Define organizational structure and describe 7 key elements in organizational design. Discuss the model of school as an organization

1. SADI
2022-2023
Chapter 4.2:
Organizational Structure
Course: Educational Administration and Leadership 1
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Structure
Bureaucratic
Model
Participatory
Management
Model
Alternative
Models of
Org structure
School as a
Social
System
Content

3. Learning Outcomes
• Define organizational structure and describe 7
key elements in organizational design.
• Discuss the bureaucratic model;
• Explore and discuss participatory model:
• McGregor’s Theory X and Y, Argyris’s immaturity-maturity
continuum, Likert’s system 4 organization, Sergiovanni’s moral
leadership, school-based management, and Bolman and Deal’s
four-frame model;
• Describe three alternative models of
organizational structure:
• Etzioni’s compliance theory, Hage’s mechanistic-organic
organizations, and Mintzberg’s strategy-structure typology;
• Describe the characteristics of school as a social
system.
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4. What is Organizational Structure?
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• is the method by
which schools are
organized and
coordinated.
• is also the formal
arrangement of
jobs within an
organization
• provides a
framework for
vertical control (who
reports to whom ) and
horizontal
coordination (who does
what) of the
organization.
Whatever the size or type of organization, its structure can be
depicted in an organization chart:
is a box-and-lines illustration showing the formal lines of
authority and the organization’s official positions or work
specializations.

5. The Organization Chart
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6. 7 key elements to design organization’s
structure
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7. Job specialization (Division of Labor)
Common alternatives to job specialization:
• Job rotation: involves systematically moving employees from one job to
another. Ex. Every-five-years rotation of principals
• Job enlargement: adds breadth to a job by increasing the number and
variety of activities performed by an employee.
• Job enrichment: adds depth to a job by adding “administrative” activities
(decision making,staffing,budgeting,reporting) to an employee’s
responsibilities.
Examples:
• Division of Schools into elementary,
middle, and high school units;
• Distinction between administrative and
teaching functions;
• The variety of position certificates
required by ministry of education:
superintendent, business manager, principal,
supervisor, teaching specialties, and many
other support staff: secretaries, food service
personnel, maintenance workers, bus drivers,
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• divides the work to
be accomplished
into specialized tasks
and organizes them
into distinct units.
• Results in greater
efficiency

8. Departmentalization • School divisions:
instruction, business,
personnel, and research
and development.
• Subdivision: instruction
may produce
departments responsible
for specific subjects:
English,social studies,
mathematics,and science.
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• An assistant superintendent
may lead a division; a principal,
a building unit; a department
head, an academic department
within a building unit; and a
teacher, a grade-level team in a
school.
• is often called:
divisions, building units,
departments, or teams:
indicate hierarchical
relationships.
• After deciding what job tasks
will be done by whom, common
work activities needed to be
grouped back together so work
was done in a coordinated and
integrated way. How jobs are
grouped together is called
Departmentalization

9. Functional Departmentalization:
groups Jobs According to Function
Advantages:
• Efficiencies from putting together similar specialties and
people with common skills, knowledge, and orientations
• Coordination and decision making within functional area
are easier
• In-depth specialization
Disadvantages:
• Poor communication and coordination across functional
areas
• Limited view of the total system perspective
• Conflict often emerges as each department or unit
attempts to protect its own area of authority and
responsibility
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10. Chain of Command
… the flow/line of authority and responsibility
extending from upper organizational levels to lower
levels, which clarifies who reports to whom.
Scalar principle:
• authority and responsibility
should flow in a direct line
vertically from top
management to the lowest
level.
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• is associated with 2
underlying principles
Unity of Command:
• a person should report/is
accountable to only one
manager, from whom he
receives authority and
responsibility.
• Ex.Teachers to department heads, principals, directors, and
superintendents, or instructor to assistant professor, associate
professor, and full professor.

11. Authority and Responsibility
The execution of work must be accompanied by
the authority to accomplish the job
Authority:
• The rights inherent in a
managerial position to
make decision and
direct the work of
others
Responsibility:
• An obligation to
perform assigned
duties
Example:
• Authority from Board of Education –
delegates to superintendent
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12. Centralization vs. Decentralization
• Delegation of authority between a superior and
a subordinate is a way of sharing power.
Decentralization:
• the degree to which
lower-level managers
provide input or actually
make decisions.
Centralization:
• the degree to which
decision making takes
place at upper levels of
the organization.
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• If top school
administrators make all
decisions,lower level
managers then merely
implement decisions
• If school administrators tend
to delegate considerable
authority and responsibility,
more decisions are made at
lower level.

