Perspective in Psychology.pptx

Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927)
Introduction
• E.B Titchener agreed with Wundt that Psychology should study
Immediate Experience i.e. the conciousness. He Defined
Conciousness as Sum Total of the Mental Experience at given moment.
He said that Mind is accumulated experiences of a life time.
Germany to USA
• Titchener change Wundt’s System of Psychology when he brought it
from Germany to United States. He offered his own approach, which he
called Structuralism. He created the school of structuralism at Cornell
University. He set his goal, to study of the what, how and why of
mental life. “What” consisted of determining the basic mental
elements. “How” was to determine how the mental elements combine.
“Why” consisted of determining the neurological correlates of mental
events.

Fundamental Task
• According to Titchener Psychology’s Fundamental task was to
discover the nature of the elementary concious experience into
its components parts and thus determine its structure. He
rejected wundt belief of apperception (it is to perceive new
experience in relation to past experience).
Mind
• Titchener Defined Mind is Sum of our experiences
accumulated over a life time. Consciousness and Mind are
similar, expect the consciousness involve the total mental
processes occurring at the moment whereas, mind involves the
of the processes.

Contribution of Structuralism
• Despite these criticisms, historians give due credit to the contributions of
Titchener and the Structuralists. Their Subject matter (consciousness
experience) was clearly defined.

Element of Consciousness
• From his introspective studies, Titchener
concluded that the elemental processes of
consciousness consist of sensation, images and
affections.
• Sensation are the elements of perception and
occur in the form of sounds, sights, smells and other
experiences evoked by physical object in our
environment.

• Images are the elements of ideas. They are
found in the process that reflects the experience.
• Affections are elements of emotions and are
found in experiences such as love, hate and
sadness.
• According to Titchener sensations and images
could vary in terms of quality, intensity, duration
and clearness. He argued that feelings occurred
along only one dimension i.e. pleasantness or
unpleasantness.

Introspection

Introspection
• The most common method used for this purpose was
introspection (that’s means “looking inside ”). For such type
of experiment , a person was placed in a laboratory setting and
was asked to think (introspect) about what was going on
mentally as various event took place. He named it systematic
experimental introspection.
• These studies focused mainly on sensation and perception
because they were the earliest process to breakdown into
components parts e.g. in a study Titchener trained the subjects
and they identify four components of taste (bitter, sweet, salty
and sour).

Use of Introspection Method in Different Field of Psychology
• Although the subject matter of structuralism are no longer vital, but
the method of introspection is still used in many areas of
psychology. Researchers in Psychopsysics ask subjects for their
verbal report. Self reports are requested from people exposed to
unusual environments. Clinical Reports from patients and responses
on personality tests and attitude scales are introspective in nature.
• Introspective reports involving Cognitive Processes such as
reasoning are frequently used in psychology today. Industrial/
Organizational Psychologists obtain introspective reports from
employees. Cognitive Psychology with its interest in conscious
process has relied on introspection, so introspective method remains
alive.

Experiments

Criticism
• The major tool was introspection. The method of introspection
was highly criticized. Some pointed out that was called
introspection was really retrospection, because the event
being reported had already occurred. It was suggested one
could not introspect on something without changing it, because
observation changed what was being observed.
Unconscious Mind
• The concept of unconscious mind encouraged another
criticism of the introspective method. As Freud claimed part of
our mental functioning is unconscious and then introspection
is of no use in exploring it.

Criticism
Artificial Effort
•The structuralist’s movement accused of artificiality for
attempting to analyze conscious processes into elements.
Critics charged that whole of an experience cannot be
recaptured by any later association or combination of
elementary parts. They argued that experience does not come
to us in individual sensations, images or affective states but in
unified whole.
•William James, an American Philosopher criticized that
Wundt and his followers were trying to divide consciousness
into components as if it were a physical structure.

Functionalism
•The scholars associated with the founding
of functionalism had no ambition to start a
new school of thought. They protested
against restrictions and limitations of
Wundt's version of psychology and of
Titchener's structuralism but they did not
want to replace these with another formal
school.

Functionalism
Function of Mind
• Functionalism, as the name suggests, is concerned with how the mind
functions, or how it is used by an organism to adapt to its environment.
The functional psychology movement focused on a practical question i.e.
what do mental processes accomplish. Person's interaction with the
environment was the major theme of the functionalists. Functionalists
studied the mind from the stand point of its accumulation of functions and
processes that lead to practical consequences in the real world. (What does
the mind do? How does it do?).

Functionalism
Application
• The functionalists became interested in the potential applications of
psychology to everyday problems of how people function in and adapt to
different environments.
• Today applied psychologists work in testing, educational and school
psychology, clinical and counseling psychology, industrial/organizational
psychology, forensic psychology, community psychology, health and
rehabilitation psychology, family services, exercise and sports psychology,
military psychology, media psychology, addictive behavior, religion, cultures
and concerns of minority groups.
Goal
• For functionalists the goal was to understand how the mind and behavior
work in aiding an organism's adjustment to the environment, the research
tools included anything that was informative including introspection, the study
of animal's behavior and the study of mentally ill.

Functionalism
Characteristics of Functionalism
• It was never a well defined school of thought with recognized leader or agreed
on methodology.
• According to Keller (1973) common themes were as follows;
• The functionalists opposed the search for the elements of consciousness.
• The functionalists wanted to understand the function of the mind and not its
contents.
• They wanted psychology to be a practical science and they sought to apply
their findings to the improvement of personal life, education, industry and so
on.
• Functionalists urged the broadening of psychology to include research on
animals, children and abnormal humans.
• Functionalists were more interested in individual differences.
• All functionalists were influenced by William James who had strongly
influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution.

