WEFT_ResearchBook

Master ADvanced design and digital architecture
Elisava, Barcelona
2015-2016
Isabelle Weydert and Toon van Mieghem
A project in ResearchWW••
EE••
FF••
TT••

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Director
Jordi Truco Calvet
Acknowledgements :
Lecturers
Sylvia Felipe, Geometry and Natural Patterns
Jérôme Noailly, Research in Bioengineering
Ferran Vizoso, Animal Architecture
Jordi Truco, Hypermembrane, Modular Complexity
Javier Peña, Active Materials, Passive systems and Biomechanics of Materials
Mireia Ferrate, Cybernetics
Jalal El Ali, Buro Happold Experience

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Teachers
Sylvia Felipe
Architect ETSAB, M;Arch AA
Eva Espuny
Architect ETSAB, Emergent Technologies and
Design AA
Lorraine D. Glover
BArch Pratt Institute School of Architecture
Marilena Christodoulou
Architect ETSAB, ADDA Elisava
Anna Pla
M.Arch Comumbia University, M;Arch AA
Fernando Gorka de Lecea
Architect ETSAUN, ADDA Elisava
Marcel Burbina
Architect ETSAB, Master Digital Arts
Pompeu Fabra
Pau de Sola Morales
Architect ETSAB, Phdw. Harvard
Roger Paez
Architect ETSAB, GSAPP Columbia

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W.E.F.T. is an architectural system which is developed through the interest of finding guidelines in living
systems and by the technique of form finding, in particular ‘ the weaving technique’ . We focused our
interest in the way how W.E.F.T. could achieve a complex emergent structure just by a generation of a
building through simple components. These phenomena of achieving a complex structure through simple
elements can also be observed in biological systems.
W.E.F.T. is a responsive system that is able to adapt to its environment in, particular to the wind and the view
conditions. In the chapter ‘System, site, contextualization’ we can observe how W.E.F.T. is adapting to the
environmental conditions of Vallcarca, Barcelona.
The system W.E.F.T. is the result of knowledge found through material studies and the use of parametric
software.
W.E.F.T. as a woven system is part of the constantly developing society, where research is conducted to
create state-of-art materials, such as composites, which are opening new possibilities of performance and
which are created by new technologies and produced by the use of robots.
The first part of this research project focusses on the results from the biodesign, including the development
of integral envelopes as example of a self-organising system, a case study from architecture (shells by Félix
Mandela), the results from our form-finding study using weaving and how the resulting W.E.F.T. system can
comply to the criteria of a responsive system like biological structures in nature.
In the second part – Abiotic architecture – growth capacities of systems in architecture are being studied,
with parameterization of the W.E.F.T system taking winds and view into account, as well as contextualiza-
tion of the W.E.F.T system for the location Vallcarca near Barcelona. At last, some structural research for
suitable materials was performed and possibilities are discussed, indicating the need for further research on
composites as to build a W.E.F.T configuration at full scale (scale 1/1). At the end, pictures of the prototype
(one on 1/50 and 1/250) can be found. .

8
Biodesign laboratory
14 Workshop integral envelopes
26 Nature as strategy for design, form structure and material (essay)
28 Abstract
29 Introduction
30 From lightness and nature to efficient architecture
30 Lightness
32 Emergence
33 Animal architecture
34 Techniques and technologies in morphogenetic design
34 Self-organization and material construction
35 Differentiation and performance
36 Polymorphism
37 Conclusion
38 Los Manantiales (case study)
40 Situation
41 Felix Candela
42 Reinforced concrete shells
42 Single curved shells
43 Double-curved shells
43 The hyperboloid of revolution
The hyperbolic paraboloid.
44 Candela’s studies and his way of thinking
49 Los Manantiales ‘a life work’
52 Conclusion
54 Form-finding process ‘ Weaving’
55 Weaving, concept, types & industrialization
62 Weaving versus winding
64 Material research, setup and parameters
87 Conclusion

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88 Responsive systems
90 Introduction
90 Examples and analysis
90 Wrapped, Omar Khan
91 Faz Pavilion, Achim Menges, Steffan Reichart and Scheffler + Partner
93 Topotransegrity - Non-linear responsive environments, Robert Neumayr
94 Algae Canopy (Expo 2015), Claudio Pasquero and Marco Poletto
95 How to analyse and criticize a responsive system?
96 W.E.F.T., a responsive system
Abiotic architecture
106 Growth capacities
108 Graph theory
114 Directionality
118 Compression rings
120 Continuous growth : roof and door
122 Parametrization
131 System, site, contextualization
132 Data collection and study of Vallcarca
135 Operative cartography
140 Spacial proposal
146 Placing the rooms depening on the view and wind
168 W.E.F.T., a generative system?
184 Manufacturing diversity seminar
186 Cladding & structural research
186 Knots
187 Cladding
189 Conventional solutions
190 Breakthrough solutions
191 Prototype 1/250
192 Prototype 1/50

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“Emergence is a concept that appears in the literature of many disciplines, and is strongly correlated to
evolutionary biology, artificial intelligence, complexity theory, cybernetics and general system theory”.
“In architecture the task, is to search for the principles and dynamics of organisation and interaction, for the
mathematical laws that the natural system obey and that can be utilised by artificially constructed systems.”
“It is the process that produces, elaborates and maintains the form or structure of biological and non-
biological things. The form of an organism affects its behaviour in the environment. It is non-linear and
context-specific and will produce different results in different environments.“
Morphogenesis and mathematics of emergence, Michael Weinstock, p.10 AD May/June 2004

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Workshop: Integral envelopes

16
During the integral envelopes workshop, directed by Sylvia Felipe, a picture of the microscopic view of
the exoskeleton of the male louse (Pediculus humanus var. corporis) was studied. It was the first attempt
to mimic nature by finding its geometrical principles and structural logics, whether or not related to its
performative aspects. The objective was to define parametric variables and operative growth rules of this
biological system.
Based on the deduced parametric variables, rules for the allometric growth process were developed for our
system. These growth rules enable proliferation of the system into a complex differentiated 3D envelope.
Pediculus humanus var. corporis, The micro-
scopic view of the chitinous, exoskeletal surface
of a male louse (leg joint)1
.
(Middle) Area analysis by centroids (image 1).
(p.16, Right & p.17, Left): Reconstruction of the
directions of the areas by using the centroids as
elements of these lines (images 3-5).
p..17: Geometrical principles of the linear prolifer-
ation: definition of the component (images 6,7).
1. Pediculus humanus var. corporis, Http://blog.
sina.com/zhao [Accessed 10 Octobre 2015].
21 3

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After drawing and reconstruction
of the grid in Rhino, the component
was defined as an irregular octagonal
shape.
This shape is differentiated throughout
the whole system by convex and
concave angular transmutations in the
x- and y-direction, as well as by the size
of the inner quadrilateral shapes (see
p.17).
The length of each of the four sides of
the quadrangle was studied in relation
to the adjacent concave or convex
angle. The height of the perpendicular
to the side in relation to the concave or
convex angle was alo measured. Both
data were tabulated (see table, p.19).
Based on these measurements, two
parametric laws were derived for the
proliferation in the x- and y- direction.
The following images illustrate the re-
construction of the grid by applying
these parametric rules (images 8-12).
Image 8: Quadrangular grid of the system and
the perpendicular distances in the x-direction.
Image 9: Quadrangular grid of the system and
the perpendicular distances in the y-direction.
Image 10: Reconstruction of the concave and
convex shapes in the y-direction.
Image 11: Reconstruction of the concave and
convex shapes in the x-direction.
Image 12: Reconstructed irregular octogonal
shape grid by the defined parametric law.
8
10
12
9
11

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Width x Height
2.08 0.229 convex Linear funtion
1.444 0.129 convex
1.379 0.174 convex a 0.2120
1.666 0.214 convex b -0.2120
1.292 0.095 convex y 0.069 Perp. Height
1.074 0 convex x 1.327 Width of the el.

s

Width y Height Width Height
11.075 0.19 concave 1.075 0.19 concave
1.201 0.226 concave 1.201 0.226 concave
1.213 0.212 convex 1.382 0.23 concave
1.24 0.344 convex 1.433 0.175 concave
1.311 0.291 convex 1.488 0.207 concave
1.382 0.23 concave
1.433 0.175 concave Linear funtion
1.488 0.207 concave
1.213 0.212 convex a -0.4092
1.24 0.344 convex b 0.7839
1.311 0.291 convex x 1.609 Perp. Height
1.4 0.205 convex y 0.1254972 Width of the el.