13. Centralization vs. Decentralization
• Should organizations
centralize or decentralize?
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 Make greater use of human
resources,
 Unburden top-level
administrators,
 Ensure that decisions are made
close to the firing line by
personnel with technical
knowledge, and
 Permit more rapid response to
external changes
Decentraliz
ation is
preferred
with such
benefits:

14. Line and Staff Authority
Line Authority:
• a relationship in which a
superior exercises direct
supervision over a
subordinate–an authority
relationship in a direct line in
the chain of command.
 relates specifically to the
Unity of Command and Scalar
Principle
Staff Authority:
• Positions with some authority,
but is advisory in nature. Such
personnel’s role is to create,
develop,collect and analyze
information,which flows to line
personnel in the form of advice
 Staff positions are
represented by dashed lines
in organizational charts
Ex. Assistant
superintendent;
legal counsel
Ex. Line administrators such as
superintendent,assistant superintendent,
directors of elementary education and
principals have authority to issue orders
to their subordinates.
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15. Span of Control (Management)
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• A manager has a limited number of
people reporting—three vice
presidents reporting to a president,
e.g, instead of nine vice presidents.
• A manager has several
people reporting—a first-
line supervisor may have
40 or more subordinates.
An organization is said to be
flat when there are only a few
levels with wide spans of control.
• An organization is said to be
tall when there are many levels
with narrow spans of control.
The number of
subordinates reporting
directly to a supervisor.
How many employees
can a manager
efficiently and
effectively supervise

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• Span can be
larger at lower
levels in an
organization than
at higher levels.
Top managers
need a smaller
span than do
middle managers,
and middle
managers require
a smaller span
than do
supervisors

17. The Bureaucratic Model
(Max Weber, 1947)
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 A formal system of
organization and
administration
designed to
ensure efficiency
and effectiveness.
 is a system in which
people are expected to
follow precisely defined
rules and procedures
rather than to use
personal judgment.

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Bureaucratic Characteristics
Division of
Labor
Rules
Hierarchy of
Authority
• Divide all tasks into highly specialized jobs.
• Give each jobholder the authority necessary to
perform these duties
• Perform each task according to a consistent system
of abstract rules.This practice helps ensure that task
performance is uniform.
• Arrange all positions according to the principle of
hierarchy. Each lower office is under the control of a
higher one, and there is a clear chain of command
from the top of the organization to the bottom.
• Maintain an impersonal attitude toward subordinates.
This social distance between managers and
subordinates helps ensure that rational
considerations are the basis for decision making,
rather than favoritism or prejudices.
• Base employment on qualifications and give
promotions based on job-related performance.
Impersonality
Competence

19. The Participatory
Management Model
Theory X and
TheoryY
The
immaturity-
maturity
continuum
System 4
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The Participatory
Management Model
• represents
an extension
of the
bureaucratic
model.
• places greater
emphasis on
employee
morale and job
satisfaction and
motivating
employees and
building an
organization for
that purpose.
• The organization
is structured to
satisfy
employees'
needs, which
will in turn result
in high worker
productivity.

21. Managers with Theory X
• The average person dislikes work
and will avoid it if possible.
• Because people dislike work, they
must be coerced, controlled,
directed, and threatened.
• The average person prefers to be
directed and controlled by
someone in authority.
Managers with Theory
• Work is as natural as play or
rest.
• Commitment to objectives is a
function of rewards for
achievement.
• Under proper conditions,
people accept and seek
responsibility.
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Theory X and TheoryY (Douglas McGregor, 1960)
Theory X represents a negative
view of workers.
TheoryY represents positive
view of workers (human relations)
Theory X/Theory Y perspective is that it helps managers
understand how their beliefs affect their behavior.
• Ex.Theory X managers are more likely to micromanage,
which leads to employee dissatisfaction, because they
believe employees are inherently lazy.

22. Immaturity–Maturity Continuum (Chris Argyris, 1990, 1993)
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School
leaders
Subordi
nates
Achieve
ment of
organizati
on
effectiven
ess
• People can have
their degree of
growth or
development
plotted
according to
7dimensions.
• Argyris proposes that the
growth/ development of human
personality progresses along an
immaturity (infant)-maturity
(adult) continuum.
• Teachers and other
professionals want to be
treated as mature people.

