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2. Schools
• Structuralism
Wundt’s ideas formed the basis of the first school of thought (or perspective) in psychology, known
as structuralism. In reality, though, it was one of Wundt’s students, Edward B. Tichener, who
formally established this psychological school of thought.
• Structuralism, as the name suggests, was centered on investigating the structure of the mind.
Wundt believed that psychology should focus on breaking down consciousness into its basic
elements, in much the same way a child would pull apart a toy to reveal its component parts. The
idea of determining the specific structure of something so abstract and dynamic as the mind may
seem absurd to many today. Yet, structuralists were confident that not only could they accomplish
this goal, but that they could do so scientifically.
• Wundt advanced the technique of introspection as the “scientific” tool that would enable
researchers to unveil the structure of the mind. Introspection involves looking inwards; reflecting
on, analyzing and trying to make sense of our own internal experiences as they occur.
• In employing this technique, trained subjects were presented with various forms of stimuli and
asked to describe as clearly and “objectively” as possible what they experienced. Reports would
then be examined to determine the basic elements of consciousness. For example, if you were
presented with a slice of cake, it would not be enough to simply identify the type of food before
you. You would also need to explain the basic elements of the cake that you able to sense. For
example, you might describe the taste, smell, texture, colour, and shape of the cake in as much
detail as possible.

3. • Structuralism played a significant role in shaping the field of
psychology during its formative years. Wundt and his
followers helped to establish psychology as an independent
experimental science and their emphasis on scientific
methods of inquiry remains a key aspect of the discipline
today.
• Despite their noble attempt at scientific investigation,
introspection was less than ideal because no two persons
perceive the same thing in exactly the same way. Subjects’
reports therefore tended to be subjective and conflicting.
• Some of the fiercest criticisms of structuralism came from
the person of William James, one of the leading proponents
of the functionalist perspective.

4. Functionalism
• From the point of view of American scholar William James, structuralists were sorely misguided.
The mind is fluid, not stable; consciousness is ongoing, not static. Attempts to study the structure of
the mind would therefore be futile at worst and frustrating at best. A more fruitful endeavor, they
argued, would be to study the function, as opposed to the structure, of the mind.
• Function in this sense can mean one of two things – first, how the mind operates – that is, how the
elements of the mind work together – and second, how mental processes promote adaptation.
• Clearly influenced by the teachings of Charles Darwin and the principle of natural selection (survival
of the fittest), James believed that mental processes serve vital functions that enable us to adapt
and survive in a changing world.
• Thus, while the structuralists asked “what happens” when we engage in mental activity, the
functionalists were more concerned with “how it happens” and “why.”
• Functionalism contributed greatly to the development of psychology. It extended both the subject
matter of psychology as well as the range of methods use to acquire data. For example, the
functionalists’ emphasis on adaptation led them to promote the study of learning since this is
believed to improve our adaptability and chances of survival.
Why EMOTIONS??
Functionalists are also credited with bringing the study of animals, children and abnormal
behaviour into psychology, as well as an emphasis on individual differences

5. • In addition, while the structuralists established psychology as a pure
science, the functionalists broadened this narrow focus by also
concentrating on the practical application of psychology to real-world
problems. As it relates to research methods, functionalists added to the
existing repertoire by utilizing mental tests, questionnaires and
physiological measures, in addition to introspection
• Nevertheless, functionalists had their share of flaws. Like structuralists,
they relied heavily on the technique of introspection with all the
shortcomings previously mentioned and were criticized for only providing
a vague definition of the term “function.”
• Despite repeated verbal attacks aimed at each other, neither structuralism
nor functionalism remained at the forefront of psychology for very long.
Both made significant contributions to psychology but neglected one
important influence on human thought and behaviour – the unconscious.

6. Psychoanalysis
• Mention the word psychology, and few persons would fail to recall
Sigmund Freud. Like the structuralists and functionalists before him, Freud
believed in studying covert behavior, but unlike his predecessors, Freud
was not content with examining only conscious thought; he dived head-
first into the unconscious. What do you understand by unconscious.
• Examples of unconcious
• Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind,
whereby he described the features of the mind’s structure and function.
• Freud compared the human psyche to an iceberg – only a small portion is
visible to others with most of it lying below the surface. Freud also
believed that many of the factors that influence our thoughts and actions
lie outside of conscious awareness and operate entirely in our
unconscious.