Parametric Law
Based on these measurements and calculations, the next proliferation rules are
deduced:
The longer the inscribed quadrilateral shape in the y-direction, the shorter the
adjacent angle in the x-direction.
The wider the inscribed quadrilateral shape in the x-direction, the longer the
adjacent angle in the y-direction.
Subsequently, research was preformed as to create three-dimensional proliferation
by new parametric rules. This process resulted into a new range of morphologies.
The relation between the mutations of
each irregular octagonal shape and its
inscribed quadrilateral was studied, by
measuring the length of the y-direction
of the quadrilateral side, in relation to
the convex or concave mutation length
in the x-direction.
Function: y=0.4092*x-0.7839
The same process was done in the
reverse direction, by measuring the
width in the x-direction in relation
to the perpendicular distance of the
convex angle of the octogonal shape.
Function y = 0,2120*x-0,2120
The width and the lengths of the quadrangular shapes are measured between the corner
points in relation to the heights of the corresponding perpendiculars.

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Images 13-15: Creation of different 3D enve-
lopes by three-dimensional proliferation rules.
Images 16-19: Production of the definite
envelope by constructing the normal of each
angle with the length equal to the distance to
the centroid of the octagonal shape.
Images 20-23: Possibilities of connections for
proceeding by digital fabrication.
----
16
18
17
19 20
21 22 23

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Images 24-54: Possible geometrical patterns of
the 3D envelope.
Image 54: Final construction of geometrical
pattern that is related to the directionality of
each component.
Final envelope.
After the creation of a three-dimensional structure, different patterns were designed
on the basis of geometrical rules.
A definite pattern is generated by following the directionality of each three-
dimensional component, as shown in the images.
54
55

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Final three-dimensional morphology which
emphasizes the directionality of the envelope
(images 56-57).
Creation of a puzzle-like system for 3D printing
(images 58-59).
Manufacturing:
Digital production, which is the fabrication of the model by 3D-printing, was
implemented into the system. Each component of the envelope was connected to
the neighbouring components by their rotation points in common.
Because the 3D-printer has limitations in size, the model had to be printed in 4 parts.
In order to connect the 3D-printed pieces, a puzzle-like system was created in Rhino
(see images 58 and 59). After creating the four pieces of the model, the polysurface
had to be changed into a Mesh. Subsequently, it was exported to a STL-file for 3D
printing (for prototype, see images on the right).
56
5758
59

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Nature as strategy for design,
Form, structures and material
Essay

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Abstract
In this study, we analyze structural elements from living systems in nature relevant to architecture, and how to approach
nature - from simple elements to complex emergent structures – in order to apply these systems into bottom-up
architecture.
The analysis shows that – in contrast to classic architecture applying existing knowledge and known solutions – nature has
rather to be approached by open-minded research, going out from observation of the biological organisms, their emergence
and morphogenesis, and analyzing these natural systems and theit components or elements. In these complex biological
emergent systems, the properties are more than the sum of the parts, also demanding adaptation of materials as scaling
progresses from small prototypes to real structures and buildings. Form, shape, geometry, properties of material and
function should be taken into account, in order to design systems with less mass and energy, but with maintenance of optimum
performance. Form-finding techniques and digital technologies have a key role in reaching these new forms of architecture,
such as with our system W
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E
.
F
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T
.
.

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Introduction
What is an optimal design, particularly when the form and shapes in architecture and design become predominantly changing,
curved and organic as in nature? How to make designs that are using less mass and energy? Which shape or form is the best?
Why is it important using less mass?
The study of different books lets us learn about how nature and efficient architecture are related.1-5
And how designers through
the process of form-finding and bottom-up thinking find the maximum performance of these structures with minimum energy
consumption like for example resistance through geometry and not simply by addition of material.
What we had to take in mind throughout our research and form-finding process is what D’Arcy Thompson mentioned in his book
‘On growth and form’:2
“If you want to build beyond a certain size, you should change properties or find a new (harder, stronger,…) material, otherwise it
will be clumsy, inefficient.”
Particularly as nature is characterized by lightness, emergence (growth) and morphogenesis, we analysed these aspects in this
chapter with regard to their relevance and different approaches in architecture.
This analysis has been consolidated based on information of the lecture of ‘Animal architecture’ by Ferrán Vizcoso (2015,
Elisava) and the following books: ‘Lightness’ by Adriaan Beukers and Ed van Hinte (2005)1
, ‘On growth and form’ by
d’Arcy Thompson (2014)2
,‘Emergence: The connected lives of ants, brains, cities and software’, by Steven Johnson (2002)3
, and
“Techniques and technologies in morphogenetic design” by Michael Hensel, Achim Menges and Michael Weinstock (March
2006)5
with reference to relevant pages throughout the text. The information has been further supplemented with other relevant
references, wherever applicable.

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a. Lightness
Adriaan Beukers writes in his book
‘Lightness’ about how lightness is a
necessity nowadays and in the future.1
In nature, shape is cheaper than
material and so it is also more sustain-
able to produce lighter structures than
heavy ones, because of spending less
energy. Cheap energy is getting
scarce.1, p.16
The structures should
have less weight and should be
maximally efficient to their necessities
like in nature.
In nature, animals adapt their shapes
and structures to quickly changing
loads. As mentioned in ‘On Growth
and Form’ by D’Arcy Thompson,2
the
form of an object is a diagram of forces,
at least, from which we can judge or
deduce the forces that are acting or
have acted upon it.
Such an interaction of a material with
its changing environment is called
smart or intelligent behaviour.
Smartness of a building is learning
from the environment, adjusting
the structure by responding to
these changes, and remembering
these adjustments. The ultimate
smart structure would design itself
by, for example, reinforcing and releas-
ingmaterialwhereneeded,depending
on the actual conditions.1, p.45-47
As Peter Pearce says ‘Structure in
nature is a strategy for design’,1, p.49
even the most complex minimum
energy structures are based in the
end on the force systems and the
geometry of the triangle.
Polyhedra should be deconstructed
into triangles to be made totally rigid
and to be able to stand gravity, as only
the tetrahedron, the octahedron and
the icosahedron possess this property
by theirselves.
From lightness and nature to efficient architecture
1. LIghtness, the inevitable renaissance
of minimum energy structures, Adriaan Beukers,
Ed Van Hinte, 010 Publishers, Rotterdam 2005
2. On growth and form, d’Arcy Went-
worth Thompson, Cambridge University Press,
2002, p.11- 19
Beehive made out of hexagons.1

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In architecture, trusses and space
frames are made by a conjunction of
triangles.
Hexagons can be observed as the
construction component of a beehive:
the shape occurs when the structures
made of circles next to each other
are pushed slightly together from all
of the sides. The material shapes itself
into the structure that best absorbs
stress. Later we discuss in ‘Techniques
and technologies in morphogenetic
design’ the example of foam and his
polyhedral structure (see image).
Lightness is not only about light
materials, but it is a balance between
low energy cost, performance of the
structure, utility and efficiency. The
low energy cost is not only about the
production of the structure, but also
about the production of the material.
Efficiency is all about how the material
is working in the way it works the
best. Some materials work better in
compression, other materials in
tension.1, p.23-35,138
Functions should be
combined with material properties.
The most interesting part of using
composites is the potential to integrate
different functions into one: this means
that less parts are needed to construct.
For example the sandwich composites
in an airplane include both stiffness
and sound insulation .
Composites also offer the advantage
to produce any shape, like double-
curved surfaces. But composites have
a relative brittleness; stress concentra-
tions are caused by mistake in the plac-
es where different parts meet or where
holes or cut-outs are made.1, p. 59-61
Stress concentrations by cut-outs can
be solved by the structure itself, by not
having to bear stress.
Another advantage of using com-
posites is lightness, which means less
energy consumption.
Total control of stiffness, strength and
elastic deformation can be reached
in lamination by manipulating the
continuous fibre directions.
The shape of built elements, such as
in aluminium, can’t be changed in
the same way as with composites,
because traditional materials react to
stress and tension in a totally different
way. For example, metals undergo
plastic deformation before they break,
whereas reinforced plastics don’t, due
to continuous fibres. Thus, using differ-
ent materials, the shape of the built
element should be rethought.1, p.59-79
Adriaan Beukers describes ‘the know-
how’ to build an airplane and the
ongoing improvements of the used
concept asacauseoflossofuniversality
and overview.
The known concept may not be the
best solution at all. The roots of the
original problem should be researched
with and open mind to reach the best
result with a minimum resources.1, p.161
Illustration of the theory that two-
dimensional compilations of more than three
bubles are unstable. The resulting foam will
always strive for minimum energy structures.1