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System 4 Organization (Rensis Likert (1979, 1987)
• the manager's use of the principle
of supportive relationships
• Likert’s System 4 organization theory treats the structural
prescriptions for organizational effectiveness more
explicitly and completely and 3 key elements undergird it.
S-1: exploitive
authoritative
(Bureaucratic)
S-2:
benevolent
authoritativ
e
S-3:
consultative
S-4:
participativ
e group
(team-
oriented)
S-4 Org:
3 elements
• the manager's use of the principle
of supportive relationships
• the manager's use of the principle
of supportive relationships

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• The goal is to
achieve S 4:
• train all administrators to acquire the
skills: manifesting supportive leadership,
focusing on high performance goals, and
building intact work groups into more
effective teams.

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• The leadership and processes bring
about positive interactions between
superordinates and subordinates.
• Furthermore, Likert (1987) argues that
“an organization will function best
when its personnel function not as
individuals but as members of highly
effective work groups with high
performance goals”
The
underlying
theory is
that if an
org is to be
effective
System 4 Organization: 3 key elements
• the manager's use of
the principle of
supportive
relationships
the use of group
decision making
in an
overlapping
group structure
the manager's
high
performance
goals for the
organization

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System 4 Variables
• Likert uses an organizational paradigm consisting of
three broad classes of variables.

27.  Amitai Etzioni (1990) provides a case for
moral authority as a basis for management.
He contends that what means most to people is
• what they believe, how they feel, and the
shared norms, values, and cultural symbols that
emerge from the groups with which they
identify.
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 Extrinsic’ and
Intrinsic
motivation are
acknowledged
• Morality and
shared values and
commitments are
far more
important
Moral Leadership

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Moral
Leadership
(Thomas Sergiovanni,2010)
Leadership
by
Bartering
Leadership
by Building
• The leader and led strike a bargain within which the
leader gives to the led sth they want in exchange for sth
the leader wants.
• The leader provides the climate and the interpersonal
support that enhances the led's opportunities for
fulfillment of needs for achievement, responsibility,
competence, and esteem.
• The leader and led develop a set of shared values
and commitments that bond them together in a
common cause.
• The leader institutionalizes the improvement initiatives as
part of the everyday life of the school.This conserves
human energy and effort for new projects and initiatives.
Leadership
by Bonding
Leadership
by Banking:
Moral authority transcends
bureaucratic model, and he identifies
4 stages of value-added leadership.

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Moral Leadership
• According to
Sergiovanni, moral
authority is a means to
add value to an
administrator’s
leadership practice, and
this added value results
in extraordinary
commitment and
performance in schools.
New kind of
hierarchy
purposes, values, and
commitments
teachers,
principals,
parents,
and
students

30. • (1) increasing
autonomy through
some type of relief
from constraining
rules and
regulations
• represents a change in how a school district is structured, that is,
how authority and responsibility are shared between the district
and its schools.
 changes roles and responsibilities of staff within schools and
how the school district's central office staff is organized with
respect to its size, roles, and responsibilities.
• (2) sharing the authority to
make decisions with the
school's major stakeholder
groups, including teachers,
parents, students, and other
community members.
Two ways of
achieving SBM
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School-Based Management (SBM)

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4 Frames of Organization (Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal,2017)
• They assert that the ability to reframe—to
reconceptualize the same situation using multiple
perspectives—is a central capacity for leaders of the
21st century.

32. • Etzioni's
compliance
theory;
• Hage’s mechanistic-
organic
organizations;
• Mintzberg's strategy-
structure typology
Alternative
Models of
Organizational
Structure
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33. • Etzion classifies organizations by the
type of power (coercive,utilitarian,&
normative) they use to direct the
behavior of their members and the
type of involvement (alienative,calculative
& moral) of the participants.
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Etzioni's
compliance
theory (1975)
What is Involvement?
• refers to the orientation of a person to an object,
characterized in terms of intensity and direction.

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Power
• Coercive: uses force
and fear to control lower
level participants (e.g.
Inmates in prisons,patients in
custodial mental hospitals)
Utilitarian:
uses remuneration or
extrinsic rewards to control
lower-level participants
(e.g.salary, merit pay,fringe
benefits, working conditions,
and job security.)
• Alienative:
designates an intense,
negative orientation
• Calculative:
designates either a
negative or a positive
orientation of low
intensity
• Moral: designates a
positive orientation of
high intensity (e.g.
parishioner in her church
or synagogue,the devoted
member of his political
party,and the loyal follower
of her leader)
Normative: controls
through allocation of
intrinsic rewards (e.g.
interesting work, identification
with goals, and making a
contribution to society)
• usually
react to the
organizatio
n with
hostility
• desire to
maximize
personal
gain.
• are
committed to
the socially
beneficial
features of
their
organizations
Participants Involvement