Functionalism
• Two psychologists who contributed directly to the founding functionalist school
of thought were John Dewey and James Rowland Angell
William James (1842-1910)
• His work was the major American pioneer of functional-psychology and he
was a pioneer of the new scientific psychology as it developed in United States.
James did not found Functional psychology, but he presented his ideas clearly
and effectively within the Functionalist atmosphere. He stated that goal of
psychology is the study of living people as they adapt to their environment.
• He also emphasized non-rational aspect of human nature. People are
creatures of emotion and passions as well as of thought and reason. He noted
that intellect can be affected by the body's physical condition, that beliefs are
determined by emotional factors, and that reason and concept formation are
influenced by human wants and needs.

Functionalism
He distinguished between conscious choice and habit.
Stream of Consciousness
• Obviously consciousness is a continuous flow. James coined the phrase
"stream of consciousness" for express this idea. Because consciousness
is always changing, we can never experience the same thought or
sensation more than once. The mind is continuous. Mind is selective
also, the mind chooses from the many stimuli to which it is exposed. It
filters out some experience combines or separates, selects or rejects
some others. Consciousness has a purpose or function, and it is more
important to conduct studies of function than to investigate a static,
academic structure.

Functionalism
Habits
• He described all living creatures as bundle of habits. According to James,
habits are formed as an activity is repeated. Repetition causes the same
neural pathways to, from and within the brain to become more well
established, making it easier for energy to pass through those pathways.
• Habits are functional because they simplify the movements required to
achieve a result. Habits increase the accuracy of behavior, reduce the
fatigue and diminish the need to consciously attend to performed
actions. For James, it is habit that makes society possible through habit
formation we can make our nervous system our helper instead of our
enemy.

Functionalism
Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
•He was just next to William James as his
influence on America psychology. He set up first
psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins
University USA in 1883.
•He taught a number of students, who later
became prominent psychologists, James
McKean Cattell and John Dewey were also
among them.

Functionalism
Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
Developmental Psychology
• Hall is often called a genetic psychologist because of his concern with
human and animal development and the related problems of
adaptation. Hall's genetic interests led him to psychological study of the
childhood, which he made the core of his psychology. He gave the idea
of recapitulation theory. He asserted that children in their personal
development repeat the life history of the human race.

Functionalism
John Dewey (1859-1952)
• He is commonly considered as founder of functionalism school of
thought, even though William James laid important ground work.
• Dewey was in view that neither behavior nor conscious experience
could be reduced to elements. It is strange that Dewey himself never
called his views functionalism.
• He argued that the behavior involved in a reflexive response cannot be
meaningfully reduced to basic sensori-motor elements. Dewey says
behavior should not be treated as an artificial scientific construct.

Functionalism
James Rowland Angell (1869-1949)
• Angell viewed that the function of consciousness is to improve the
organism's adaptive abilities. The goal of psychology is to study how
the mind assists the organism in adjusting to its environment. Angell said
functional psychology was not at all new, but had been a significant part
of psychology from the earliest times. He molded the functionalist
movement into a working school of thought. He made the psychology
department at the University of Chicago the most influential of its day. It
became the major training ground for functional psychologists.

Functionalism
James Rowland Angell (1869-1949)
• Angell described three major themes of functionalist movement;
1. Functional psychology was interested in mental operations. The task of
functionalism is to discover how a mental process operates, what it
accomplishes and under condition it occurs.
2. Functional psychology is the psychology of the fundamental utilities of
consciousness. Functional psychologists needed to discover what essential
services consciousness is performing for the organism.
3. Functional Psychology is the psychology of psychophysical relations and is
concerned with total relationship of the organism to its environment.
• Mental processes mediate between the needs of the organism and the
environment. Mental function help the organism to survive. With one’s habits
organism adjust in familiar situation, but in unfamiliar situation, mental
processes help in adapting the environment.

Functionalism
James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)
• The functionalist spirit of American psychology was also well
represented in the life and work of J. M. Cattell. He promoted a
practical test-oriented approach to the study of mental processes.
Catell’s psychology was concerned with human abilities rather than the
content of consciousness. That is why he seems to be a functionalist.

Functionalism
Harvey A. Carr (1873-1954)
• Carr elaborated Angell's theoretical position. Functionalism had won a
recognized position, under his supervision. Functionalism reached its
peak as a formal system at Chicago.
• Carr's text book "Psychology" (1925) presents functionalism in its most
refined form. He defined the subject matter of psychology as mental
activity such as memory, perception, feeling, imagination, judgment
and will.
• The function of mental activity is to acquire, fixate, retain, organize
and evaluate experiences and to use than to determine one's action.
Carr explained the adaptive (is behavior that enables a person to cope in
their environment with greatest success and least conflict with others.) or
adjustive (any response of an organism that effectively incorporates
environmental or situational demands) behaviour.

Functionalism
Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869-1962)
• Woodworth introduced into functionalism a "dynamic psychology" .
• His dynamic psychology focused on cause and effect relationship and his
primary interest was in the forces that drive or motivate human
beings. He believed that psychology's goal should be to determine why
people behave as they do.

Functionalism
Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869-1962)
S-O-R
• Psychologists should not explain the behavior in reference to stimulus
and response (S-R). They should not miss the important part of their
study the living organism itself. Woodworth chose the symbols S-O-R to
designate his theory in order to emphasize the importance of the
organism. He used the term mechanism to refer to the way an organism
interacts with the environment to order to satisfy a need. According to
Woodworth the internal condition of the organism activates the
organism’s behavior.

Functionalism
Criticism of Functionalism
• One criticism on functionalism was that the term itself had not been
defined clearly. Harvey Carr explained the exact definition and
supported the term.
• Ruckmick, a student of Titchener, examined different text books to
determine how the term functionalism is defined. He charged that the
functional psychologists were being inconsistent and ambiguous,
sometimes use this term to describe an activity and sometimes refer to its
usefulness.