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b. Emergence
Steven Johnson describes in his book
“Emergence: The connected lives
of ants, brains, cities and software”,
different systems who are com-
posed of simple elements which are
organizing themselves spontane-
ously, without a specific law to form
intelligent behaviour.3
This is the fact for ants, neurons,
human individuals and others, as they
base their behaviour on the changing
environment without having a global
view or the full knowledge of the
whole system. Local rules take place
and the global behaviour is the result
of local interactions and changes.
Emergence is rather a bottom-up than
top-down system, created by master
planners. A bottom-up intelligence is
starting from the ground level, to build
higher intelligence by recognizing
patterns and storing information.
Agents like human, ants and cells, start
to produce an organized behaviour
that is on a scale above them; cells
have no overall view, so don’t have
ants and humans. The human body
is made of trillions of cells working to-
gether. The human body is the sum
of their actions; cells don’t have the
global view of the whole body. Yet,
cells follow the dictates from DNA
and learn from the behaviour of their
neighbours. Cells are communicating
by salt, sugar and other chemical sub-
stances through the cell junctions.3, p.82
Similarly, the intelligence of ant colo-
nies lies on the stupidity of the parts,
and on how individual ants interact
between themselves. The behaviour
of the individual ant depends of his/
her immediate surrounding: he/she
doesn’t have the knowledge of what
is doing the whole colony; they don’t
wait on orders from above.
3. Emergence, The connected lives of
ants, brains, cities and software, Steven Johnson,
Penguin Books, Great Britain, 2002
The complex system of the human body is
made by connections of simple elements. Rter-
ievd from www. shutterstock.com [Accessed 20
February 2016]

33
c. Animal architecture
Something else, even more interesting
than the emergent behaviour of ants,
is the way how they construct or
organize their ant hills.
These ant hills were mentioned in
the lecture of ‘Animal architecture’ by
Ferrán Vizcoso, 2015, about architec-
ture created by animals.4
Depending on the environment,
climate and orientation, ants create
a ventilation system to have the best
temperature comfort in the nest.
One option is to take fresh air in and
let it flow through the nest to decrease
the temperature. Another option is to
recirculate the same air through the
nest, to keep the warmth inside.
The air is partly refreshed by letting
it flow next to the outside, so it takes
oxygen and loses a minimal of warmth.
This is a genious solution to create
the best comfort depending on the
circumstances. Not only how the nest
is shaped is important, but also how it is
organized. The sequence of chambers
and how the ants circulate, is brought
to a minimum, in order to create the
most efficient living environment. (See
also section b. Emergence)
4. Lecture 38: Animals, Insects, Lotus,
Conclusion, Retrieved from: http://nptel.ac.in/
courses/107104076/lecture38/38_3.htm [Ac-
cessed 20 February 2016]
The ventilation system of the ant hills.4

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d. Techniques and technologies in morphogenetic design
The book ‘Techniques and technologies in morphogenetic design’ by Hensel, Menges and Weinstock,5
treats the theoretical
and methodological foundation within a biological paradigm for architectural design, so studying the interrelationship
between emergence and self-organisation concepts. Their previous book ‘Emergence: morphogenetic design strategies’ was
about the concept of self-organization and the relation with architecture.
Self-organization, we could define as a dynamic and adaptive process through which systems achieve and maintain structure
without external control.5, p.6
It is important through the whole design process to see the behaviour of form, structure and material as one. These three
different features act together and influence each other. This interaction is the most important point to keep in mind to come
to a good form-finding design. This principle will be stressed further on and be explained with some examples.
Self-organization and material construction
Biological self-organization of systems (as illustrated in section b.) starts from small,
simple components that are assembled together to form a larger structure that has
emergent properties and behaviour. These elements in turn could be assembled
into a more complex structure.5, p.35
In order to observe and analyse the development of biological self-organization,
we can take foam as an example. The mathematical description of foam was for a
long time a problem, but basically foam will organize itself in a randomized array of
hexagon and pentagon structures.5, p.35
Thus a simple hexagon or pentagon can create a complex and interesting form only
by organizing themselves in a ‘random’ array. So far, foams have mostly been used
as insulation materials. Nowadays we start to investigate how we could use cellular
foams as a structure. If we combine these foams with the industrial techniques
and materials we know, we can create a strong and good performing structure. A
metallic foam can combine its properties with the biological self-organization pat-
tern to derive the forces and create an optimal structure (see also section a. Light-
ness).
Water cube resin model, based on foam
arrays.5, p.35
5. AD ‘Techniques and Technologies in
Morphogenetic Design’, Michael Hensel, Achim
Menges, Michael Weinstock, AD Architectural
Design, March 2006

35
Differentiation and performance
Optimization of a structure is based on the understanding of efficiency that entails the minimum use of material and energy
for the structure to fulfil its task. Optimization has given rise to lightweight structures with a minimum use of material to achieve
the structural capacity and performance.5, p.61
“The proposed approach to architectural design is based on the deliberate differentiation of material systems and assemblies
beyond the established catalogue of types, on making them dissimilar or distinct in degree and across ranges. Various ranges
of material systems can provide diverse spatial arrangements together with climatic intensities. This involves the deployment of
the inherent behavioural characteristics and modulation capacities of building elements and systems, rather than a retrospec-
tive optimisation process towards monofunctional efficiency.5, p.63
What we understand from this, is that we have to search and create an understanding of how a responsive structure can
generate more solutions. A structure that can adapt to its environmental conditions and structural properties has more efficiency
than every time creating one solution for one demand. To achieve this efficiency, analysing biological entities can help to
create an efficient system. Mostly connections in architecture between parts are discontinuous and articulated instead of the
smoothness we find in nature. The nature can help to find a smooth and continuous connection between elements.

36
Polymorphism
Before discussing polymorphism, we have to define what we understand under
this term. Polymorphism is the state of being made of different elements, forms,
kinds or individuals. In biology, it refers to the occurrence of different forms, stages
or types in individual organisms or within organisms of the same species. (See In-
troduction, p.29)
Natural morphogenesis generates polymorphic systems that have a complex
organization and shape from system-intrinsic material capacities and external envi-
ronmental influences and forces. The result is a complex structure with hierarchical
arrangements which we can derive back to a relatively simple component. The
result in natural morphogenesis comes from a combination of material and form
processes, these two are intertwined. In architecture, architects start mostly from
the form and afterwards they see which material they can use to build the form, so
they solve it as a top-down process. We have to see the capacity and complexity of
a material as an ingredient to navigate the form and materialization process. The
morphogenetic approach has to be a generative driver in the design process and
not pre-established. This new approach will lead to a new way of thinking through
the logics of production technologies and system performance.5, p.79
The book deals with five examples of morphogenetic design experiments
ranging from homologous systems to polytypic species. The characteristics of
integral form-generation processes, enabled through parametric association, differ-
ential actuation, dynamic relaxation, algorithmic definition and digital growth, are
examined. We do not discuss the examples but recite some important thoughts
they used to create their morphogenetic design.
Self-organization can be divided in two options. One option is a ‘global’
manipulation of the system. The other, a sometimes neglected option, is to act on a
localcomponentofthesystem.Thislocalactuationwillcreateawaveofdeformations
through all the components. The beauty of this option is that a simple form such
as formed by rectangles can create a complex curved form just by deforming one
rectangle. The simplicity of this one basic geometric form creates a global form
that we never could have imagined. The whole system will also react within the
limits and the performance of the specific material of the rectangles. This creates an
intertwined solution as described above.5, p.82
We have to combine the logics of
formation and materialization, which
enables to define specific material
systems. All this encourages us to
fundamentally rethink our current
mechanical approaches to sustainabil-
ity and a related functionalist under-
standing of efficiency.5, p.86
Differential surface actuations.5, p.81