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• A professional type; a school
structure that’s low in
specialization, formalization, and
centralization (flatter structures)
• A bureaucratic organization; a
school structure that’s high in
specialization, formalization, and
centralization (taller structures)
• Means: Complexity,
centralization,
formalization, and
stratification
• Ends: adaptiveness,
production, efficiency, and
job satisfaction
Mechanistic VS. organic
… with 8 key variables found in
schools ((Jerald Hage, 1965)

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Complexity,or specialization:
• the number of occupational
specialties included in an
organization and the length of
training required of each.
Centralization, or hierarchy of
authority:
• the number of role incumbents
who participate in decision
making and the number of areas in
which they participate
• The greater the number of
person specialists and the longer
the period of training required to
achieve person specialization (or
degree held), the more complex
the organization.
• The lower the proportion of
role incumbents who
participate and the fewer the
decision areas in which they
participate,the more
centralized the organization.
• The higher the proportion of
codified jobs in schools and
the lesser range of variation
allowed, the more formalized
the organization.
Formalization,or standardization:
• the proportion of codified jobs
and the range of variation that is
tolerated within the parameters
defining the jobs.
Mechanistic-Organic Organizations

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Stratification,or status system:
• the difference in status between
higher and lower levels in the
school’s hierarchy (Salary, prestige,
privileges, and mobility measure this)
Adaptiveness,or flexibility:
• the use of professional knowledge
and techniques in the instruction of
students and the ability of a school
to respond to environmental
demands.
• The greater the disparity in
rewards between the top and
bottom status levels and the
lower the rates of mobility
between them, the more
stratified the organization.
• The more advanced the
knowledge base, instructional
techniques, and
environmental response, the
more adaptive the
organization.
• The higher the proportion of
codified jobs in schools and
the lesser range of variation
allowed, the more formalized
the organization.
Formalization, or standardization:
• the proportion of codified jobs and
the range of variation that is
tolerated within the parameters
defining the jobs.
Mechanistic-Organic Organizations

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Efficiency, or cost:
• financial as well as human
resources and the amount of idle
resources. Class size ratios of one
teacher to thirty students are more
efficient than a one-to-ten ratio.
Job satisfaction,or morale:
• the amount of importance a
school places on its human
resources. Measures of job
satisfaction include feelings of
well-being, absenteeism,
turnover, and the like.
• The lower the cost
per unit of
production, the more
efficient the
organization.
• The higher the morale
and the lower the
absenteeism and
turnover, the higher
the job satisfaction in
the organization
Mechanistic-Organic Organizations

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Mechanistic-Organic Organizations:
1. The higher the centralization, the higher the production.
2. The higher the formalization, the higher the efficiency.
3. The higher the centralization, the higher the formalization.
4. The higher the stratification, the higher the production.
5. The higher the stratification, the lower the job satisfaction.
6. The higher the stratification, the lower the adaptiveness.
7. The higher the complexity, the lower the centralization.
• Central to Hage’s axiomatic theory are 7 propositions.
The major theme permeating Hage’s theory is the
concept of functional strains: maximizes one
organizational-means variable minimizes another.

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Strategy-
Structure
Typology
• Based on work of Alfred Chandler (Alfred
Chandler (1962, 2003);
• Goals are important part of organization’s
strategies; structure should facilitate goal
achievement.
• determines its
success or failure
The key part of
the
organization
The prime
coordinating
mechanism
• the extent to which the org
involves subordinates in the
decision-making process.
The type of
decentralizatio
n used:
• uses to coordinate its
activities;
• Organizatio
ns’ three
basic
dimensions
(Henry Mintzberg,
2009)

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Strategy-Structure Typology
• What Affects Structural
Choice?
Strategy
size
Context/Task
Technology
Structure

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 The strategic apex:
• top administrators (e.g. superintendent & the
administrative cabinet) who are charged with
the responsibility of ensuring that the
organization effectively serves its mission.
 The operative core:
• Those who actually carry out the
organization’s tasks: production of products
and services (e.g. teachers are the operating
core and teaching and learning are the outcomes)
 The middle line:
• middle- and lower-level administrators who
connect the apex with the operating core through
the formal authority structure (e.g. Principals in
school districts)
Strategy-Structure Typology:
The key parts of an organization