Major Contributor
• John B. Watson (Experimental Approach)
• Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning)
• B.F Skinner (Operant Conditioning)
• Edward Tolman (Latent Learning)
• Albert Bandura (Observational Learning)

John B. Watson (Experimental Approach)

Experiment
• The Little Albert experiment was a famous psychology experiment conducted by
behaviourist John B. Watson and graduate student Rosalie Rayner.1 Previously, Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov had conducted experiments demonstrating the conditioning
process in dogs. Watson took Pavlov's research a step further by showing that emotional
reactions could be classically conditioned in people.
• The participant in the experiment was a child that Watson and Rayner called "Albert B."
but is known popularly today as Little Albert. When Little Albert was 9 months old,
Watson and Rayner exposed him to a series of stimuli including a white rat, a rabbit, a
monkey, masks, and burning newspapers and observed the boy's reactions.
• The boy initially showed no fear of any of the objects he was shown.
• The next time Albert was exposed to the rat, Watson made a loud noise by hitting a metal
pipe with a hammer. Naturally, the child began to cry after hearing the loud noise. After
repeatedly pairing the white rat with the loud noise, Albert began to expect a frightening
noise whenever he saw the white rate. Soon, Albert began to cry simply after seeing the
rat.
• After conditioning, Albert feared not just the white rat, but a wide variety of similar
white objects as well. His fear included other furry objects including Raynor's fur coat
and Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard.

Classical Conditioning
• According to the principles of classical
conditioning, learning takes place when an
association is formed between a previously
neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring
stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiments, for example,
he paired the natural stimulus of food with the
sound of a bell. The dogs would naturally
salivate in response to food, but after multiple
associations, the dogs would salivate to the
sound of the bell alone.

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian
physiologist best known in
psychology for his
discovery of classical
conditioning
Father
A simple form of
learning in which a
stimulus (trigger)
produce a response (a
desired Reaction .
There 5 key elements when
discussing Classical
Condition which are:
Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS), Unconditioned
Response (UCR), Neutral
Stimulus (NS),
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
and Conditioned Response
(CR).
Key
Elements
whenever you come home
wearing a baseball cap, you take
your child to the park to play. So,
whenever your child sees you
come home with a baseball cA
simple form of learning in which a
stimulus (trigger) produce a
response (a desired Reaction . ap,
he is excited because he has
associated your baseball cap with
a trip to the park. What is this?
This learning by association is
classical conditioning.
Example
Definition
Classical Conditioning

Experiment
• Pavlov began his experiments by ringing a tuning fork and then immediately placing
some meat powder on the dog’s tongue. The tuning fork was a neutral stimulus–it had
nothing to do with the response to meat (salivation) prior to conditioning.
• Soon the dog began salivating as soon as it heard the sound, even if the food was not
placed in its mouth. Pavlov demonstrated that a neutral stimulus will cause a formerly
unrelated response if it is presented regularly just before the stimulus that normally
brings about that response.
• Pavlov used the term unconditioned to refer to stimuli and to the automatic, involuntary
responses they caused. In the experiment, food was the unconditioned stimulus
(UCS)–an event that leads to a certain, predictable response without previous training.
• The salivation is an unconditioned response (UCR)–a reaction that occurs naturally
and automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented, in other words, a
reflex.
• An ordinarily neutral event that, after training, leads to a response such as salivation is
termed a conditioned stimulus (CS).
• The salivation it causes is a conditioned response (CR). A conditioned response is
learned.

Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning relies on forming
associations. In operant conditioning, however,
associations are made between a behavior and
the consequences of that behavior. When a
behavior leads to a desirable consequence, it
becomes more likely that the behavior will be
repeated again in the future. If the actions lead
to a negative outcome, however, then the
behavior then becomes less likely to occur.

Introduction
• The term operant is used because the subject operates on or
causes some change in the environment.
• This produces a result that influences whether the subject will
operate or respond in the same way in the future.
• Skinner trained rats to respond to lights and sounds in a special
enclosure called a Skinner box.
• A rat, placed in the Skinner box, must learn how to solve the
problem of how to get food to appear in a cup.
• The food that appears in the cup is a reinforcer in this experiment.

Observational Learning
• The second type of observational learning is usually called
Modelling, or Imitation.
• Observational learning is the process of learning by watching the
behaviors of others. The targeted behavior is watched, memorized,
and then mimicked.
• Also known as Shaping and Modeling, observational learning is
most common in children as they imitate behaviors of adults.
• There are specific steps in the process of modeling that must be
followed if learning is to be successful. These steps include attention,
retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Social Learning
•Social learning is the third type of learning.
•Social learning is a form of learning in which the
organism observes and imitates the behavior of others.
• Social learning theorists view learning as purposeful–
going beyond involuntary responses to stimuli or
reinforcement.
• The two types of social learning are cognitive learning
and Observational Learning.

Cognitive Learning
• Cognitive Learning focuses on how information is
obtained, processed, and organized.
• Cognitive Learning is the form of altering behavior that
involves mental processes and may result from
observation or imitation.
• Such learning is concerned with the mental processes
involved in learning.
• Latent Learning is an example of cognitive learning.

Observational Learning
•Observational Learning is the process of
learning by watching the behaviors of others.
The targeted behavior is watched, memorized,
and then mimicked. Also known as shaping
and modeling.

Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
• In the 1930s, Edward Tolman argued that learning involved more than
involuntary responses to stimuli; it involved mental processes.
• Latent Learning is a type of learning which is not apparent in the
learner's behavior at the time of learning, but which manifests later
when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear. This shows that
learning can occur without any reinforcement of a behavior
• Tolman coined the term Cognitive Map, which is an internal
representation (or image) of external environmental feature or
landmark. He thought that individuals acquire large numbers of cues
(i.e. signals) from the environment and could use these to build a
mental image of an environment (i.e. a cognitive map).