37
Conclusion
In the field of research for architecture, we should be open-minded for observation and research: researching the problem
from the roots, and not from the already found solution.
Also by observing living systems in the nature, we can create new structures and, by learning how nature is constructed and
acting, we can discover new ways of designing. Living systems can be approached by imitating natural structural forms and
understanding how biological organisms are made, emerge and are structurally organized, by analyzing them from simple
elements to complex emergent structures. In these complex biological emergent systems, the properties are more than the
sum of the parts.
Research of the new possibilities of performance of state-of-art materials (like composites, as to strive for lightness), should be
performed both from scale prototypes to real prototypes. By scaling, the material should be adapted.
Form, shape, geometry, properties of material and function should be taken into account in the research process, as to design
systems which use less mass and energy and who have an optimum performance.
By designing systems based on such form-finding techniques and by using digital technologies, we can simulate new forms of
architecture, such as our system W
.
E
.
F
.
T
.
.

39
Los manantiales
Architect: Felix Candela
Location: Mexico
Type: Restaurant
Date: 1958

40
(Left): Félix Candela, Retieved from https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Candela
[Accessed 17 February 2016]
(Right) Restaurant Manantiales, Retrieved from:
http://www.archdaily.com/496202/ad-clas-
sics-los-manantiales-felix-candela/53493e7f-
c07a80f351000082-ad-classics-los-manantiales-
felix-candela-image [Accessed 17 February
2016]
Situation
The restaurant ‘Los Manantiales’ is located in Xochimilco in Mexico. The restaurant was built by Felix Candela
in 1958 and it is one of his most famous buildings, based on his life research. Nowadays Candela and the
restaurant ‘Los Manantiales’ still inspire other architects. He is one of masters who provided a big effort to
establish novel approaches into the architecture and engineer world.

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Felix Candela
Candela was born in Madrid (1910)1,2
and graduated at the ‘Escuela Técnica Su-
perior de Madrid’(1935)2
, after which he travelled to Germany. Being a rationalist
architect and teaching students, he was enchanted by the use of geometry in
architecture. His life was marked by the Spanish Civil war: returning to Spain to
fight against Franco, he was active in engineering the Spanish Republic, but was
captured. He went into exile to Mexico and the United States, where he became
famous as an architect for his thin-shell structures.1,3
From his youth, Felix Candela was attracted by the thin concrete shells structures of
Franz Dischinger (Germany), a pioneer in the use of prestressed concrete. Candela
started to apply this technique into his architecture. Today, he is considered one
of the most prominent modern architects playing with thin concrete shells, known
as ‘cascarones’ in Spanish. His fame was not only acquired by the construction of
over more than 800 thin concrete shells characterised by rationality and optimal
strength, but also by his ability for solving complex structural issues, and joining
technical knowledge and philosophical reflections.1,3
He is one of the masters of the mid-20th
century who claimed that a connection
between shape and structure exists and that it goes beyond the pure outcome of
calculations.
1. Cassinello P, Schlaich M, Torroj JA.
Felix Candela. in memoriam. From thin con-
crete structures to the 21st
century lightweight
structures, Informes de la Construcción 2010;
Vol. 62 (519), p.5-26. http://informesdelacon-
struccion.revistas.csic.es/index.php/informes-
delaconstruccion/article/viewFile/1033/1119
[Accessed 17 February 2016, p.5]
2. Seguí M. “Esquema cronológico”.
In: ‘Candela Pérez Piñero, un díalogo imaginal.
Proyecto para el concurso del velódromo de
Anoeta, 1972’, Seguí M. (ed.), Alcorcón, Madrid
Rueda, 2004, p.46-49.
3. del Cueto Ruiz-Funes JI. “The shells
of Felix Candéla”, Unam, Mexico, Retrieved
from: www.revistascisan.unam.mx/Voices/
pdfs/5007.pdf [Accessed 17 February 2016]

42
Reinforced concrete shells
Shell structures have been constructed
since the ancient times. The Pantheon
in Rome is a well-known example.
The ‘thin-shell adventure’ began in the
second half of the 20th
century.
Architects influenced by Mies Van der
Rohe’s assertion ‘less is more’ 4
, wanted
to conquer the new form and dimen-
sion freedom that concrete offered (at
that time being a new material). The
first thin concrete shell was designed
by Franz Dischinger and Ulrich Finster-
walder in 1925, the Zeiss planetarium
in Germany.
In nature, we find leaves and grass
blades folded around their centres of
stiffness giving it a bending resistance.
The stiffness, given by the folds cannot
be reached if the leave would be flat.
Anytendencytobuckleiscounteracted
by the small width they have and by
the fold. They are beam and form
resistant surfaces, forming a rib-
stiffened membrane. Some man-made
things made with this principle include
corrugated paper and corrugated
metal decking. The tension is taken
mainly along the upper parts of the
sides and the compression in the valley.
Shells in buildings can take many
shapes and curvatures. Their main
properties, based on the before-
mentioned principles from nature,
are lightness, thinness and strength.5,6
However, shell structures also have the
limitations, as they are weakened by
4. Cassinello P, Schlaich M, Torroj JA.
Felix Candela. in memoriam. From thin concrete
structures to the 21st
century lightweight struc-
tures”, Informes de la Construcción 2010;Vol. 62
(519), p.5-26. http://informesdelaconstruccion.
revistas.csic.es/index.php/informesdelaconstruc-
cion/article/viewFile/1033/1119 [Accessed17
February 2016, p.6]
5. Peerdeman B. Analysis of thin con-
crete shells revisited: opportunities due to in-
novations in materials and analysis methods,
Master Thesis - Total Report, TU Delft, 2008. Re-
trieved from: http://homepage.tudelft.nl/p3r3s/
MSc_projects/reportPeerdeman.pdf [Accessed
17 February 2016, p.5]
Single-curved shells: barrel vault and conoid.7
openings in their surface; they can
crack or crush due to material non-
linearity and tend to dislike point loads
which inevitably introduce the possi-
bility of local buckling (large deforma-
tions).5,6
The shells can be single or double-
curved surfaces. The curvatures can be
found by mathematical calculations or
by form-finding.6
Single curved shells
Single-curved shells are curved on
one linear and are part of a cylinder
or cone in the form of conoid shells
or barrel vaults. The stresses are still in
the surface plane that is able to resist
deflection, so the inherent stiffness is
arranged in that plane, thus along its
surface. They are easy to construct,
but have the disadvantage of being
developable: they can fail by flattening
orunrollingintotheflatsheetstheywere
made from, even without having to
tear or buckle. Therefore, curved edges
may have to be thickened or lateral
diaphragms may be used across the
shell to resist the unfolding tendency.

