The foundation of psychological

1. Chapter 1
Chapter 1: The Foundations of
Psychological Science

2. Psychology: Definitions
• Scientific study of the behavior (⾏為) of
individuals and their mental processes (⼼智歷
程)
– Behavior: overt (i.e., can be directly observed,
as with crying)
– Mental processes: covert (i.e., cannot be
directly observed, as with remembering)
顯性
隱性

3. Empiricism 實證主義
• To improve on “commonsense” knowledge
using scientific observation rather than
casual observation
• Scientific observation: yields empirical
evidence through direct observation and
measurement that is
– systematic (carefully planned)
– intersubjective 相互主觀的(confirmable by
more than one observer)
evidence _
basec
主體間性
相互主體性

4. What would be a good gift ?

5. What would be a good gift?

6. Outline
• Commonsense Psychology: Not Necessarily “Common”
or “Sense”
• What Psychologists Do
• The History of Psychological Science: A Trip Through
Time
• Contemporary Psychological Science and the
Biopsychosocial Model
• Core Features of Psychological Science
• Experimental Research: Where Cause Meets Effect
• Nonexperimental Research: Losing (a Bit of) Control
• Psychology and Your Skill Set: Information Literacy

7. Commonsense Psychology: Not
Necessarily “Common” or “Sense”

8. Commonsense Psychology Beliefs
• Commonsense beliefs about humans are often false.
• Uncritical acceptance: Failing to evaluate claims using
sufficient logic
– Tendency to accept beliefs as true for illogical reasons
• Confirmation bias確認偏誤: Noticing that which
confirms our expectations
– Often occurs unconsciously
– Deliberate selection of evidence to support beliefs
– May also involve active avoidance/disregard of that which
contradicts our expectations

9. Science, Pseudoscience, and
Superstition
• Superstition迷信: Belief lacking in objective evidence
• Pseudoscience偽科學: False science
– might involve claims that appear to be legitimate or
scientific but fail to satisfy any true scientific standard.
- Astrology 占星術
-Phrenology 顱相學
-Graphology 筆跡學

10. What do psychologists do?

11. What Psychologists Do

12. The Field of Psychology
• Psychologists: Highly trained in methods,
knowledge, and theories of psychological
research
• Usually, master’s degree or doctorate
• Requires several years postgraduate training
• Teach and do research
• Consulting or therapy
• Research in nonacademic settings

13. Psychological Research
• Basic Research
– Seeking knowledge for the sake of knowledge
– e.g., how memory works
• Applied Research
– Solving immediate practical problems
– e.g., how to improve athletic performance

14. Helping People: Mental health professionals
• Clinical Psychologists 臨床心理學家
– Treats psychological problems; research on therapies and mental
disorders
• Counseling Psychologists 諮商心理學家
– Treats milder problems such as trouble at work or school
• Psychiatrists 精神科醫師
– Medical doctor, treats serious mental disorders, often with drugs
• Psychoanalysts 心理分析師
– Psychiatrist or psychologist who uses a very specific approach
(psychoanalysis) to psychotherapy
• Counselors 諮商師
– Advises, offers practical helping skills to solve problems with marriage,
career, school, and so on

15. Research areas and the topics they cover
• Developmental
• Learning
• Personality
• Sensation and
Perception
• Social Psychology
• Child Psychology
• Conditioning, memory
• Individual difference
• Processing sensory
information
• Attitudes, groups,
leadership

16. The History of Psychological
Science:
A Trip Through Time

17. A Review of Psychological Science
• Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
– Considered father of psychology
• In 1879, he founded the first scientific laboratory of
psychology, in Leipzig, Germany
– Relied on scientific observation
– Sought to train introspectionists to be
systematic and scientific as they looked
inward to report reactions to various stimuli
– Studied vision, hearing, taste, touch, memory,
time perception, and other topics

18. Introspection and Structuralism
內省法與結構論
• Wundt observed and measured stimuli
– Stimulus刺激: Physical energy that affects a
person and evokes a response
– Introspection內省: Personal observation of mental
events; thoughts, feelings, and sensations
• Edward Titchener(Wundt’s student): Brought
introspection ideas to the United States,
naming them structuralism 結構論
– Structuralism: Study of sensation and personal
experience as a basic element

19. Shortcomings of Introspection
• Imageless thought: Lack of a conscious
image to form thought
• Introspection fails to produce reliable
observations of the mind
• Serial positioning: Confirms much thinking
takes place in the cognitive unconscious

20. When we are thinking, do we
always know that we are
thinking?

21. The effect of serial position on
shoppers’ preference

22. Structuralism 結構論
Elements of mind
Introspection 內省
• All human mental experience can be
understood as combination of simple
elements or events

23. Gestalt Psychology 完形心理學
• Max Wertheimer (1880-1941) was first to
advance the Gestalt viewpoint
• Gestalt psychology studied experiences of
thinking, learning, and perception as whole
units, not by analyzing them into parts
(structuralist)
Organized wholes
Alternative to Structuralism