Experiment
•In their famous experiments Tolman and Honzik (1930)
built a maze to investigate latent learning in rats. The study
also shows that rats actively process information rather than
operating on a stimulus response relationship.
•In their study 3 groups of rats had to find their way around
a complex maze. At the end of the maze there was a food
box. Some groups of rats got to eat the food, some did not,
and for some rats the food was only available after 10 days.

Experiment
• Group 1: Rewarded
Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, given food (i.e. reinforced).
• Group 2: Delayed Reward
Day 1 - 10: Every time they got to end, taken out.
Day 11 -17: Every time they got to end, given food (i.e. reinforced).
• Group 3: No Reward
Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, taken out.
• The delayed reward group learned the route on days 1 to 10 and formed a
cognitive map of the maze. They took longer to reach the end of the
maze because there was no motivation for them to perform.
• From day 11 onwards they had a motivation to perform (i.e. food) and
reached the end before the reward group.

Modeling
• The second type of social learning is Modeling.
• Modeling is a learning by imitating others; copying behavior
• Modeling is the general term for the kind of learning involving
observation and imitation.
• Modeling includes three different types of effects.
• In the first type of modeling the behavior of others simply
increases the chances that we will do the same thing.
• No learning occurs in this case; no new responses are acquired.

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Psychology 1910 - 1920
• 3 “schools” of psychology opposing Wundt’s psychology and Titchner’s
structuralism
• Functionalism – objected to the narrowness or structuralism and reductionism
• Behaviorism – rejected study of consciousness for the study of observable
behavior
• Gestalt – rejected reductionist approach to psychology maintained an interest in
studying the mind

57
Beginning of Gestalt Psychology
•Max Wertheimer on vacation noticed that
distal objects seemed to move with the
train; nearby objects went past. Why?
•Study of apparent motion – why stationary
objects appear to move
•Began to study this phenomena with two
former students of Karl Stumpf – Kurt
Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler

58
Apparent Motion
•Phi phenomenon – flashing a vertical light that
is followed 50-60 sec later by a horizontal light
produces the appearance of movement. The
light appears to move from vertical to
horizontal
•Movement only perceived if delay was 50 – 60
sec
•The perceptual experience had properties the
individual components did not
•1st Gestalt paper presented in 1912

59
Basic Premise Of Gestalt Psychology
• Humans are not passive receivers of sensory information. Our
perceptions are active, lively, and organized
• We actively organize perceptions into coherent wholes – today the
process is referred to as top-down (Top-down processing is perceiving
the world around us by drawing from what we already know in order to
interpret new information) or conceptually driven processing.

60
Criticisms of Wundt and Titchner
•Wundt was studying sensory experiences “from below”
instead of “from above”. How we organize
information more important than the individual sensory
elements
•Titchner had his methodology backwards.
•Titchner: the subjects task is to explain their sensory
experience, not the objects being experienced
(Introspection)
•Wertheimer: the observers task is to describe the
object being experienced, not describe the
experience

61
The Gestalt Team
•Wertheimer: the teacher and lecturer who
influenced students and colleagues through
seminars and discussions
•Koffka: the writer and theorist – he produced
the basic principles of Gestalt psychology in
1935 Principles of Gestalt Psychology
•Kohler – the debater – he enjoyed debating and
criticizing the behaviorists and structuralists.
Only one of the 3 elected president of the APA

62
Gestalt therapy
• Fritz created the term Gestalt therapy, but it has nothing to do with
Gestalt psychology. He borrowed some of the terms.
• Gestalt therapy is a form of psychotherapy that focuses on a person's
present life rather than delving into their past experiences. This form of
therapy stresses the importance of understanding the context of a
person’s life when considering the challenges they face. It also involves
taking responsibility rather than placing blame.

63
Gestalt therapy
• In this client-centered approach to therapy, the gestalt therapist
understands that no one can be fully objective and that we are influenced
by our environment and our experiences. A therapist trained in gestalt
therapy holds space for their clients to share their truth, not imposing
their judgment and accepting the truth of their clients' experiences.
• Since therapists are human as well, it is important for gestalt therapists to
consider the influence of their own experiences on what is happening in
the session.

64
Techniques
Words and Language
• Attention to language and tone is important in gestalt therapy. As
clients learn to accept responsibility, they learn to use language that
reflects a sense of personal ownership rather than focusing on others.
Empty Chair
• This is a role-playing exercise that allows a client to imagine and
participate in a conversation with another person or another part of
themselves. Sitting across from the empty chair, the client enters into
a dialogue as if they were speaking with that other person or that
other part of themselves.
Role Play
• The key is to become aware of inner conflicts so that the person can
better learn how to integrate these parts of self into a more complete
whole.

65
Techniques
Body Language
• During a session, a gestalt therapist will observe the
client's body language and movement such as tapping
their foot, soaked their hands, or making a certain facial
expression.
Exaggeration
• A gestalt therapist may inquire about the client's body
language. If it is difficult for the client to find words to
put to what is happening, they may be asked to
exaggerate that motion or repeat it several times in a row
for a period of time during the session to draw out some
of their experience at that moment.

66
Techniques
Locating Emotion
• During a session, it is common for people to talk about
emotion. Talking about emotion is different than
experiencing an emotion. As a client talks about emotion,
the therapist may ask them where they feel that emotion
in their body.
Creative Arts
• Additional activities such as painting, sculpting, and
drawing can also be used to help people gain awareness,
stay present, and learn how to process the moment. This
technique that can be helpful in allowing them to become
more aware of themselves, their experiences, and their
process of healing.

