing temperature will be the lethal to soil pathogens, nematodes and
weed.
• These methods are most useful in tropical and sub tropical region where air
temperature goes up to 45C during summer month.

72. 5. Biological methods
• This method involves utilization of natural enemies for the control of certain
weeds.
• This can be achieved by direct or indirect action of biological control agents.
• In direct action, firstly the bio control agent bores in to plant, weakens its
structure leading to its collapse and
• Secondly, consumes and destroys the vital plant parts. The important bio
agents are
1. Insects
2. plant pathogens and
3. nematode
6. Allelopathy
• Allelopathy is when plants produce compounds that can inhibit growth of
other plants.
• This is a problem in places where invasive species can destroy many native
plants by producing bio-molecules that are able to suppress and ultimately kill
nearby plants.
• However one can picture a reverse scenario whereby it is possible to use a
native plant that has allelopathic properties and suppress the growth of
invasive species.

74. Organic agriculture, incidence of insect and disease attacks
can be reduced by sound cultural practices and biological
approaches. These practices are region and crop specific.
 CULTURAL PRACTICES
The cultural methods are the traditional practices
followed by farmers for modulating crop growth
through selection of seed varieties, appropriate time of
sowing and maintenance of specific plant population
density for altering the microclimate.

75. Use of resistant / tolerant varieties:
Genotypes showing tolerance and resistance to
insect pests and diseases are to be selected for sowing.
Plants have sophisticated mechanisms to protect
themselves from attacks by insects. Certain genotypes
act as deterrents and antifeedants and some
encourage the predators of pests. There should be
a constant watch to update such genotypes in the
region. A number of resistant varieties are available for
every crop from all agro-climatic zones.

76.  BIOLOGICALAPPROACHES
Biological approaches to pest
management comprise the use of:
Plants or botanicals
Microbial pesticides
Biocontrol by insects
Bio-rational

77. Neem seed kernel extracts (NSKE)
NSKE can be easily prepared by using neem seed kernels and it is very effective for a
variety of insect pests.
Method
• Collect 25 kg of neem seeds and crush them into a coarse powder.
• Tie the crushed seeds in a muslin or cotton cloth and immerse overnight in 50 liters
of water.
• Squeeze the cloth containing the crushed neem seeds and remove the extract
entirely. Dip the cloth containing the crushed neem seeds again in 50 litres of water and squeeze
again.
• Add 400 litres of water to the concentrated solution of 100 liters extract. A 5%
solution can be used as a foliar spray. For every 100 liters of the spray solution add about 50
gm of khadi soap or soap nut which acts as an emulsifier to spread the spray solution
uniformly on the foliage. NSKE should be used within 2–3 days of preparation.
• This spray is effective for a variety of leaf eating insects and is also undertaken as a
prophylactic or preventive measure for pests.
• Precautions
• Spray the solution during evening hours.
• Khadi soap or soap nut are mild emulsifiers. Strong detergents (with enzymes) should
never be used.

78. Liquid manurefor pest management
A variety of plants (weeds) which have pesticide value are used to make liquid
manure. Plants that have strong disagreeable odour, e.g., Parthenium, Lantana,
Vitex, Calotropis, etc., are ideal for this preparation.
Method
• Collect 30 kg of leaves and tender parts of plants which have pesticide qualities.
• Chop them into small pieces and put them into a 200 litre barrel.
• Add 30 kg of cattle dung to the barrel and fill it up with water.
• Add about 5 kg of local soil to the barrel to facilitate faster degradation.
• One set of biodynamic preparation (502–507) can be added to the barrel and is optional.
• The barrel is stirred every day for seven days and then stirred once a week for the
next three weeks. The preparation will be ready in 30 days.
• The concentrated solution is diluted ten times in water and used as a foliar spray.
• These sprays are very efficient in managing a variety of pests
 Precautions
1. The liquid manure has to be diluted ten times before spraying on the crop otherwise it scorches the
plant.
2. The solution has to be sieved through a cloth or gunny bag before spraying to avoid blockage of
nozzles.
3. The solution has to be used within one month as its efficacy diminishes after that period.