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• Mutual
adjustment:
exists when work
is coordinated
through informal
communication.
• Direct
supervision:
means that one
individual is
responsible
for the work of
others.
• Standardization
of work process:
exists when the
content of work is
specified or
programmed (e.g.
job descriptions.)
• Standardization of
skills: exists when the
kind of training
necessary to do the
work is specified (e.g.
certificates required for the
various occupants of the
school’s hierarchy)
• Standardization of
output: exists when
the results of the
work are specified.
(e.g. competency
testing of teachers,
state-mandated testing
of students, state-
mandated curricula,
prescriptive learning
objectives).
Prime coordinating
mechanism of an organization

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 The technostructure (planning):
• Is composed of Analysts who
standardize the work of others
and apply their analytic
techniques to help the
organization adapt to its
environment;
• Their roles are to design,plan,
and train,but they do not directly
manage.
Analysts include:
• Curriculum
coordinators and
instructional
supervisors;
• Engineers,
accountants,
researchers, and
personnel
managers.
 The support staff :
• the people who provide
indirect services for
schools
The key parts of an organization
It is composed of
specialized units:
• maintenance,
clerical, food service,
legal counsel, and
payroll department

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Strategy-Structure Typology
• Vertical decentralization
• the distribution of power down the chain
of command, or shared authority
between superordinates and
subordinates in any organization.
• Horizontal decentralization
• the extent to which nonadministrators
(including staff) make decision or shared
authority between line and staff.
• Selective decentralization
• the extent to which decision-making
power is delegated to different units
within the organization (e.g.instruction,
business,personnel,and research and
development divisions)
Decentra
lization

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The strategy an organization adopts and the
extent to which it practices that strategy result
in 5 structure configurations (Mintzberg 1992)
5
structures
Key part of
Organization
Prime
Coordinating
Mechanism
Type of
decentralization

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What Are Some
Common Organizational
Designs?

48. Prime
coordinating
mechanism:
direct supervision
Key part:
Strategic apex
Type of
decentralization:
vertical and horizontal
centralization
Simple Structure: For the Small Firm
• An organization that is coordinated by a high degree of direct
supervision, that has a small strategic apex with virtually no
middle line, and authority is highly centralized in a single
person.
MR. VATH VARY
• There are the top
manager and a few
workers in the
operative core and
lack technostructure
• workers perform
overlapping tasks
• Ex. teachers and administrators
perform all duties which should
be done by support staff in large
schools

49. • Little horizontal or
lateral coordination is
needed.
• Furthermore, it has a
large technostructure
and support staff.
• It has a high
degree of
formalization
and work
specialization.
• Decisions are
centralized.
Prime
coordinating
mechanism:
standardization of
work processes
Key part:
Technostructure
Type of
decentralization:
limited horizontal
decentralization.
Machine Bureaucracy
MR. VATH VARY
• An organization that has the technostructure as its key part,
uses standardization of work processes as its prime coordinating
mechanism, and employs limited horizontal decentralization.
• The span of control is
narrow, and the
organization is tall:
many levels exist in the
chain of command from
top management to the
bottom

50. • Support staff is
typically large to
provide clerical and
maintenance support
for the professional
operating core.
• The org. is
relatively
formalized but
decentralized to
provide autonomy
to professionals.
Prime
coordinating
mechanism:
Standardization of
skills
Key part:
Operating core
Type of
decentralization:
Vertical and
horizontal
decentralization
Professional Bureaucracy
MR. VATH VARY
An organization that uses the operating core as its key
part, uses standardization of skills as its prime
coordinating mechanism, and employs vertical and
horizontal decentralization.
• Top management is
small, there are few
middle managers,
and the
technostructure is
generally small.

51. • The technostructure is
located at corporate
headquarters to provide
services to all divisions;
support staff is located
within each division.
• It is widely used in
very large school
districts
Prime coordinating
mechanism:
standardization of
output
Key part:
Middle line
Type of
decentralization:
limited vertical
decentralization.
Divisionalized Form: Grouping by Similar Work Specialties
MR. VATH VARY
• An organizational structure that has the middle line as its key
part, uses standardization of output as its prime coordinating
mechanism, and employs limited vertical decentralization.
• Corporate-level
personnel
provide some
coordination.
• Thus, each
division itself is
relatively
centralized
• Decision making
is decentralized at
the divisional
level (e.g. large
corporation).
• Coordination
among the
separate divisions
is a little.