7. • While psychologists elsewhere were busy with the study of conscious
experience and observable behaviour, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) in
Vienna, Austria emphasized the role of unconscious motives and urges in
shaping human behaviour. His school is regarded as psychoanalysis. Freud
was a psychiatrist and saw his patients suffering immensely because of
mental conflicts. The mental conflicts were manifested in the form of
physical problems and abnormal behaviour.
• Freud believed that outward behaviour is motivated by inner forces and
conflicts over which the person has little awareness and control. Abnormal
behaviours can be understood if we explore the contents of the
unconscious. The methods used for studying the unconscious are
hypnosis, free-association, and dream analysis. He used all these methods
with his patients. When the patients were hypnotized and allowed to talk
freely, they experienced some sense of relief. Dream-analysis revealed the
hidden wishes of the patient that lied in the unconscious.
• Freud understood the mind in terms of conscious, sub-conscious, and
unconscious processes, and emphasized that the ‘unconscious’ primarily
influences the ‘conscious experience’. He proposed concepts of id, ego and
super-ego to understand and analyze the personality structures of
individuals. Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, and Erik Erikson worked with Freud in
the early years, but later, they developed their independent schools of
thought. Freud’s thinking was revolutionary. Even those who have never
taken a course in psychology are aware of Freud’s contribution.

8. • Conscious: Freud (1915) described conscious mind, which consists
of all the mental processes of which we are aware, and this is seen
as the tip of the iceberg. For example, you may be feeling thirsty at
this moment and decide to get a drink.
• Pre: The preconscious contains thoughts and feelings that a person
is not currently aware of, but which can easily be brought to
consciousness (1924) Examples? Telephone number It exists just
below the level of consciousness, before the unconscious mind. The
preconscious is like a mental waiting room, in which thoughts
remain until they 'succeed in attracting the eye of the conscious'
(Freud, 1924, p. 306).
• Finally, the unconscious mind comprises mental processes that are
inaccessible to consciousness but that influence judgements,
feelings, or behavior
• Mild emotional experiences may be in the preconscious but
sometimes traumatic and powerful negative emotions are
repressed and hence not available in the preconscious.

9. • Id: The id is the impulsive (and unconscious) part of our
psyche which responds directly and immediately to
basic urges, needs, and desires. The personality of the
newborn child is all id and only later does it develop an
ego and super-ego. The id remains infantile in its
function throughout a person's life and does not
change with time or experience, as it is not in touch
with the external world.
• The id operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920)
which is the idea that every wishful impulse should be
satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.
• Not Satisfied: Tension/Unpleasure
• Selfish/Wishful

10. • The superego's function is to control the id's impulses, especially
those which society forbids, such as sex and aggression. It also has
the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather
than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection.
• The superego consists of two systems: The conscience (cause Guilt)
and the ideal self (imaginary picture of how you ought to be and
represents career aspirations, how to treat other people, and how
to behave as a member of society).
• If a person’s ideal self is too high a standard, then whatever the
person does will represent failure. The ideal self and conscience are
largely determined in childhood from parental values and how you
were brought up.

11. • The ego develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the
external real world. It is the decision-making component of
personality. Ideally, the ego works by reason, whereas the id is
chaotic and unreasonable.
• The ego operates according to the reality principle, working out
realistic ways of satisfying the id’s demands, often compromising or
postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society.
• Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e., tension reduction) and
avoids pain, but unlike the id, the ego is concerned with devising a
realistic strategy to obtain pleasure. The ego has no concept of right
or wrong.
• Often the ego is weak relative to the headstrong id.
• Examples of Ego? Running away from home?

12. Freud's personality theory (1923) , Pleasure, Moral and Reality

13. • Many later theorists were influenced directly and indirectly by Freud as they
either built on, modified or reacted to his sometimes controversial views.
• Freud’s work led to the development of the first form of psychotherapy – one
which has been modified and used by countless therapists throughout the history
of psychology. Even all this, to use Freud’s analogy, is just the very “tip of the
iceberg” as far as his contributions are concerned.
• No other psychological school of thought has received as much attention,
admiration and criticism as Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.
• One of the biggest criticisms is that his theory falls short of being scientific as many
of his concepts are not testable. Freud also failed to recognize how experiences
after childhood contribute to personality development and focused mainly on
psychological disorders rather than more positive, adaptive behaviours

14. Behaviourism
• Despite their differences, structuralism, functionalism and psychoanalysis all
shared an emphasis on mental processes – events that are unseen to the naked
eye.
• John B. Watson, a staunch supporter of behaviourism, strongly objected to this
approach and prompted a revolution in psychology. Watson was an advocate of
scientific scrutiny but for him, covert behavior, including mental processes, could
not be studied scientifically. The emphasis, from his perspective, should only be on
overt or observable behavior. Little Albert Experiment, Show
• Behaviourists believed that human behavior can be understood by examining the
relationship between stimuli (events in the environment) and responses
(observable behavior). Attandance? Example?
• They saw no need to employ subjective techniques such as introspection to infer
mental processes over which even trained subjects and researchers could not
agree. What was once the study of the mind thus became the study of observable
behaviour.