67
Benefits of Gestalt Therapy
• Some of the potential benefits of gestalt therapy include:
• An improved sense of self-control
• Better ability to monitor and regulate mental states
• Better awareness of your needs
• Better tolerance for negative emotions
• Improved communication skills
• Improved mindfulness
• Increased emotional understanding

68
Criticism
•They spent the majority of their time criticizing
others instead of consolidating ideas into practical
and testable theories
•Described how perceptual processes work, rather that
theorizing how they worked
•Others took Gestalt ideas and incorporated them into
their own theories
•Gestalt psychology most important from 1915 to the
1940’s mostly in Germany

Cognitive Perspectives
The cognitive perspective is a way of understanding the actions of an
individual. The actions are believed to be based upon the memory as well as
the feelings that an individual has gone through in their past. The most
important factors are:
1. Cognitive perspective relates to the way the past dictates the present of an
individual.
2. Created by Ulric Neisser.
3. It replaced the Behaviorism Perspective.
4. Relates to the way an individual feels and understands on the inside as
important to the way that they act externally.

• Examples of Cognitive Perspective
• Example 1:
• Emily started college last summer and has not been able to
improve her grades as much as her friends think she could. What
they don’t know is that Emily herself is not studying. Emily has
never been good at school and, as a result, believes that she can’t
do well. Because of this, she does not have high self-esteem and
refuses to put in the work necessary to succeed.
• The way that Emily feels about herself is related to an event that
has happened in her past. This event or memory has influenced
the way that she continues to behave even in the present.
Because she has a feeling about herself that is negative she has
trouble overcoming this feeling to accomplish more in the future.
• Example 2:
• Tom wants to impress his boss with his next presentation but
every time he thinks about practicing the presentation he gets
anxious. He decides not to practice because he doesn’t like the
feeling. In the past Tom completed a presentation for his boss and
the boss did not like it. Tom feels anxious that the boss will not
like his next presentation either and does not practice.
• Because Tom has had a bad experience with his boss in the past
his subconscious mind has tied this in with his present
experience. He is convinced that the next experience will be the
same as the past experience because his mind continues to make
the connection between a presentation with the boss and the last
presentation that he made. Until he can overcome this connection
he will not be able to create a positive presentation that the boss

Aron Beck
Aaron Temkin Beck (July 18, 1921 – November 1,
2021) was an American psychiatrist who was a
professor in the department of psychiatry at
the University of Pennsylvania. He is regarded as the
father of cognitive therapy and cognitive behavioral
therapy.
Cognitive Perspectives by Aron Beck:
Basic premise: Aaron T. Beck’s cognitive theory of depression proposes that persons
susceptible to depression develop inaccurate/unhelpful core beliefs about themselves, others,
and the world as a result of their learning histories. These beliefs can be dormant for extended
periods of time and are activated by life events that carry specific meaning for that person.
Core beliefs that render someone susceptible to depression are broadly categorized into beliefs
about being unlovable, worthless, helpless, and incompetent. Cognitive theory also focuses on
information processing deficits, selective attention, and memory biases toward the negative.

Basic Assumptions :
Beck also asserts that there are three main dysfunctional belief themes (or "schemas") that dominate
depressed people's thinking:
1. I am defective or inadequate,
2. All of my experiences result in defeats or failures, and
3. The future is hopeless.
Together, these three themes are described as the Negative Cognitive Triad. When these beliefs are
present in someone's cognition, depression is very likely to occur (if it has not already occurred).
Example:
An example of the negative cognitive triad themes will help illustrate how the process of becoming
depressed works. Imagine that you have just been laid off from your work. If you are not in the grip
of the negative cognitive triad, you might think that this event, while unfortunate, has more to do
with the economic position of your employer than your own work performance. It might not occur
to you at all to doubt yourself, or to think that this event means that you are washed up and might as
well throw yourself down a well. If your thinking process was dominated by the negative cognitive
triad, however, you would very likely conclude that your layoff was due to a personal failure; that
you will always lose any job you might manage to get; and that your situation is hopeless. On the
basis of these judgments, you will begin to feel depressed. In contrast, if you were not influenced by
negative triad beliefs, you would not question your self-worth too much, and might respond to the
lay off by dusting off your resume and initiating a job search.

Coginitive model :
The cognitive model describes how people’s thoughts and
perceptions influence the way they feel and behave. The
cognitive model is at the core of CBT, and it plays a critical
role in helping therapists conceptualize and treat their
clients’ difficulties.

Criticism :
• Beck’s Cognitive Therapy has been criticized for
focusing too much thinking positively; being too
superficial and simplistic and not putting enough
emphasis on the client’s past. It is also criticized for
being too technique-oriented, thereby not maximizing
the therapeutic relationship between client and
therapist.
• It was claimed to work only on eliminating
symptoms but not entirely exploring the root causes
of the client’s difficulties. Ignoring the role of the
unconscious factors and neglecting the role of
feelings are likewise criticisms of this therapeutic
approach

Albert Ellis :
Albert Ellis (September 27, 1913 – July
24, 2007) was an
American psychologist and psychother
apist who founded rational emotive
behaviour therapy (REBT). He held
MA and PhD degrees in clinical
psychology from Columbia University,
and was certified by the American
Board of Professional Psychology

Cognitive Perspectives by Albert Ellis:
• Cognitive Theory:
In the 1950's, a psychologist named Albert Ellis, and a
psychiatrist named Aaron Beck, independently developed two
very similar theories. Both of these theories resulted in
effective forms of cognitive therapy. These therapies continue
to be widely practiced today. While behavioral learning theory
emphasizes the role of the environment, cognitive theory
emphasizes the key role of the mind's cognitions in
determining behavior. These cognitions include a person's
thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and perceptions.
According to cognitive theory, our dysfunctional thoughts lead to extreme
emotions. These extreme emotions in turn, lead to maladaptive behaviours. To
illustrate the powerful effect of these thoughts, consider the following
example. Suppose I am preparing to take a difficult test. While doing so I
think to myself "I can't do anything right, I'll probably fail this test." This
thought will likely cause me to feel apprehensive. When I eventually take the
test, this degree of anxiety will affect my ability to concentrate and earn a
good grade.