79.  Mineral -based pesticides for managing diseases:
Sulphur
• Sulphur is probably the oldest known pesticide in use.
• Sulphur can be used as dust, wettable powder, paste or liquid.
It is very effective in controlling powdery mildews, rusts, leaf
blights and fruit rots. Wettablesulphur @ 2–3% foliar spray is
very effective to control a variety of plant diseases.
Pest Control through the ages: The first recorded instance of
pest control dates from around 2500BC when the Sumerians
used sulphur to control insects. In 1000BC Homer, the Greek
poet, also described its use for getting rid of house pests and
much later the Romans used sulphur to protect their crops from
pests.

80. Sulfur prills for sulfur evaporator
The sulphur vapors change the pH on the surface of the plant causing
the environment to be unsuitable for fungal growth. The same pH change
will significantly slow the reproduction of pests- acting as an effective
means of pest control. It is very effective on most plants where the following
are present: powdery mildew, thrips in flowers and vegetables.
Lime sulphur
Boiling lime and sulphur together makes lime sulphur. The mixture is
used as a dormant spray on fruit trees to control diseases such as blight,
anthracnose, powdery mildews and some insect pests such as scales, thrips
and eriophyid mites. The general recommendation is 1% lime sulphur as a
foliar spray.

81. Sulphur
80% WP
Brand Name : Fighter-80
Chemical Name : Sulphur 80% WP
Crops : Grapes, Apple, Cow pea, Guar,
Pea, Cumin, Mango
Name of Disease : Powdery Mildew
Packing:
• 1 Kg
• 500 g

83. Biofertilizers are defined as preparations containing living cells or latent cells
of efficient strains of microorganisms that help crop plants uptake of nutrients by
their interactions in the rhizosphere when applied through seed or soil. They
accelerate certain microbial processes in the soil which augment the extent of
availability of nutrients in a form easily assimilated by plants.
• Very often microorganisms are not as efficient in natural surroundings as one
would expect them to be and therefore artificially multiplied cultures of efficient
selected microorganisms play a vital role in accelerating the microbial processes
in soil.
• Use of biofertilizer is one of the important components of integrated nutrient
management, as they are cost effective and renewable source of plant nutrients to
supplement the chemical fertilizers for sustainable agriculture. Several
microorganisms and their association with crop plants are being exploited in the
production of biofertilizers. They can be grouped in different ways based on their
nature and function.

85. Group Example
N2 Fixing Biofertilizers
Free living Azotobactor, Beijerinkia, Clostridium, Klebsiella, Anabaena, Nostoc
Symbiotic Rhizobium, Frankia, Anabaena azolla
Associative Symbiotic Azospirillum
P solubilizing Biofertilizers
Bacteria Bacillus megaterium, B. subtilis, B. circulans, pseudomonas striata
Fungi Penicilliumsp, Aspergillus sp.
P Mobilizing Biofertilizers
Arbuscular mycorrhiza Glomus sp., Gigaspora sp., Acaulospora sp., Scutellospora sp.
&Sclerocystis sp.
Ectomycorrhiza Laccaria sp., Pisolithus sp., Boletus sp., Amanita sp.
Ericoid mycorrhizae Pezizellae ricae
Orchid mycorrhiza Rhizoctonia solani
Bio fertilizers for micronutrients
Silicate &zink solubilizers Bacillus sp.
Plan growth promoting Rhizobacteria
P seudomonas Pseudomonas fluorescen

86.  Application of Bio-fertilizers
1. Seed treatment or seed inoculation
2. Seedling root dip
3. Main field application
• Seed Treatment:
One packet of the inoculants is mixed with 500 ml of rice kanji to make
slurry. The seeds required for ha are mixed in the slurry so as to have a
uniform coating of the inoculants over the seeds and then shade dried for 30
minutes. The shade dried seeds should be sown within 24 hours. One packet of
the inoculants (200 g) is sufficient to treat 10 kg of seeds.
• Seedling root dip:
This method is used for transplanted crops. Five packets of the inoculants
is mixed in 100 liters of water. The root portion of the seedlings required for
one ha is dipped in the mixture for 5 to 10 minutes and then transplanted.
Main field application: Ten packets of the inoculants is mixed with 50 kg
of dried and powdered farm yard manure and then broadcasted in one hectare
of main field just before transplanting

87. • Rhizobium:
For all legumes Rhizobium is applied as seed inoculants.
• Azospirillum/Azotobacter:
In the transplanted crops, Azospirillum is inoculated through
seed, seedling root dip and soil application methods. For direct
sown crops, Azospirillum is applied through seed treatment and
soil application.
• Phosphobacteria:
Inoculated through seed, seedling root dip and soil
application methods as in the case of Azospirillum.
• Combined application of bacterial biofertilizers: Phospho
bacteria can be mixed with Azospirillum and Rhizobium. The
inoculants should be mixed in equal quantities and applied as
mentioned above.