15. • B.F. Skinner, another famous behaviourist, supported Watson’s view by advancing
the idea that human behavior can be explained by reinforcement and punishment
– observable, environmental factors – with no need to consider inner mental
processes. What can be examples of reward and punishment?
• Later behaviourists adopted a more balanced view of matters, embracing the
study of both overt and covert behavior. These became known as cognitive
behaviourists.
• Many of the learning theories used by psychologists today were also born out of
the behaviourist school of thought and are frequently applied in behavior
modification and the treatment of some psychological disorders
• Nevertheless, the strict behaviourist view of Watson, was in no way superior to the
narrow emphasis of structuralists and functionalists on mental life alone. Indeed,
“many aspects of human experience (e.g. thinking,
intrinsic motivation, creativity)…lie outside a strict behavioural definition of
psychology” (Walters, 2002, p.29). These too must be studied in order to gain a
more complete understanding of the individual.

17. Meaning, Definition and Scope
• The word Psychology has its origin from two Greek words
‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’, ‘psyche’ means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’
means ‘study’. Thus literally, Psychology means ‘the study
of soul’ or ‘science of soul’.
• Psychology is the science of behavior and mind/Mental
Processes. Psychology includes the study of conscious and
unconscious phenomena, as well as feeling and thought.
• Behavior? Behavior includes all of our outward or overt
actions and reactions, such as verbal and facial expressions
and movements.
Mental processes refer to all the internal and covert activity
of our mind such as thinking, feeling and remembering.

18. • The discipline embraces all aspects of the human
experience — from the functions of the brain to the
actions of nations, from child development to care for
the aged. In every conceivable setting from scientific
research centres to mental health care services, “the
understanding of behaviour” is the enterprise of
psychologists.
• Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental
functions in individual and social behavior, while also
exploring the physiological and biological processes
that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors.
Examples: Mob Behavior, Person lying by roadside in
Village/ Town, Why Demonitization had less impact

19. Scope?
• Physiological Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Personality Psychology?
• Health Psychology:
• Clinical Psychology
• Counselling Psychology:
• Educational Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Industrial and Organizational Psychology
• Experimental Psychology
• Environmental Psychology
• Sports and Exercise Psychology
Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and
social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and biological processes that
underlie cognitive functions and behaviors.
Examples: Mob Behavior, Person lying by roadside in Village/ Town, Why
Demonitization had less impact

20. • Experimental Psychology: This branch aims at
understanding the fundamental causes of
behaviour.
– Study basic psychological processes as sensation,
perception, learning, memory, cognition,
motivation, and emotion.
– Work mostly in the laboratory and may use
animals as well as human beings in their research.
– Study how people learn everything from simple
tasks such as sitting upright to more complex
things such as emotions and language.

21. • Physiological Psychology: The branch of
psychology that studies the connection
between the nervous and endocrine system
and behaviour.
• Developmental Psychology: Concerns itself
with the study of human behaviour in all its
aspects of growth and development Also
known as Genetic Psychology Involves the
development of an individual in terms of
stages.

22. • Personality Psychology: It is study of individual
differences in behaviour, the sources the
consequences of such differences, and the
degree of consistency of characteristics within
the individual across situation and overtime.
• Cognitive Psychology: It investigated all aspects
of cognition-memory, thinking, reasoning,
language, decision making and so on.
• Social Psychology: Study of the behavior of
groups of individuals in their relationship to other
groups.

23. • Animal Psychology: It is also called
comparative psychology because it compares
human psychology and animal psychology.
Animals psychology is useful for
understanding the human behaviour as well,
because there is no absolute gulf between the
two.
• Psychometric Psychology: It is concerned with
the tests and inventories for the measurement
of human capacities and abilities.

24. • Educational Psychology: A field of
specialization that deals with learning,
motivation, and other subjects in the actual
educational process together with the
practical application of psychological
principles to education
• Abnormal Psychology: Scientific study of
human and the etiology or cause of personal
defects, or human’s behavior which deviates
from the average reaction, hence abnormal.