Rational emotive behavior therapy:
Albert Ellis's cognitive therapy is called Rational Emotive Behavior
Therapy (REBT). He believed peoples' intense suffering from negative
emotions was caused by their irrational core beliefs. Core beliefs refer to
the basic beliefs people have about themselves and the world around
them. For instance, in the previous example my thought "I'll probably
fail this test" may stem from a core belief "I must always achieve
complete success or else I am a complete failure." Irrational core beliefs
cause the negative emotions that lead to dysfunctional behaviors.
Core Schema:
According to Beck, the way we interpret environmental events is a
function of our core schema. A core schema is a central assumption about
oneself, others, and the world.
Basic Assumptions:
These assumptions influence our feelings and behavior. Examples of core
schema include:
The world is a dangerous place.
2) I am unlovable.
3) I am inadequate.

Rational emotive behavior therapy:
• The ABC (antecedents, behavior, consequences) model is a main
component of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), a form of
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). 1 It is based on the idea that
emotions and behaviors are not determined by external events
but by our beliefs about them.
• A: Activating Event (something happens to or around someone) B:
Belief (the event causes someone to have a belief, either rational or
irrational) C: Consequence (the belief leads to a consequence, with
rational beliefs leading to healthy consequences and irrational beliefs
leading to unhealthy consequences)
• Example
• Antecedent - Driver hears seat belt warning sound. Behavior -
Driver puts on seat belt. Consequence - Driver avoids a possible
injury and ticket.

Criticisms of Ellis
Ellis claimed that his therapy could handle most
problems as well or better than competing therapies.
That arrogance rubbed some people the wrong way. They
accused him of having the attitude, "Anything you can
do, I can do better."
Some people were turned off by Ellis's confrontational
approach. Many clients did not like having their beliefs
attacked, so they left therapy without being helped.
REBT, like all psychotherapies, does not always work,
and it is not always what people want. Ellis had an
explanation for why the therapy sometimes failed.

Definition
•Biological psychology, also called physiological
psychology, is the study of the biology of
behaviour; it focuses on the nervous system,
hormones and genetics.
•Biological psychology examines the relationship
between mind and body, neural mechanisms, and
the influence of heredity on behaviour. The
biological approach believes behaviour to be as a
consequence of our genetics and physiology.

Biological Approach Assumptions
•Biopsychology is where psychology and
biology overlap. The essential ideas taken
from biology and applied to psychology are
1. Genes determine our behaviour.
2. Brain functions are localised.
3. Neuro-chemicals are the basis of behaviour

Genes Determine Behaviour
• Natural selection is the idea that biological advantages of a species get passed
down to future generations in an inherited biological trait and was proposed by
Darwin in what is commonly known as the theory of evolution
• The century after Darwin, advances in biotechnology have allowed us to
confirm the existence of inherited physical traits, or genes, in cell DNA.
Geneticists are still trying to figure out how genes influence behaviour;
however, twin studies and family histories show that a lot of behaviour can be
explained using the ideas of genotypes and phenotypes.
• We carry a specific combination of our parents’ genetic information (DNA) in
our body, called the genotype. However, only the dominant traits are
observable. Genes that are outwardly observable are called phenotypes, and
they are determined by the environment. Knowing about genotypes and
phenotypes has helped us understand why some people show certain
behaviours and some don’t.
• Example Some mental illnesses such as schizophrenia are thought to have a
genetic component as they are often found passed on in family lines.

Brain Functionality
• Biopsychology assumes that different parts of the brain have different functions,
rather than the whole brain working at all times. There are many methods for
studying brain anatomy, including brain imaging like EEG, MRI, CAT,
PET scans or studying the behaviour of people who have pre-existing brain
damage. Research has revealed that different areas of the brain correlate with
specific functions.

Neuro-chemicals and Behaviour
• A lot of behaviour can be explained by the presence or absence of
specific messenger chemicals in the brain-
specifically neurotransmitters, hormones and immune system
messengers.
Example
• The biological model that would explain why people
have schizophrenia is that they have an excess of the neurotransmitter
dopamine in their brains. Treating this excess of dopamine with medicine
alleviates the symptoms of schizophrenia, which speaks for neuro-
chemicals playing a big part in the illness and consequently on behaviour

The Endocrine Glands
• The nervous system is one of two communication systems for sending
information to and from the brain; the second is the endocrine system.
Endocrine system
• a chemical communication system, using hormones, by which messages
are sent through the bloodstream.
Hormones
• chemical substances that carry messages through the body in blood
• The endocrine system sends chemical messages, called hormones, which
are produced in the endocrine glands and are distributed by the blood and
other body fluids.

Basic Principles
•Psychoanalysts believe that the unconscious mind (A
part of our mind that we do not have conscious control
over) controls much of our thoughts and actions.
•They use a dream analysis (ask patients to describe their
dreams) and word association to examine the unconscious
mind. Psychoanalyst use these two therapy techniques to
understand the human thoughts and behavior.
•Goal: To explain personality, motivation, and mental
disorders. Psychoanalyst focus on the unconscious
determinants of behavior

Major Contributor
• Sigmund Freud
Neo-Freudians
• Carl Jung
• Alfred Adler
• Karen Horney

Sigmund Freud
•The Founding father of psychoanalysis
•Started off with the desire to treat mental disorders like
irrational fears and obsessions
•Work with his patients led to his discovery of the
unconscious mind
•Proposed that we must examine the unconscious mind
through psychoanalytical therapy techniques
•People are not masters of their own mind and concluded
that psychological problems are caused by personal
conflicts existing at an unconscious level.