43
6. Reid E. Surface structures. In: ‘Under-
standing buildings a multidisciplinary approach.’
The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts,1984,
p.31-32
7. Shell structures advanced building
constructions, Retrieved from: http://www.
slideshare.net/shwetamodi23/shell-struc-
tures-advanced-building-construction [Accessed
24 January 2016]
Double-curved shells
Double-curved shells use geometries
with curves running in the same direc-
tion (synclastic) or running in opposite
directions (anticlastic); they are part of
a sphere or a hyperboloid of revolu-
tion7
, such as in domes. Double-curved
shells have the enormous structural
advantage of being non-developable
(inherently rigid).
The hyperboloid of revolution
This shape is created by the revolution
of a plane curve.
This curvature at model scale can be
obtained by connecting two circular
hoops with straight threads and then
turning on and off the hoops relative
to the other.
The hyperbolic paraboloid.
As shown in the image on the right,
the hyperbolic paraboloid has an
opposed double curvature, being
convex one way along the surface
and concave the other way (saddle-
back shape). This structure can be
defined by two sets of intersecting
straight lines, so there are two direc-
tions in which the surface is straight.6
It is impossible to model a saddleback
shape from an uncut single sheet of
paper. The stress flow in a hyperbolic
paraboloid roof is compressive along
the convex parabolas downwards
and tensile at the right angles along
the concave parabolas.6
If you look
to the hyperbolic paraboloid roof
in profile, you can view the resulting
stress tendency for tension along the
top and compression towards the
bottom. The convex parabola pushes,
while the concave parabola pulls.
Concave parabola
Convex parabola
+
Double-curved shells: hyperboloid paraboloid and
dome.7
Hyperbolic paraboloid.
=
Construction of hyperbolic paraboloids.7

44
Candela’s studies and his way of thinking
In all the work of Felix Candela we find an example of the search to react against
external forces. The prime issue according to Candela is the awareness of the
structural shape in relation to the material. It are two aspects of the same problem.8
On one side, structural problems can be resolved by allied formalism and forms.
A roof is a problem because of its weight; this is also why - in Candela’s view - the
area of the roof is of great use for searching resisting shapes.8, p.134
A simple example
is found in a sheet of paper which by itself is incapable to withstand its own weight.
Only by changing the shape, which is changing the placement of the material
(folding the sheet of paper), the shape gains considerable resistance.
To understand the resistant shape of an arch, we only have to look to a chain
suspended between two points. By its own weight, the chain adopts its shape
into the only form it can resist. This principle is called working in traction (it will only
work if it can be stretched). Any force acting on it will deform the shape.8, p.165-167
The famous diagram by Poleni from 1748 shows that the shape of a chain should
only be inverted to form an arch. The forces acting on such arch are opposed to
traction and are transmitted by the lines, so it will only compress. But as earlier men-
tioned, if the chain needs to support other external forces, the shape will change
into another shape, and when this is inverted, it will show an ideal arch for those
weights.8
Poleni’s drawing of Hooke’s analogy between
and a hanging chain and an arch.8
8. Discovering Hypars, Candela Pérez
Piñero, Miguel Seguí, Editorial Rueda 2004,
p.138 - p.165-167
9. Los hypars de Félix Candela,
Retrieved from: http://www.jotdown.
es/2011/11/los-hypars-de-felix-candela-i/
[Accessed 19 February 2016]
Experimental antifunicular vault, first model at
real scale (+/-6m).9

45
This simple observation lets us understand the mental formality of Candela. By inverting a power cable, he designed his first
shell in 1949. The shell was made by hanging different modes of hessian sacking between small wooden arches.
When pouring the concrete, the sacking was deformed by the concrete into a shape, similarly as the power cable, and a
double-curvature structure was created. The weight of this vault only works against compression; warping and bulging
problems were resolved. But there are other problematic forces acting on a building than its own weight. Let us thinking at
snow, wind, thermal dilations,…
By pulling a cable, the cable gets more stretched (traction), which is a stabilising force. In contrast, compression is a destabilising
force which can weaken, damage the structure. This can be compared with a person walking with a stick. The stick will double,
because the weight caused by compression destabilises the form, whereas the force is traveling through (in this case) the stick.
This is why inverting a cable to withstand compression is not enough to design a shell.
To make a vault more rigid and resistant, without thickening the material, the shell can be undulated in the direction of the
vault. This is similar to the principle of the sheet of paper, as earlier mentioned. Candela experimented different kinds of vaults
like shown in the image below:
Examples of simple shell structures based on
formwork with a sack cloth, as performed
by Candela. Top-down: Parabolic arch, vault
shaped by the union of right line and a hyper-
bolic arch, shell with elliptic guideline, parabolic
hyperbolic vault of a lower arch, Formal sheet
with catenary guidelines.7

46
These undulated forms can be observed in one of his first “Will Shell” (1951), which
was built with his company ‘Cubiertas Ala’. The shell is a conoid, with a span of
14 m and a thickness of 1.5 cm. It was seen as a base element in industrial
architecture. The slogan of the company was not for nothing ‘specialists in industrial
architecture’. Yet, the shape of the Will Shell didn’t convince him of its structural
universality.
Soon experiments were made with long cylindrical vaults with lenghts about 12 m,
without edge beams. Calculating them as hollow, cylindrical section beams were
constructed and also covered saw tooth using long cylindrical vaults.
The interest of Candela was to understand the resistant forces by trying to reduce
the thickness of an element, eliminating edging beams and challenging forces in
new ways.
On the other side, there is the problem of the material. Material gives shape and
determines the way of working. It has no utility to select a shape in which the
material cannot withstand the tensions.
Scaling micro-shapes up will reduce the possible solutions. This is one of the
reasons why Candela questioned the issue that the material used in models always
is different than in reality,8
The hypar was the solution, which could be created by a simple
construction method and which was easy to calculate. The hypar gives a lot of
spatial possibilities and formal solutions, like for example in ‘Los Manantiales’.8
In reflexion, Candela proposed that
models should be more precise in
design, such as possible through
computer modelling of structural
behaviour. Compared to manual
design, computer models are quicker
in calculations and allow better
understanding of the structural
behaviour, as they allow the designer
to visualize flexes, deformations and
stresses within structures.12
One of Candelas’ first Will Shelfs at UNAM,
Mexico.8
10. Picture of UNAM, Retrieved from:
http://www.odonto.unam.mx/admin.php?ID-
Pagina=acercade&id=311[Accessed19February
2016]
11. Retrieved from: https://es.pinterest.
com/pin/143270831867735881/ [Accessed
19 February 2016]
12. Digital architecture and construc-
tion, A. Ali, C. A. Brebbia, WIT Press, UK, 2006
Félix Candela, Construction of Iglesia Narvarte,
Mexico.11

47
There is a need of certain degree of idealization in mathematical models, by
interpretation of the material in the work with all the imperfections in relation to
construction process. Candela says in his report of 1951 “Towards a new phi-
losophy of structures’ that calculations cannot give form to structure, but it
can split only the form up. ‘Maths doesn’t produce the perfect shape’. He was
conscious of the limits of calculation. The structure’s behaviour should first be
analyzed and later be compared by mathematical calculations. These structures
should be made in reality, or we should look at real examples.8
The theory about the relationship of proportion and size was already described
by Galileo Galilei in 1638. The famous issue in his book about bones of different
sizes - in which one bone has three times the length of the other, illustrates the
disproportion of size. 8,13
The bone doesn’t maintain the same proportions in volume, to be equivalently
effective for support. If you scale the linear dimensions (length, width, height), a dog
of 30 pounds magnified three times would weigh 27 times more (800 pounds). If
the bones are scaled up 3 times, the strength of the bones will only increase 9 times.
These can’t support the 27-fold increased weight. This is why the bones of a horse
are proportionally much thicker than the ones of a dog to support the weight. This
is also why short-span bridges can take many other shapes than large ones.13
Dealing with thrust, so the vault or dome would become a self-carrying struc-
ture, was only possible since the appearance of steel as construction material. This
material permits that vertical strains are transferred to the supports that are holding
the dome or the vault up and the material also reduces the weight of the structure,
by the lightweight of the material and reduction of the thrust. 8, p.139-141
The grid of the vault should be determined in a way to balance the tensions as
observed in the internal structure of a bone. The mass is specialized in moving out
in directions of the forces, which could be seen as a cramped mesh. The surface
is like a lattice. By emptying out the mass, strains could be deformed. It is essential
to follow the principle of triangulation which gives the structure geometric rigidity
and gives the possibility to create lightness as mentioned in the essay of the book
‘Lightness’ by Adriaan Beukers.(p.301, p.56
) Triangulation has a wide range of possi-
bilities, in particular, for the elements that must bend like the Fort Railway Bridge in
Scotland and the wordwide used truss system. Another example are the electrical
pylons in Russia from 1927-28 by Vladimir Suchov, mentioned in the chapter
‘Responsive systems’, using the principle of triangulation in a refine-shape mesh8
.
Scaling of bones: the bone below shows the
scaling up of the upper small bone to the same
length as the larger one: this bone is much thin-
ner than the one of a big animal, which would
be to heavy for this thin bone.13
13. Scaling the strength of bones. In
‘Galileo Galilei: First Physicist’, James MacLach-
lan, Oxford University Press, USA, 1999, p.98-99
14. Retrieved from: http://www.img-
mob.net/forth-rail-bridge-photo.html [Accessed
19 February 2016]
Fort Railway bridge of Scotland made by a truss
system based on the triangulation principle.14