25. • Applied Specialties:
– Industrial-Organizational Psychology:
• Industrial-Organizational Psychology is concerned with
the methods of selecting, training, counseling, and
supervising personnel in business and industry.
• Study of human nature and reactions as related to
problems of industry, especially affecting personnel and
job efficiency.
• Focuses on making the workplace more fulfilling, and
more productive for both workers and their employers

26. • Guidance and Counseling Psychology:
– Dedicated to helping people with educational, job
or career, and social adjustments.
• Administration and interpretation of psychological
tests, such as intelligence, achievement, and vocational
tests.
• Mostly worked in schools as schools counselors (more
commonly known as guidance counselors).
• Military Psychology: >It deals with war and
other allied problems.

27. • School Psychology: Work with children to
evaluate learning & Emotional problems. Look
to psychological principles and techniques for
help in answering questions pertaining to how
children learn better with classmates of about
the same level of ability.
• Clinical Psychology: Apply psychological
principles to the diagnosis and treatment of
emotional & behavioral problems.

28. Methods
• Introspection
• self-observation
• Old, We do constantly in our daily life.
• Introspection is a method of studying the consciousness in which the subjects
report on their subjective experiences.
• In introspection, the subject is taught to achieve a state of “focused attention” in
which he can closely observe his own conscious experiences.
• report the smallest possible elements of awareness.
• Limitation
• It is not possible to observe one’s own behaviour and at the same time experience
it. If such an attempt is made, the experience disappears. Thus the subject has to
depend upon memory which itself may be subject to distortions, omissions and
commissions.
• 2. The results obtained from introspection are subjective and so lack scientific
validity. They cannot be verified and have to be accepted at face value.

29. • Observation: This is the most commonly used method
especially in relation to behavioural science, though
observation as such is common in everyday occurrences,
scientific observations are formulated in research places.
• It is systematically planned, recorded and is subjected to
check and control its validity and reliability.
• Structured observation is useful in descriptive studies,
while unstructured observation is useful in exploratory
studies. Another way of classifying observation is that of
participant and non-participant types of observation.
• disguised observation

30. • a. Uncontrolled observation:
• It is that which takes place in natural setting. Here no attempt is
made to use perceptional instruments or methods. Here the major
aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of
life of the persons.
• b. Controlled observation:
• In this, behaviour is observed according to definite prearranged
plans involving experimental procedure. Here mechanical or
precision instruments are used to aid accuracy and standardization.
This provides formulized data upon which generalizations can be
built with considerable accuracy. Generally, controlled observation
takes place in various experiments which are carried out in labs
under controlled conditions.

31. • Limitations:
• 1. It is expensive with respect to time and money.
• 2. The information’s provided by this method is very less or limited.
• 3. Sometimes, unforeseen factors may interfere with observation.
• Merits:
• 1. If observation is done accurately, subjective bias is eliminated.
• 2. The information obtained under this method relates to current
happenings. Either past behaviours or future intensions, do not
complicate it.
• 3. This method is independent of the subject willingness to respond
and so does not require active participation of the subject. Because
of this, the method is especially suitable to subjects which are not
capable of giving verbal reports of their thoughts and feelings.

32. • The experimental method is most often used in laboratory.
This is the method of observation of the behaviour or the
ability of the individual under controlled condition or fixed
circumstances. It is the performing of an experiment that is
a tightly controlled and highly structured observation of
variables.
• The experimental method allows researchers to infer
causes. An experiment aims to investigate a relationship
between two or more factors by deliberately producing a
change in one factor and observing its effect on other
factors. The person who conducts the experiment is called
the experimenter and the one who is being observed is
called the subject.

33. • There will be two variables. An independent
variable is a variable that the experimenter
selects. He can control this variable according
to the requirements of the experiment. The
dependent variable is the factor that varies
with the change in the independent variable
that is subject’s behaviour.

34. • Limitations:
• 1. The situation in which the behaviour is studied is
always an artificial one.
• 2. Complete control of the extraneous variables is not
possible.
• 3. All types of behaviour cannot be experimented.
• 4. Experimental method requires a laboratory and is
expensive.
• 5. We cannot accumulate information from abnormal
people using this method.

35. • A self-report inventory is a type of
psychological test in which a person fills out a
survey or questionnaire with or without the
help of an investigator. Self-
report inventories often ask direct questions
about personal interests, values, symptoms,
behaviors, and traits or personality types.