88. Points to Remember:
• Bacterial inoculants should not be mixed with
insecticide, fungicide, herbicide and fertilizers.
• Seed treatment with bacterial inoculants is to be done
at last when seeds are treated with fungicides.
• Phosphobacteria: The recommended dosage of
Azospirillum is adopted for phosphor-bacteria
inoculation; for combined inoculation, both bio-
fertilizers as per recommendations are to be mixed
uniformly before using.

90. Green unrecompensed material used as manure
is called green manure.
It is obtained in two ways:
 By growing green manure crops or by collecting
green leaf (along with twigs) from plants grown in
wastelands, field bunds and forest.
 Green manuring is growing in the field plants usually
belonging to leguminous family and incorporating
into the soil after sufficient growth for the purpose of
improving physical structure as well as fertility of the
soil. The plants that are grown for green manure
known as green manure crops.

91. Methods of Green Manure
The practice of green manuring is adopted in various
ways in different states os India to suit soil and climatic
conditions.
The methods of green manuring are
1. Green manuring in situ and
2. Green leaf manuring.
1. Green manuring in situ
Green manure crops are grown and incorporated in
the same field where it grown, either as pure crop or as
inter crop with main crop is called green manuring in
situ. The most important green manure crops are
sunnhemp, dhaincha, cowpea, cluster bean and
Sesbania rostrata.

92.  Biomass production and N accumulation of green manure
crops
Crop Days
Green
biomass
(t/ha )
N accumu.
(kg/ha)
Sesbania aculeata (Dhaincha) 60 23.2 133
Sesbania juncea (Sunnhemp) 60 30.6 134
Vignaun guiculata (Cow pea) 60 23.2 74
Cymopsis tetragonaloba
(Cluster bean)
50 20.0 91
Sesbaniarostrata 50 20.0 96
Pillipesara 60 25.0 102

94. Nutrient content of green manure crops
Plant Scientific name N P2O5 K
Sunhemp Crotalaria juncea 2.30 0.50 1.80
Dhaincha Sesbania aculeata 3.50 0.60 1.20
Sesbania
(Shevri)
Sesbania speciosa 2.71 0.53

95. Sesbania rostratais a stem nodulating
green manure crop which is a native of West
Africa. As it is a short-day plant and
sensitive to photoperiod, the length of
vegetative period is short when sown in
August or September. A mutant (TSR-l)
developed by Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre, Bombay is insensitive to
photoperiod, tolerant to salinity and
waterlogged condition. Growth and nitrogen
fixation is higher with TSR-l compared to
the existing strains.

96. Green leaf manure
Application of green leaves and twigs
of trees, shrubs and herbs collected from
elsewhere is known as green leaf
manuring. Forest tree leaves are the main
sources for green leaf manure. Plants
growing in wastelands, field bunds etc.,
are another source of green leaf manure.
The important plant species useful for
green leaf manure are neem, mahua, wild
indigo, Glyricidia, Karanji (Pongamiag
labra) calotropis, avise(Sesbania
grandiflora), subabul and other shrubs.

97. Characteristics desirable in legume green
manure crops
1. Multipurpose use
2. Short duration, fast growing, high nutrient accumulation ability
3. Tolerance to shade; flood, drought and adverse temperatures
4. Wide ecological adaptability
5. Efficiency in use of water
6. Early onset of biological nitrogen fixation
7. High N accumulation rates
8. Timely release of nutrients
9. Photoperiod insensitivity
10. High seed production
11. High seed viability
12. Ease in incorporation
13. Ability to cross-inoculate or responsive to inoculation
14. Pest and disease resistant
15. High N sink in underground plant parts.