Types of Anxiety
• Freudian psychology proposed that humans have a set of defense mechanisms built to defend
themselves against an unfavorable event. Defense mechanisms are focused on how the ego defends
itself against internal events or impulses which are unacceptable to one’s ego.
• He also identified three types of anxiety namely, reality anxiety, neurotic anxiety, and moral anxiety.
1. Reality Anxiety
Reality anxiety is the basic form of anxiety and is built around the ego. It is usually based on the fear of
real or unforeseen possible events. For instance, being hit by a car while crossing the street.
2. Neurotic Anxiety
It originates from an unconscious fear that the basic impulses of the id will take control of the person.
This will ultimately lead to eventual punishment for expressing the id’s desires.
3. Moral Anxiety
This stems from the superego of the mind. The fear of violating values or moral codes is present in this
case that tends to appear as feelings like guilt or shame.
• In case anxiety occurs, the first thing the mind does is to seek rational ways of escaping the situation
by using problem-solving efforts wherein a range of defense mechanisms may be triggered. Defense
mechanisms often tend to distort or falsify reality.

Defense Mechanism
• The defensive mechanisms are as follows:
• Denial: It is the mechanism that leads an individual to believe that what is true is
actually false.
• Displacement: It is the act of taking out impulses on a less threatening element.
• Intellectualization: This involves the avoidance of unacceptable emotions by focusing
on the intellectual aspects.
• Projection: This involves attributing uncomfortable feelings to others
• Rationalization: This is the creation of false but believable justifications
• Reaction Formation: This is taking the opposite belief because the true belief causes
anxiety.
• Regression: This involves going back to the previous stage of development.
• Repression: It is the pushing of uncomfortable thoughts out of conscious awareness.
• Suppression: It involves consciously forcing unwanted thoughts out of their awareness.
• Sublimation: This involves redirecting wrong urges into socially acceptable actions.

Neo-Freudians
Carl Jung
• The Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist who founded analytical psychology.
• He was a student of Sigmund Freud.
• Jung believed that each person has a conscious and an unconscious level of awareness, but
under that, the entire human race shares a collective unconscious that exists in the deepest
corners of everyone’s awareness.
• Jung’s idea of “personal conscious” houses material that is not within one’s conscious
awareness because it has been repressed or forgotten.
• Jung’s “collective unconscious” is a storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from
people’s ancestral past. According to Jung, the collective unconscious is shared with the entire
human race and contains the “whole spiritual heritage of mankind’s evolution, born anew in the
brain structure of every individual”.
• According to Jung, these shared archetypes (memories that aren’t actual personal/actual
memories, but rather emotionally charged images with universal meaning) manifest into a
culture’s art, literature, and religion. Jung used similarities in ideas and symbols from different
cultures to prove that there is a shared universal conscious.

Neo-Freudians
Carl Jung
Functions

Neo-Freudians
Alfred Adler
• He was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the
school of individual psychology.
• He considered human beings as an individual whole and called his
psychology “Individual Psychology”.
• He focused on the importance of feelings of inferiority, also known as
the inferiority complex. He believed that humans practice
compensation, the efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by
developing one’s abilities.
• Adler believed the goal of the human soul is conquest, perfection,
security, and superiority.

Neo-Freudians
Karen Horney
• Theories of neurotic needs
• Horney, also in contrast to Freud, believed that culture (Social Factors),
rather than instinctual drives, largely led to behavior and psychological
characteristics, especially in neurosis.
• Horney recognized the role of culture in understanding neurosis;
cultures, in defining what is normal, shape and define what neurosis is
against its own norms.
• Horney created a new structure for neurosis. She believed that neurosis
stemmed from basic anxiety, which in turn stems from family conditions
that make a child feel unwanted.
• This basic anxiety causes people to feel helpless or lost in the world, and
they try to fulfill their need for love and acceptance through four
"neurotic trends'': affection, submissiveness, power, or withdrawal

Neo-Freudians
Karen Horney (Neurotic Needs)
Moving towards people
Moving towards people recognizes others as potential resources who can support us and help reduce our anxiety. We hence
seek affection, approval and someone close who can save us.
1. Affection and approval
2. A partner
Moving against people
While seeking approval and help from others, the neurotic person also may seek to control them and reduce the threat and
model of normality that others represent.
1. Power
2. Exploit and beat others
3. Social recognition
4. Personal admiration
5. Personal achievement
Moving away from people
Fearing criticism and the harm that other people may bring, the neurotic person may well pull back from them or hold parts of
themself at a safe distance.
1. Self sufficiency and independence
2. The need for perfection
3. To restrict life within narrow borders

Humanistic Perspective
•A perspective that focuses the individual’s self
awareness and freedom to choose.
•Believe people are free to choose what to do with
their lives are responsible for the choices they make.
•Interested in how people try to reach self-fulfillment.
•Sees people as innately good.
•Studies fulfilled and healthy individuals rather than
troubled people

Humanistic Measures
• Humanistic measures of personality
center on evaluating a person’s self
concept--all of our thought and feelings
about ourselves
• Answer the question “Who Am I?”

Who Founded the Humanistic
Perspective

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
•Humanistic psychologist who
developed the hierarchy of needs
•Believed that self-actualization
(reaching your full potential) is the
ultimate psychological need

Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with
physiological needs, proceeding through safety needs and then to
psychological needs
• Higher-level needs won’t become active until lower-level needs have
been satisfied.

Self-Actualization
• According to Maslow, the need to live up to one’s fullest and unique
potential
• Characteristics include:
•Self aware and self accepting
•Open, spontaneous, loving, and caring
•Not paralyzed by other’s opinions
•Focused on a particular task

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
•Humanistic psychologist who stressed
the importance of acceptance,
genuineness, and empathy in fostering
human growth
•Believed a person must know their
genuine feelings and act upon them.