52. • Adhocracies typically
are medium sized, must
be adaptable, and use
resources efficiently.
• Ex: aerospace and
electronics industries,
research and development
firms, and very innovative
school districts
Prime Coordinating
mechanism: mutual
adjustment
Key part:
support staff
Type of
decentralization:
selective patterns of
decentralization
Adhocracy
MR. VATH VARY
• An organization that has the support staff as its key part, uses
mutual adjustment as a means of coordination, and maintains
selective patterns of decentralization.
• The technostructure is
small because technical
specialists are involved
in the organization’s
operative core.
• The support staff is large
to support the complex
structure.
• The structure
tends to be
low in
formalization
and
decentralizat
ion

53. MR. VATH VARY
53
The School as a
Social System
• refers to activities and
interactions of group members
brought together for a common
purpose.
The Getzels–Guba Model’s Social System (1957):
•involves two dimensions that are independent and interactive:
nomothetic (normative) and idiographic (Personal)
Getzels and Herbert Thelen’s (1960) and Getzels, James Lipham, Roald
Campbell (1968): Expanded Model  The composite model of the
school as a social system depicts educational administration as a social
process.
• indicates that the culture,ethos, and values held by individuals in schools
and school systems explain much social behavior.
• also clearly indicates that any social system (classroom, school, or
school district) must operate within a larger environment.
Getzels’s Latest Model: Communities Dimension
•Includes the cultural setting of the school as a social system and
extends its usefulness as an open systems model.

54. MR. VATH VARY
54
The Getzels–Guba Model’s School as Social System
• Institutions with certain roles and expectations that will fulfill
the goals of the system.
• Individuals with certain personalities and need dispositions
inhabiting the system, whose interactions comprise observed
behavior.

55. MR. VATH VARY
55
The School as a Social System
• School is
designed to
serve one of
society’s
needs—to
educate.
• represent not only the
duties and actions
expected from each
role player but also the
expectations
concerning the quality
of performance.
• Roles (positions):
student,
teacher,
principal,
superintendent

56. MR. VATH VARY
56

57. • occur as a result
of opposing
need-
dispositions
within the
personality of
the individual
role players.
• refers to situations
where a role
player is required
to conform
simultaneously to
expectations that
are contradictory
or inconsistent.
• occur as a result
of discrepancies
between the
institution’s role
expectations and
the individual’s
need-
dispositions.
Role conflicts
Personality
conflicts
Role–
personality
conflicts
• Getzels’s (1958) models suggest three
sources of potential conflicts:

58. • emphasizes the
personal activities and
propensities of
individuals.
• Minimum role
definition, a diffusion of
authority, and efforts to
maximize each
individual’s meaningful
contribution to the
organization
• emphasizes the
fulfillment of institutional
role requirements and
obligations rather than
the personal needs of
individuals.
• Role definition, authority
vested in roles, and
organizational goal
achievement are
stressed.
• represents a
balance of
emphasis on the
performance of
the role
requirements of
the organization
and the
expression of
personal needs of
individuals.
normative style Personal style
Transactional
style
• Getzels’s models also suggest three leader-
followership styles:
• The school administrator moves alternately toward
the normative style or the personal style
depending on the situation.
MR. VATH VARY

59. • is established in a
specific, politically
determined
identity.
• Ex. a country, a
city, or a school
district
• is established in a
particular set of
interpersonal
relationships not
restrained by local or
administrative
boundaries.
• Ex. All people in one’s
community of friends.
• Local
community
• Administrative
community
• Social
community
Getzels’s Latest Model: Communities Dimension
• is established in
a particular
neighborhood
or region.
• Ex. a local
neighborho
od or school
community.
• Six communities of education and defines communities
as groups of people conscious of a collective identity
through common cognitive and affective norms, values,
and patterns of social relationships.
MR. VATH VARY

60. • is established
through affinity
with a particular
national, racial, or
socioeconomic
group.
• Ex. Italian,
Black,or
upperclass
communities
• is established in a
particular historic,
conceptual, or
sociopolitical
community that
stretches across the
local, administrative,
social, instrumental, and
ethnic communities.
• Ex.include Christian,
scholarly,or
communist
communities
• Instrumental
community
• Ethnic
community
• Ideological
community
Getzels’s Latest Model: Communities Dimension
• is established
through direct or
indirect activities
and interactions with
others who are
brought together for
a common purpose.
• Ex.Educational
community
(teachers and
professors),a
teachers’ union,
or a philanthropic
community.

61. MR. VATH VARY
61
The School as a Social System

62. 62
MR. VATH VARY