98. Plant Scientific name N P2O5 K
Gliricidia Gliricidia sepium 2.76 0.28 4.60
Pongania Pongamia glabra 3.31 0.44 2.40
Neem Azadirachta indica 2.83 0.28 0.35
Gulmohar Delonix regia 2.76 0.46 0.50
Peltophoru
m
Peltophorum
ferrugenum
2.63 0.37 0.50
Nutrient content of green leaf manure

99. Weeds
Plant Scientific name N P2O5 K
Parthenium Parthenium hysterophorus 2.68 0.68 1.45
Water
hyacinth
Delonix regia 3.01 0.90 0.15
Trianthema Trianthemaportulac
astrum
2.64 0.43 1.30
Ipomoea Ipomoea 2.01 0.33 0.40
Calotrophis Calotropis gigantea 2.06 0.54 0.31
Cassia Cassia fistula 1.60 0.34 1.20

101. Potential of green manure crops
Green manure crop Sowing time Seed rate kg/ha
Bio mass
production t/ha
N kg/ha
Berseem
Trifolium alexandrium
Oct-Dec 80-100 20-22 67-70
Black gram
Vigna mungo
June-July 20-22 8-10 38-48
Cluster bean
Cyamopsis tetragonaloba
April-July 20-22 10-12 40-49
Cowpea
Vigna anguiculata
April-July 45-55 15-18 74-88
Daincha
Sesbania aculeata
April-July 80-100 20-25 84-105
Green gram
Vignaradiata
June-July 30-40 20-25 68-85
Horse gram
Dolichos biflorus
June-July 25-30 26-30 120-135
Pea
Pisum sativum
Octo-Dec 10-12 8-10 26-33
Sunhemp
Crotolaria juncea
April-July 80-100 15-25 60-100

102. Criteria Effects
High bio mass production Mobilization of nutrients from soil into vegetation,
suppression of weeds
Deep rooting system Pumping up of weathered and/or leached nutrients from soil
layers not occupied by root of main crop
Fast initial growth Quick soil cover for effective soil protection, suppression of
weeds
More leaf than wood Easy decomposition of organic matter
Low CN ratio Leading of enhanced availabiliity of nutrients for succeeding
crops, easy to handling during cutting/ or incorporation into
the soil
Nitrogen fixing Increased nitrogen availability
Good affinity with
micorrhiza
Mobilization of phosphorus leading to improved availibility
for crops
Criteria for selection of green manure

103. Advantage of Green Manuring
• Has positive influence on the physical and chemical
properties of soil.
• Helps to maintain the organic matter status of
arable soil.
• Serves as source of food and energy for the
microbes multiplies rapidly, not only decompose the
GM and result in release of plant nutrients in
available forms for use by the crops.
• Improves aeration in rice soils by stimulating
activities of surface film of algae and bacteria.
• Additional use as source of food, feed and fuel.

104. Soil Structure and tilth improvement
• Green manuring builds up soil structure and improves tilth.
• Promotes formation of crumbs in heavy soils leading to aeration and drainage.
• Increases the water holding capacity of light soils.
• Form a canopy cover over the soil, reduce the soil temperature and prevents
from erosive action of rain and water.
Fertility improvement of soils
• Absorb nutrients from the lower layer and leave them in surface when
ploughed.
• Prevent leaching of nutrients to lower layers.
• Harbour N fixing bacteria, rhizobia in root nodules and fix atmospheric N
(60 to 100 kg N/ha).
• Increase the solubility of lime phosphates, trace elements etc., through the
activity of the soil microorganisms and by producing organic acids during
decomposition.
Improvement in crop yield and quality
• Increases the yield of crops to 15 to 20 %.
• Vitamin and protein content of rice increased.

105. Amelioration of soil problems
• Sesbania aculeata(daincha) applied to sodic soils
continuously for four or five seasons improves the
permeability and helps to reclaim.
• Argemone Mexicana & Tamarindus indicahas a
buffering effect when applied to sodic soils.
Pest control
• Pongamia and Neem leaves have insect control effects.

106. Limitations of green manure
• Under rain fed condition, it is feared that proper decomposition
of the incorporated green manure may not take place if sufficient
rainfall is not received after burying the green manure crop.
• Since green manuring for wheat loss of kharif crop, the practice
of green manuring may not be always economical.
• Sometimes the cost of green manure crops may more than the
cost of commercial fertilizers.
• Sometimes it increases disease, insects and nematode problem.
• The green manure crop may be failed, if sufficient rainfall is not
available.

108. MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Digging and hoeing implements, seed, measuring tape, rope and wooden pegs,
organic manures (FYM), mulching material.
FLAT NURSERY BED:
o It is prepared during spring-summer when there is no risk of rain and in the
areas where the soil is light sandy to sandy loam and has no problem of water
stagnation.
o The area selected for nursery is well prepared till the pulverization of land
and well rotten FYM at the rate of 10 kg per square meter area and is
thoroughly mixed in the soil. The field is divided into small plots comprising
of beds of uniform size depending upon the requirement, with the help of
layout rope and measuring tape.
o Ridges are prepared around each bed, which facilitate the cultural practices.
In between two rows of beds, control irrigation channel is prepared through
which each bed is connected.

109. RAISED NURSERY BED:
o It is especially useful for raising seedlings during rainy season when
stagnation of water becomes problematic and causes damping off disease.
Raised bed of 10 to 15 cm height from ground level is prepared.
o All the stumps, stones, pebbles, weeds etc. are removed from the bed and
FYM at the rate of 10kg per square meter is mixed in the soil.
o In between two rows, a space of 45 to 60cm is left so as to carry out cultural
practices easily. The seeds are sown in lines in the bed.
SUNKEN NURSERY BED:
o This type of bed is useful and prepared during winter season. This type of
nursery is prepared 10 to 15cm downwards from the soil surface.
o The air blows across the surface of soil and the seedlings in sunken bed is not
hit by the cool breeze of the air.
o Further, covering of sunken bed with polyethylene sheets becomes easy which
is required for protecting the seedlings from cool air.

110. Sowing of seeds:
Till the soil to a fine tilth by removing stones, pebbles, crop
residues etc. Break the clods and level the land/bed. Mix FYM@
3 to 4kg, 250 g ammonium sulphate and 250 g super phosphate
per square meter area.
o The seeds are sown about 2 to 4 cm deep and 8 to 10 cm apart.
The depth of the furrow depends upon the size of seeds.
o Bigger are the seeds, deeper the furrow. After sowing, the seeds should be
covered with a mixture of FYM and coarse sand in the ratio of 3:1.
o Level the bed and sprinkle water after mulching the seed beds, as per
requirement.
o Over watering should be avoided, as excess moisture encourages root rot
disease.

111. In situ sowing: In situ sowing refers to sowing of seeds directly in the field and
grafting and budding are performed there itself.
o It is particularly important in some fruits like walnut, pecan nut, jackfruit
and ber, which has long tap root system, In situ sowing enables to avoid the
damage to tap root at the time of transplanting or uprooting of plants from
the nursery.
o Similarly, for high density planting in Amrapali mango, in situ orchard
establishment is recommended.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The seed source should be genuine and good quality.
2. The depth of sowing should be decided carefully depending upon
the size of seed.
3. Avoid over watering of nursery beds and stress conditions.

113. Quality cannot be improved after harvest, only maintained; therefore it is
important to harvest vegetables at the proper stage and size and at peak quality.
Immature or over mature produce may not last as long in storage as that picked at
proper maturity. Harvest should be completed during the coolest time of the day, which
is usually in the early morning, and produce should be kept shaded in the field. Handle
produce gently. Crops destined for storage should be as free as possible from skin
breaks, bruises, spots, rots, decay, and other deterioration. Bruises and other
mechanical damage not only affect appearance, but provide entrance to decay
organisms as well. Post harvest rots are more prevalent in fruits and vegetables that are
bruised or otherwise damaged. Mechanical damage also increases moisture loss. The
rate of moisture loss may be increased by as much as 400 percent by a single bad bruise.
Damage can be prevented by training harvest labour to handle the crop gently;
harvesting at proper maturity; harvesting dry whenever possible; handling each fruit or
vegetable no more than necessary (field pack if possible); installing padding inside bulk
bins; and avoiding over- or under-packing.

114. Harvesting Tips:
1. For best results, the harvesting should be done on the day you plan to market them .
Cloudy days, early mornings and evenings are always best.
2. Sprinkle them lightly with water and store them in a cool place until you are ready to
market them.
3. Some vegetables have a short harvest window and should be picked promptly when ripe.
Pick all your vegetables in the coolest weather you can
4. Use a clean, sharp knife to cut your vegetables from the plant. Use clean containers to put
your crops in. Be gentle when you handle your crops so they don't bruise. Put a clean, dry
cloth at the bottom of each container to protect the crops.
5. Keep your containers in the shade as you fill them. Then follow instructions for each
vegetable to store it in the right way.
6. If the vegetable needs to be moist when stored, cover it with plastic with slits or holes. Or,
if you have a humidifier in your cooler, set it to 95%. Take your crops to the market as
soon as you can. Then they will be fresh, healthy, and colourful.
7. Some vegetables are still good a long time after you pick them. That is why it is important
to pick and store them.