Carl Rogers
• Self-concept—The impression you have of yourself as an individual.
• This is formed by recognizing what you value and through you relationships with
others.
• Congruence – Key to happiness. When your view of yourself what
you experience from others is consistent or the same.
• See yourself as outgoing and you have good relationships with others then you
are congruent and happy.
• Incongruence is when these don’t match. It will cause you to be anxious and
upset.

Our Need for Self-Esteem
• Rogers said we all need to believe in our self and have self respect.
• This self respect depends largely on how others treat us.
• Two things that influence our self-esteem
• Conditional Positive Regard
• Unconditional Positive Regard

Conditional Positive Regard
• Person is valued and loved only when the he/she behaves in a way that is
acceptable to others.
• Rogers felt we cannot live up to the wishes of others and remain true to
ourselves. We’ll only end up disappointed and incongruent.

Unconditional Positive Regard
• An attitude of total acceptance toward another person despite their
faults and failings
• This leads to high self esteem and confidence in oneself.
•However, Rogers did not believe in permissive
parenting. He said parents can disapprove of a
behavior without completely rejecting the child.

Genuineness
•Freely expressing one’s feelings and not
being afraid to disclose details about
oneself

Empathy
•Sharing thoughts and understanding
•Listening and reflecting the other
person’s feelings

Unconditional Positive Regard will help to
create…
•Congruence – A person’s sense of self
is consistent with their emotions &
experiences.

Comparing Rogers to Freud
•Rogers – Viewed people as positive, forward-moving,
constructive, realistic and trustworthy.
• People are innately good
• Humans will choose to act in ways that serve to improve
society and perpetuate the human race.
•Freud – Pessimistically viewed humans as hostile,
antisocial, destructive & evil
• We need society restraints/laws to keep humans in line
and prevent the destruction of the human race.

Evaluating Humanistic Perspective
• Humanistic Approach focuses on the consciousness and stresses
human freedom.
• Critics argue that because it focuses on consciousness that it can
never be a science because what a person thinks and feels cannot be
scientifically studied.
• Critics also point out that it does not explain the development of traits
and personality types.

Definition
•The socio-cultural perspective examines the
influences of social and cultural environments on
behavior. Socio-culturalists argue that understanding
a person’s behavior requires knowing about the
cultural context in which the behavior
occurs. (Culture refers to the shared knowledge,
practices, and attitudes of groups of people and can
include language, customs, and beliefs about what
behavior is appropriate and inappropriate.)

What is the Social-Cultural Perspective?
• The social-cultural perspective considers the way that different
individuals interact with their social groups and how these social groups
influence different individuals and how they develop throughout their
lives.
• The social group can consist of any group that the individual is a part of.
In fact, most people belong to a large number of different social groups.
These include gender groups, racial groups, religions and more.

• The work of socio-cultural theory is to explain how individual mental
functions are related to cultural, institutional, enviornment and historical
context.
• The focus of the socio-cultural perspective is on the roles that
participation in social interactions and culturally organized activities play
in influencing psychological development.

Principles
These principles include
• Psychologists need to understand that as “cultural beings” they hold
personal beliefs and attitudes that shape how they view and interact with
others;
• The need to be aware of how social and physical environments impact
the lives of an individuals;
• The need to understand and be aware of historical and ongoing issues of
power and privilege, and histories of oppression and seek to address
disparities and inequalities as they promote justice, human rights, and
access; and
• The promotion of “culturally adaptive” interventions.

Pioneer Of The Socio-cultural Approach
• A Pioneer Of The Socio-cultural Approach was the
psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), who became interested
in developmental psychology and helped to change the face of
the field.
• One key element of Vygotsky’s socio-cultural approach is his
idea of a Zone of Proximal Development. Commonly
abbreviated as ZPD, the Zone of Proximal Development is a
way to determine a child’s ability to learn and grow.
• A child’s intelligence go through the cultural differences with
regards to learning. Vygotsky claims that there are three cultural
tools which children use to inform their cognitive abilities.

Pioneer Of The Socio-cultural Approach

Socialization Agents
• People and groups that influence our self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and
behavior. Agents of socialization prepare us for our place in society
Family
• Family is the first agent of socialization. Mothers and fathers, siblings and
grandparents, plus members of an extended family, all teach a child what he or
she needs to know. For example, they show the child how to use objects (such
as clothes, computers, eating utensils, books, bikes); how to relate to others
(some as “family,” others as “friends,” still others as “strangers” or “teachers”
or “neighbors”); and how the world works (what is “real” and what is
“imagined”).
Peer Groups
• A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and
who share interests. Peer group socialization begins in the earliest years. As
children grow into teenagers, this process continues. Peer groups are important
to adolescents in a new way, as they begin to develop an identity separate from
their parents and exert independence.

Socialization Agents
School
• School is one of the basic form of formal education. It is place where a child
meets different kinds of children and learns how to differentiate between right
and wrong. An individual also learn morality, nationalism, patriotism and
adopts norms and customs of society.
Religion
• It is also an important factor in making s socially civilized person. It gives us
the set of boundaries and limitations under which an individual works.
Individuals are taught how to behave in a society, work with people and co-
operate with them.
Mass Media
• Media play s powerful role in the process of socialization because through
these means people easily learn new ideas, attitudes, fashion, trends etc. the
mass media includes television shows, movies, popular music, internet and
magazine.

Criticism
• The Social Approach underestimates the influence of individual
differences in behaviour – it doesn’t explain why some people differ
from the norm expected in any given social situation.
• The study doesn’t investigate why certain individuals were able to
disobey an authority figure.
• Another weakness of this approach is that in order to obtain valid
results, social research is often conducted without the participant’s
knowledge.
• It is often criticized for being ethnocentric (evaluating other cultures
according to preconceptions originating in the standards and
customs of one's own culture), meaning that research from this
approach may not generalize across cultures.

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