48
Felix Candela combined the principle of triangulation with his knowledge of
hyperbolic paraboloids in his proposal design for the Crystal Palace in London. The
design was a tree-like structure of combined triangulation (see image). Candela
moved in this stage from his shell study to a lattice system in which he brought
together his linear elements and his beloved double-curvature surfaces. The
movement out of the shell structure gave him the possibility to design buildings
with a larger span, as he realized in 1968 when he designed the Sport Hall for the
Mexico Olympics.8, p.148-158 and 169;16
Felix Candela designed a dome which was a symbiosis between lattice elements
and double-curvature surfaces, made by two kind of transversal arches. These
transversal arches are formed by the intersection of cutting planes where the pole
of the dome is located. The hypars were triangulated and interwoven in the weave
of the arches, in order to act as roofing and triangulation. The division is made
by rhomboidal panels, all with a different kind of joint, which made it a complex
structure. But natural light came in in a spectacular manner.
The division of a spherical geometry has been an eternal challenge and has been
faced by R. Buckminster Fuller with his Geodesic Dome, Dischinger Dickerhoff Wid-
man with his design of the Planetarium in Jena (1920) which is a giant steel radio-
larial dome, and by many others investigators of lattice structures.8,16
Palacio de los Deportes (Palace of Sports),
Mexico 1968, a symbiosis between lattice
elements and a double-curvature surface.17
(Left) Crystal Palace sketches by Candela,
consisting of a tree-like structure of combined
triangulation.16
15. Shukhov Tower, Retrieved from:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shukhov_Tower
[Accessed 18 April 2016]
16. El triángulo rígido, image Crystal Pal-
ace. In: ‘La estructura veloz: Trayetorias estruc-
turales à proposito de la obra de Emilio Pérez
Piñero y Félix Candela’, JoseMaría de Churticha-
ga. http://www.chqs.net/archivos/informes/
archivo_1_040310_la+estructura+veloz.pdf [Ac-
cessed 11 March 2016, p.15]
17. Félix Candela’s shells at the Art
Museum of the Americas, Retrieved from:
http://urbnexplorer.com/2015/02/25/felix-can-
delas-shells-at-the-art-museum-of-the-americas/
[Accessed 11 March 2016]
Shukhov Tower: made with a triangulated
refined mesh.15

49
Los Manantiales: Overview of the ochtogonal
shell shape from the upper side.20
Los Manantiales: Section roof plan and bar
arrangement.20
Los Manantiales ‘ a life work’
Perhaps the most famous of the vaults
of edge with hypar saddles is the
octogonal shape shell of the restaurant
Los Manantiales in Xochimilco. It was
madetoreplacearestaurantdestructed
by fire.18
The roof is a circular array of four
curved-edge hypar saddles that
intersect at the center point, resulting in
an eight-sided groined vault. The plan
of the shell is radially symmetric with
a maximum diameter of 42.7 m. The
height of the highest point reaches
9.93 m, while in the centre of the
building it reaches 5.84m. 18,19
18. Analisis grafíco de obras em-
blemáticas de Felix Candela’, Andrés Martín FR,
Fadón Salazar F, XVI Congreso Internacional de
Ingenieria Grafica, 2004. Retrieved from: http://
www.egrafica.unizar.es/ingegraf/pdf/comuni-
cacion17102.pdf [Accessed 19 February 2016]
19 . Análisis estructural de algunas cubi-
ertas de Félix Candela, Oliva J, Antolín P, Cámara
A, Goicolea ZM, HORMIGÓN Y ACERO 2011,
260, 61-76.

50
The largest forces of the membrane
are carried along the intersections
between the forms (the groins).
These parts are thickened by creating
hidden steel reinforced “V” beams.
The groins are spanning 32.4 meter
support.9
Candela softened the form at
the intersection of the hypars, creating
a curve and giving the structure the
appearance of a continuous form.
Trimmed at the perimeter to form a
canted parabolic overhang, the shell
simultaneously rises up and out at
each undulation. The force paths from
these overhangs act in the opposite
direction from forces along the arched
groin, reducing outward thrust.19
The rest of the structure has minimal
reinforcing to address creep and tem-
perature effects, but essentially works
entirely in compression. The symmet-
rical plan and innovative use of “V”
beams allows edges free of stiffening
beams, revealing the radical thickness
of the 9 cm shell.19
The section shows the parabolic arch
along the groins and the inverted arch
through the highpoint of each vault.
For the footings Candela used inverted
umbrella forms who are linked by 5
steel tie-bars of (2.5 cm diameter) with
the groins of the shelf.
The advantage of these footings is
that they contain the ground in a way
that they don’t sink into the ground.
Another way to withstand the lateral
forces was effectuated by connecting
the footings.
20. AD Classics: Los Manantiales /
Felix Candela, by Michelle Miller, 14 April,
2014, Retrieved from: http://www.archdaily.
com/496202/ad-classics-los-manantiales-fe-
lix-candela [Accessed 19 February 2016]
Los Manantiales: Section and north elevation.20
Los Manantiales: Intersection planes.20

51
Construction:
The formwork was realized by fol-
lowing the generated form of the
paraboloids. It was one big mould for
whole the construction (8 repetitive
elements), because the structure was
designed to function as an ensem-
ble and not as separated. Once the
construction of the formwork was
completed, reinforcements were
placed and proceeded to concrete.
Construction of ‘Los Manantiales’.20

52
In conclusion,
the shell design by Candela was revolutionary, using concrete, a new free-form material exploiting its lightness, thinness and
strengths, while simultaneously offering form and dimension freedom and combining these.
In his master work ‘Los Manantiales’, he used 4 curve-edged hypersaddles (hyperbolic paraboloids) intersecting at the central
point to compose an octagonal shell shape as roof for a restaurant, exploiting the material and shape to lead the forces.
Candela reached the summit of his expertise in the late nineteen sixties. At this stage, his place was taken by new types of
lightweight steel and, eventually, other new materials. The decline became clear in 1969 following the decision of the IASS, the
International Association for Shell Structures, to change its name. The place of shells had vanished and was taken by eventually
other new materials.
Although concrete shells continued to be built very sporadically until they finally all but disappeared in the late nineteen seventies,
Candela inspires modern architecture not only by his curved shapes based on nature but also by his way of thinking and his
process of form finding. According to Candela, the structure should be first analysed physically, and then mathematical formulas
should be deduced and be used to calculate the forces and to digitalize the structure.