115. Post harvest operations:
1. Pre-cooling: Pre-cooling is the first step in post harvest
handling. The field heat of a freshly harvested crop—
heat the product holds from the sun and ambient
temperature is usually high, and should be removed as
quickly as possible before shipping, processing, or
storage. Pre cooling can be done by any of the following:
Room cooling: Produce is placed in an insulated room
equipped with refrigeration units.

116. Forced-air cooling: Fans are used in conjunction with a cooling room to pull cool air
through packages of produce.
Hydro-cooling: Dumping produce into cold water, or running cold water over produce, is
an efficient way to remove field heat, and can serve as a means of cleaning at the same time.
In addition, hydro-cooling reduces water loss and wilting.
Top or liquid icing: Icing is particularly effective on dense products and palletized
packages that are difficult to cool with forced air. In top icing, crushed ice is added to the
container over the top of the produce by hand or machine. For liquid icing, a slurry of water
and ice is injected into produce packages
Vacuum cooling: Produce is enclosed in a chamber in which a vacuum is created. As the
vacuum pressure increases, water within the plant evaporates and removes heat from the
tissues. This system works best for leafy crops, such as lettuce, which have a high surface-
to-volume ratio.

117. 2. Grading: After bringing form the field, the first operation that usually follows is
the removal of unmarketable material. This is because handling of plant material
that cannot be sold is costly. This is performed prior to sizing and grading. After
removal of the unmarketable products the grading is done.
It consists of sorting product in grades or categories of quality. There are two
main systems of grading:
Static systems: These are common in tender and/or high value crops. Here the
product is placed on an inspection table where sorters remove units, which do not
meet the requirements for the grade or quality category.
The dynamic system: It is probably much more common. Here product moves
along a belt in front of the sorters who remove units with defects. Main flow is the
highest quality grade. Often second and third grade quality units are removed and
placed onto other belts. It is much more efficient in terms of volume sorted per unit
of time.

118. 3. Storage:
It is essential to store the produce because:
1. Storing ensures the continuous supply even
in the off-season.
2. Vegetables remain protected from the
fluctuating weather conditions.
3. Stored vegetables can fetch higher price in
the market.
4. Storage prolongs the shelf-life.
5. Storage avoids the glut in the market.

119. Factors affecting storage:
The principle factors affecting storage are the temperature,
relative humidity, ventilation, cleanliness, packaging type, health
of produce, chemical composition of the produce, kind and
variety of produce and duration of storage. Refrigeration is the
principal means of extending the shelf life of vegetables after harvest,
as it slows down metabolic activity. Vegetables of tropical and
subtropical origin show a physiological disorder called Chilling
injury if exposed to the temperature below 10°C but above their
freezing point. Severity of injury generally increases chilling storage
temperature decreases and the duration of storage increases. Chilling
storage symptoms may develop during or after exposure. The injury
in many vegetables is manifested as discolouration, susceptibility to
decay, or failure to ripen; it is progressive with time indication a
general degeneration of metabolism.

120. 4. Packaging:
Packaging fresh fruits and vegetables is one of the more
important steps in the long and complicated journey from grower to
consumer. Bags, crates, hampers, baskets, cartons, bulk bins, and
palletized containers are convenient containers for handling,
transporting, and marketing fresh produce. Packing and packaging
materials contribute a significant cost to the produce industry;
therefore it is important that packers, shippers, buyers, and
consumers have a clear understanding of the wide range of packaging
options available. A significant percentage of produce buyer and
consumer complaints may be traced to container failure because of
poor design or inappropriate selection and use. A properly designed
produce container should contain, protect, and identify the produce,
satisfying everyone from grower to consumer.

121. Points to be kept in mind while selecting packaging material:
1. The produce packaging should be recyclable or biodegradable, or
both.
2. The trend is toward greater use of bulk packages for processors
and wholesale buyers and smaller packages for consumers. There
are now more than 1,500 different sizes and styles of produce
packages.
3. The packaging material should boost sales appeal. Multi-colour
printing, distinctive lettering, and logos are now common.
4. The produce packaging should be custom engineered for each
commodity to extend shelf life and reduce waste