24. Gestalt Psychology 完形心理學
• According to Gestalt
psychologist,
perceptions have a
powerful tendency to
form meaningful
patterns

25. Functionalism 功能論
William James (1842-1910)
• Functionalism: Considers behavior in terms of
active adaptations
• Consciousness is ever-changing stream of images
and sensations
• Includes Darwin’s principle of natural selection
– How the mind, perception, habits, and emotions help
us adapt and survive
• Brought the study of animals into psychology and
promoted educational work

26. introspection and self-reporting
William James encouraged the use of
introspection and self-reporting.
Question:
1. What are the potential flaws with self-report
data in scientific inquiry?
2. What might a researcher do to correct for or
minimize those potential flaws?

27. Introspection is not the best way to
study the mind
• But why introspection is still widely used?
• Self-report data自我陳述資料: information
provided by participants about their own
thoughts, emotions or behavior (e.g.,
questionnaire, interview)

28. Behaviorism 行為主義
John Watson (1878-1958)
• Behaviorism: Emphasizes study of observable
actions over the study of the mind
• Observed relationships between stimuli and
animal’s response
• Adopted Pavlov‘s concept of conditioning制約 to
explain most behavior
• Believed conditioning could change people’s
actions

29. Radical Behaviorism 極端的行為主義
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)
• Believed actions are controlled by rewards 酬賞and
punishments 懲罰
• Rejected both introspection and the concept of mind as
inappropriate subject matter for scientific psychology
• Felt behavior best explained without mental events such as
thinking
• Observed relationships between stimuli and animal’s
response
• Adopted Pavlov‘s concept of conditioning制約 to explain
most behavior
• Believed conditioning could change people’s actions

30. Psychoanalytic Psychology 心理分析
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
• Mental life is like an iceberg, with only a small
part exposed
• Dynamic unconscious: Area of the mind
outside of personal awareness
• Behavior deeply influenced by unconscious
thoughts, impulses, and desires, especially sex
and aggression

31. Regions of the mind, their corresponding features and
psychic structures

32. Cognitive Psychology 認知心理學
Cognitive psychology: Study of information
processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem
solving
• Open to studying mental events
• Relies on objective observation rather than
introspection
• Operational definition 操作型定義: Defines a
scientific concept by stating specific actions or
procedures used to measure it

33. Humanistic Psychology人本心理學
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
• Free will: Ability to make conscious choices
• Humanistic psychology: People are inherently
good and have potential
• Self-actualization自我實現: Fully developing
personal potential

34. psychological approach and the historical figure
• Structuralism
• Humanistic
• Functionalism
• Psychoanalytic
• Radical behaviorism
• Gestalt
• Behaviorism
• Titchener
• Maslow
• James
• Freud
• Skinner
• Wertheimer
• Watson

35. Contemporary Psychological
Science and
the Biopsychosocial Model

36. The Biopsychosocial Model
• Genetics, brain
processes, and
evolution
• Inherited, adaptive
aspects of
behavior and
mental processes
• Neuroscience
• Behavior is
result of
processes within
each person
• Scientific
observation,
research, and
objectivity
• Mental
processes
• Impact of social
context, crowds,
groups, and
cultures on human
behavior
• Effect of education,
ethnicity, religion,
and poverty on
social norms
Biological Psychological Social

37. Human Diversity and
the Biopsychosocial Model
Gender bias in research:
• Most researchers were men
• Most research focused on male participants
• Did not account for male–female differences
• Focus on WEIRD (Western, Educated,
Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic societies)
• Cultural relativity 文化相對性: Behavior must be
judged relative to values of the culture in which it
occurs.

38. Core Features of Psychological
Science

39. Psychology’s Goals
• 1. Description描述—Naming or classifying a
phenomenon (asking “What?”)
• 2. Understanding/explanation瞭解/解釋—: Stating
cause of behavior(asking “Why?”)
• 3. Prediction預測—Ability to accurately forecast
behavior(asking “Will it occur again? If so, how?”)
• 4. Control控制—Ability to alter conditions (asking
“How can we influence or affect behavior?)

40. Thinking Critically to Meet
Psychology’s Goals
Critical thinking: A type of reflection that asks whether a belief
can be supported by both scientific theory and observation
• Few truths transcend need for logical analysis and empirical
testing
• Authority or claimed expertise does not make an idea true or
false
• Judging the quality of evidence is crucial
• Critical thinking requires an open mind
• Critical thinkers often wonder what it would take to show that
a “truth” is false
Falsification否證: Attempt to show how commonsense belief or
theory might be false

41. Using the Scientific Method to Meet
Psychology’s Goals

42. Using the Scientific Method to Meet
Psychology’s Goals
• Hypothesis: Predicted
outcome of an experiment
• Theory: Ideas designed to
interrelate concepts that
summarize existing data
and predicts future
observations
• Operational definition:
Links concepts with
concrete observations