55
FORM-finding process
Weaving
introduction
Industrialization
examples
Research

56
After finding a circular woven nylon-like material (see images on the right) with
special structural capabilities in compression and tension, research on circular
weaving was started. The aim was to find out whether we can produce this woven
material by using other materials and which parameters influence its capacities.
In compression the material gains strength, in tension it flattens and in rest it is a
circular flexible material.
Weaving is the interlacing of two or more yarns, using a loom.
Yarns can be wool, silk, cotton, flax yarn, hemp, wool, jute or other vegetable fibres.
Weft (longitudinal threads)
Warp (lateral threads)
Woven synthetic fabrics have the characteristic to be strong.
Weaving is one of the techniques like braiding or knitting who can be applied to
composite materials.1
(Right) Circular woven nylon-like material in rest, compression and tension.
Weaving, concept, types & industrialization
Weaving as form-finding technique is, in our research process, a way to experiment and learn from the
material. Subsequently, based on the derived knowledge of the material and its intelligent behaviour, a
form will be created. The technique of weaving in conjunction with the material will enable us to produce
designs that are innovative in form, behaviour and material. The following analysis of weaving is a study to
better understand the process, properties and opportunities of weaving and to find ways of digitalisation
and robotic fabrication.
Weft and Wrap

57
1. Frozen fabrics, In ‘Light-
ness’, Adriaan Beukers, Ed van Hinte, 010
Publisher, Rotterdam, 2005,
p.129-139
2. Woven fabrics, David Cripps, Gurit
Retrieved from: http://www.netcomposites.com/
guide-tools/guide/reinforcements/woven-fabrics/
[Accessed 12 January 2016]
Structure of a 2 to 2 twill. The offset at each
row forms the diagonal pattern.3
3. Twill, Retrieved from: https://en.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/Twill [Accessed 12 January 2016]
Three main types of weaving exist:
• Plain weave
Each warp (longitudinal) fibre passes alternately under and over
each weft (transverse) fibre.2
• Satin weave
3/ 4 or 5 or more weft yarns floating over a warp yarn or vice versa
• Twill weave
The weft thread passes over one or more warp threads and then
under two or more threads and so on, with a “step” or offset
between rows to create the characteristic diagonal pattern.2
Satin weave:
Each warp
floats over
three wefts
and passes
under one.2
In the first part of our form-finding process, we tried the plain, satin and twill weave.
As shown in the images above. based on these tests, we could conclude that the
strongest weave is the plain weave, because each wrap passes alternatively over and
under each weft. We decided to go onwards with the strongest option.
Before going on with the project we studied the industrialization process of weaving
and some other projects where weaving was used as a form-finding process.
(Left)
Plain weave - twill weave - satin weave pattern4
applied in circular woven prototypes.
4 Bethune & fils: linnenhandel Kortrijk,
1735-1856, Retrieved from: http://www.ethe-
sis.net/bethune/bethune_deel_I_hfst_2.htm
[Accessed 20 April 2016]

58
Shedding.4
4. Fabric weaving, Retrieved from:
http://www.textileschool.com/articles/149/fab-
ric-weaving [Accessed 8 December 2015]
Picking.4
Beating in.4
Industrialisation process:
Before there is the possibility to weave the threads, depending on the material,
the material will firstly be spun or extruded parallel. When the material has the
right shape to be processed in a woven structure, this materials is sometimes first
bleached or painted.
The principal motions during weaving include shedding, picking and battening (or
beating in):
Step A: Shedding
Warp (longitudinal) threads are kept under tension to facilitate the interweaving of
the weft (transverse) threads.
For each row has to be woven, the warp yarns are raised or lowered, to make
room for the shuttle to pass through with the weft yarn. The shuttle is a projectile
that holds weft yarn and take the yarn underneath and over the warp yarns.
Step B: Picking
The weft (filler) yarns are laid across and between the warp yarns as the shuttle
moves across the shed.
The weft (filler) yarns are being woven as the shuttle moves across and between
the warp yarns. Each length of yarn, fed from the shuttle as it moves across the
loom, is called a pick.
Step C: Beating in
The reed is pushed against the last filler yarn and against the woven cloth. The
position of the warp yarn is again changed and the weft is brought back directly in
the return direction. These steps are continually repeated until the woven synthetic
fabric is produced. By this way of producing, a selvedge is created, .
A selvedge is forming a strong edge by the weft yarn turning and returning at the
edge. It is the strongest part of woven synthetic fabrics; it will not fray and unravel
like a cut edge.
5. Woven fabrics are produced by
the process of weaving, Retrieved from: http://
china-polyestermesh.com/news/news_57.html
[Accessed 8 December 2015]

59
Rapiers systems:
Arapierloomisapowerloom,whereby
a stationary package of yarn is used
to supply the weft yarns in the rapier
machine. (In a traditional loom, the
filling yarn is wound onto a quill, which
in turn is mounted in the shuttle.) Very
different yarns can be woven.5,6
There are 4 types of rapier systems:5,6
a) Single rapier:
The rapier head grips the weft yarn
crossing across the width of the grid,
carrying the weft yarn through the
shed to the opposite side, to be subse-
quently retracted, leaving the new pick
in place.6
b) Double rigid rapier:
This rapier works faster, as one rapier
carries the yarn to the centre of the
shed, where the opposing rapier picks
up the yarn to carry it across the re-
mainder of the shed, so there is only
half the distance to travel.5,6
c) Double flexible rapier:
A flexible rapier can be coiled as it is
withdrawn, requiring less floor space
for the machine; these machines work
even faster than the double rigid rapier
because they are lighter and may
work with flexible rapier bands that
are wound on wheels or placed in
semi-circular channels so that, when
they are withdrawn outside the shed,
the result is a wide fabric up to 5 m.5,6
6. Images from movie’ ‘Type of
Weft insertions in weaving loom’, Retrieved
from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
s0W0iDj7_hc [Accessed 8 December 2015]

60
d) Double telescoping rapier:
This industrial loom has all the advan-
tages of a flexible loom, but makes use
of an automated sliding or a telescopic
devising, as to insert the filling yarn.
The loom is running steadily at the
high speed due to the automatic
pick finding system, without much
vibration. There is an extreme wide
adaptability to variety.5,6
Several filling processes can be used:
a) Projectile filling system:
This system uses a gripper to carry the
filling yarns across the shed. The pro-
jectile just grips the yarn before it is pro-
pelled through the warp shed, where
it is caught at the end and send back.
The projectile doesn’t have to carry the
weft package, so it goes much faster.6
b) Airjet filling system:
This approach uses a stream of high
presses air to insert the loom into the
work shed. This system reaches the
highest production speed. It inserts
the filling from an outside loom auxil-
iary yarn system that accumulates the
exact amount of wire needed to travel
across the shed. An initial push of air
starts the yarn on his way.6

61
Fibrous Organizations (2003-2004)
This project aimed to understand and
instrumentalise the self-organisational
tendencies of woven materials, by
manipulation of single threads within
a woven fabric. The effect was studied
on the local and overall area.
Threads were pulled and misplaced
to get a controlled contraction of the
fabric into a series of emergent folds.
Each resulting deformation was hard-
ened with resin, measured, mapped
and digitised.
The first tests were taken on a homo-
geneous woven fabric, then on het-
erogeneous woven fabrics with mul-
tiple densities and irregular intervals
between the fibres.
The scaling process of the behaviour
of the material involves the careful
consideration as to whether the entire
woven structure has to be scaled, or its
behaviour has to be retained and just
the system be translated.
The system was translated into a
malleable lattice layout by articulating
the rods differently, by changing joint
types (enable or constrain movement
locally or by region), by non-uni-
form lattice layouts (stiffen or weaken
regions) and by layering.
Cordula Stach
The utility of layering of lattices takes
place when, between more malleable
regions, a certain curvature needs to
be retained.
The lattice was tested with sliding
flexible and fixed joints, because the
degree of malleability had to be varied
in the whole system to cope with
compressive and tensile forces. This
complex behaviour is similar to that in
the fabric piece but eliminates some
important properties of the woven
fabric.
Likewise, the intrinsic multiscalar
differentiation of the fabric, the low-
tech fabrication technique and the
redundancyprinciple.Thesechallenges
could be solved by using or developing
materials with comparable properties
like steel wire, glass or carbon fibre
(similar fibre structure) or composites
with a fibrous material.
Cordula Stach created with the
knowledge of this system, an
office landscape using a matrix of
interconnected rooms by draping the
lattice over defined spaces. Circulation
and visual connectivity were used as
parameters.
-
Material systems, fibrous organisations, Cordula
Stach, In: ‘Morpho-ecologies Towards hetero-
geneous space in architecture design’, Michael
Hensel, Achim Menges, Architectural Association
and authors , London, UK; 2006, pp.100-111.