43. Studying the Science: The Importance
of Replicating Scientific Results
Must report on data in an ethical manner
• Can create challenges when attempting to replicate
findings
Lack of replication may be caused by:
• Lack of exact methods observed
• Passage of time

44. Evidence to Address Psychology’s
Goals: From Tests to Testosterone
Self-report data: Most common form of data used
• Survey: Each participant asked the same questions
• Population: Group from which a sample is drawn
• Sample: A subset of a population being studied
• Representative sample: Accurately reflects a larger
population
• Biased sample: Does not accurately reflect the
population from which it was drawn

45. Observational Data
Naturalistic observation⾃然觀察: Takes place in a
natural environment without interference from researcher
Structured observation結構性觀察: Each participant put
in the same position, and behavior is observed
Observer effect觀察者效應: Changes in behavior caused
by awareness of being observed
Observer bias觀察者偏誤: Observer sees what they
expect to see or record only select details

46. Physiological Data
• Typically quantitative
• Gather using tools that map brain activity
• Minimize concerns about social desirability and
observer bias
• Disadvantages: Costly, requires specialized equipment

47. Experimental Research:
Where Cause Meets Effect

48. Experimental Variables
• Independent variables 獨變項
• Suspected cause for differences in behavior
• Can be manipulated by researcher
• Dependent variables 依變項
• Measure any effect of manipulating the independent variable
• Measured to see if affected by manipulation
• Extraneous variables 外衍變項
• Condition or factor that researcher wants to prevent from
affecting the outcome
• Controlled to ensure dependent variable is not affected

49. Experimental Groups and Random
Assignment
• Experimental subjects實驗受試者: Participants whose
behavior is investigated
• Experimental group實驗組: Group that receives
treatment the study is testing
• Control group控制組: Subjects who do not receive
treatment

50. Experimental Groups and Random
Assignment

51. Experimental Groups and Random
Assignment
Random assignment隨機分派: Subjects placed in
experimental or control groups by chance
• Defining feature of a true experiment
• Essential to the ability to make cause-and-effect claims

52. Evaluating Experimental Results
Statistically significant results 統計上顯著的結果:
Results would rarely occur by chance alone
Meta-analysis後設分析: Used to combine results of many
studies as if they were all part of one big study
• Allows researchers to see big picture and draw
conclusions that might be missed in a single, small-
scale study

53. Potential Problems with Experiments
Research participant bias研究參與者的偏誤: Change in
person’s behavior caused by influence of expectations
Placebo effect安慰劑效應: Change in behavior due to
expectations that a treatment will do something
• Placebo安慰劑: An inactive substance that should not
have a chemical effect
Single-blind study單盲研究: Everyone gets a treatment
that looks the same; only difference is the independent
variable (real drug or placebo)

54. Researcher Bias
Researcher bias研究者偏誤: Change in behavior caused
by influence of researcher; finding what they expect to find
Self-fulfilling prophecy⾃證預⾔: A prediction that
prompts people to act in ways that make predictions come
true
Double-blind study雙盲研究: Research conducted so
that neither the researcher nor the subjects know who
received treatment or placebo

55. Nonexperimental Research:
Losing (a Bit of) Control

56. Nonexperimental Research
Quasi-Experiments
• Descriptive study where researchers wish to compare
groups of people but cannot randomly assign them to
groups
• Random assignment is the defining feature of a true
experiment
Correlational Research
• Descriptive study that quantifies the degree to which
events, measures, or variables are associated
• At the heart of most “big data” gathered by companies

57. Understanding Associations Using
Correlation Coefficients

58. Correlation and Causation 相關與因果
• Correlation does not
demonstrate causation.
• To test cause-and-effect
relationship, perform a
controlled experiment.

59. Case Studies 個案研究
• An in-depth analysis of behavior of one person or small
number of people
• Used to study unusual accidents or other natural events
• Useful for investigating mental disorders such as
depression or psychosis

60. If we want to know what makes
people happy, what kind of studies
can we design?

61. Psychology and Your Skill Set:
Information Literacy

62. Separating Fact from Fiction in the
Media
1. Consider the source of information
2. Beware of claims based on poor or carefully selected
evidence
3. Always consider alternative explanations and remember
that some things do not happen by chance
4. Ask yourself if there was a control group
5. Look for errors between correlation and causation
6. Beware of oversimplification, especially when motivated
by monetary gain

63. Research Ethics 研究倫理
Basic Ethical Guidelines for Psychological Researchers
• Do no harm.
• Describe risks accurately to potential participants.
• Ensure that participation is voluntary.
• Minimize any discomfort to participants.
• Maintain confidentiality.
• Do not invade privacy unnecessarily.
• Use deception only when absolutely necessary.
• Remove any misconceptions caused by deception (i.e., debriefing).
• Provide results and interpretations to participants.
• Treat participants with dignity and respect.