62
Weaving versus winding
To better understand the difference between weaving and winding, a winding pattern was created, which
can easily be created by one robot. The interlacing of the strings by the process of weaving over a circular
plastic tube creates a cylindrical shape . On the other hand, the process of winding over a circular tube will
expand to a conic form after removing the tube. This is due to the number of times that a string goes over
and under another one. Further during the process, resin was applied to a winding and a weaving pattern,
both using a s-curvilinear shape. The weaving pattern kept the shape as well as the threads interlaced. In
contrast, the winding approach returned to an almost completely flat surface, and the threads became
loose.
The images on the left illustrates the
weaving versus the winding pattern.
using the same obliquity of strings
(also called further on ‘shift’) and the
same material (acrylic wool). It is clear
that the weaving pattern stays more in
shape than the winding pattern.
Weaving (plain weave) versus winding pattern,
using the pattern below (acrylic wool).
Winding and weaving pattern (unrolled circle).
The obliquity of the strings goes from number
1 to 14,: these are representing the holes
through which the string is passing.
140

63
Trying to mimic the weaving pattern
by the winding technique, a pattern
was created that easily can be pro-
duced by one robot, by changing
always the directionality of the next
string in a specific sequence.
As we can observe, the crossings
of the strings are not always joined
due to the winding technique. This
phenomenon proved that the winding
technique is weaker than the weaving
technique. This was the reason why
for further research the weaving
technique was selected.
This also means less material and more
lightness, two important concepts
already mentioned in the essay of ‘Na-
ture as strategy for design, form, struc-
tures and material’. The observations
therefore also suggest that weaving
a building may be a cheaper solution.
Weaving pattern (plain weave) versus winding
pattern (acrylic wool + epoxy).
The image on the left shows the
pattern followed to make the
winding and weaving prototype,
using a s-curvilinear frame. It shows the
obliquity of strings in both directions
(going from 1 to 7).
140
Distribution pattern of the strands going from
1 to 7.

64
5 mm plywood, 28 holes
Plastic tube, 140 mm height
(total height 150 mm and 60 mm radius)
5 mm plywood, 28 holes
5 mm plywood, frame
Metal bars
In-between distance 140 mm height
5 mm plywood, frame
Material research and setup
To study the characteristics of circular weaving, some parameters had to be defined. That’s why we
started with a standardized setup, always changing one parameter only. It is important to generate
rigorous results, to deduce values for parameterization and achieve valid conclusions.
The parameters were studied, varying both the material and dimensions in relation to their flexibility,
strength and density. Furthermore we studied the directionality and the connections.
Basic setup to reproduce a circular
weaving pattern
The setup was made by combining
a plastic tube of 150 mm high and a
radius of 60 mm, with two circular
wooden elements of 5 mm thick at
the ends. The height between the
wooden circles is about 140 mm. Each
wooden ring has 28 holes.
As weaving thread, acrylic wool yarn,
was chosen in two colours, blue
and purple, to facilitate the weaving
process by hand and in order to avoid
human errors.
After the first circular weaving tests, we
concluded that the inner tube had a
lot of influence on the obtained shape,
so we changed it to supporting metal
bars, as to maintain the height for the
next shapes.
Basic setup to reproduce a circular weaving pattern using a plastic tube.
Basic setup to reproduce a circular weaving pattern using metal bars.
14055

65
Bostik glue for stiff
and flexible plastics
Hairspray
Extra strong
Sugar & hot waterFixation Gel
Cristal Sugar
& hot water
Paraffin &
stearin
Losing Smoothness
Snaps
stifness
warming loosing
caracteristics
Dry process:
Under tension
Long time
Need Clingfilm
Dry process:
Under tension
Long time
Need Clingfilm
Firmer
But yet soft
Spans
Loose smoothness
Firmer
But yet soft
Spans
Smoothness
Other charcs backside
Firmer
Flexible compression
Flexible Torsion
Keeps Smoothness
No Snaps
Firmer
Flexible torsion
& compression
All holes filled
Test failed
No added second
component!!
Acrylic Latex RubberPolyethylene Foam HairVelpon + water
Stiff
No flexible compr.
Flexible torsion
Stiffer, still soft
Smooth compr.
& snaps
Flexible torsion
Test failed
No added second
component!!
Little stiffened
No strongness
Smooth
No spans
Keeps Smoothness
No Snaps
Firmer & stronger
Flexible torsion
& compression
All holes filled
Test failed
No added second
component!!
Acrylic Latex RubberPolyethylene Anti-FrizzVelpon + water
Stiff
Strongest
No flexible compr.
Big snaps
Little torsion
Glued to tube
Stiffer, still soft
Smooth compr.
& little snaps
Flexible torsion
Failed
Velpon doesn’t
resolve in water
better use woodglue.
50% - 50%
Little stiffened
No strongness
Smooth
No snap
No signification
(less fraying)
In the next stage, we studied the flexibility, strength and density by changing each time a specific parameter during the circular
weaving process, such as height, radii, shift and quantity of strings. We also digitalised these shape changes into a digital model.
We also studied different composites of acrylic wool (see below). We started the form-finding process with acrylic wool and
liquid plastic. Subsequently, we changed the composite, because acrylic wool frayed out a lot, producing sloppy, inaccurate
results. The composite was changed to cotton and epoxy, being more accurate, clean and ecological, while it achieved
practically the same structural properties as the initially tested wool composite.
Bostic glue
Acrylic paint
Giorgi gel
Ployethilene
Fixative
Latex
Sugar
Velpon
Stearin
Hair fixator
Sugar fine grain
Liquid plastic

66
Parameters Latex Resin: Liquid plastic
Application
process
Dipping Superficial with brush
Dryprocess Longer: 20 hours
Turning the element / time
Result: expanding
Shorter : 30 - 45 min
Result: rather schrinking
Radius Smaller Radius Bigger
Length Longer, more deformation +/- always the same height
Distribution Partly filled holes
(3/4th
shift acts like one string)
No filled holes
Torsion System more flexible:
can turn more
Less flexible:
depending of density and shifts
and thickness of material apllication
Tension More Less
Strongness Less weight lifting
Elastic
More weight lifting
Brittle: to much weight creates a
permanent deformation
Three-quarter turn
Half turn
Quarter turn
Max. x gr
Max. x gr
Max. x gr
LatexShift Liquid Plastic
Comparing latex and liquid plastic
In the table on the left, the results
obtained with the best composites
of the wool are being compared.
As shown in the images below, the
liquid plastic is stronger and the la-
tex is more flexible.

67
Shift 1 to 7, quarter turn
Shift 1 to 14, half turn
Shift 1 to 21, three-quarter turn
In order to study the influence of the
shift, three kinds of patterns were
made. These are shown in the images
on the left.
Circular weaving with a quarter turn
around the plastic tube was achieved
in the least time, had the least density
and used the least material.
The higher the shift, the denser is the
resulting weaving pattern, due to the
quantity of strings going over and
under each string.
Differences became visible when
removing the inner plastic tube:
different sizes of cores appeared. The
core is smaller, the higher the shift, and
the woven fabric is getting longer.
The left image below shows a quarter-
turn pattern on a tube and the right
one shows this prototype without the
tube.

68
After analysing different densities and
shifts, a circular pattern was cut and
folded open. A s-curvilinear shape
appeared and some push-reaction
movements due to the woven pattern
were detected.
To study this open shape more
accurately, a s-curvilinear frame with
56 holes was designed. The first open
prototype was made using a plain
weave as usual, with a quarter
shift (280 mm) and a distance of
140 mm between the frames. These
dimensions are the same as those
used in our circular weaving studies.
Using acrylic wool and liquid plastic,
some composite problems such as
irregular absorption and lack of
stiffness were detected in this first
prototype as illustrated on the left.
A new stiffer and more accurate
composite was achieved by using
epoxy resin and cotton wire.
R65
R65
Setup of the s-curvilinear shape.
Technical plans of possible s-proliferations of
woven structures with s-curvilinear shapes. with
radii of 65 mm each. These plans were used to
lasercut the frames for the single, double and
triple s-curvilinear prototypes.
(Right) Distribution patterns of the strands and
their corresponding models going from 1 to 7,
1 to 10, 1 to 14, 1 to 18 using a wooden frame
with 56 holes and two extra ones for division of
the rope at the ends of the single s-curvilinear
frame.

69
363534333231302928272625242322212019181716151413121110987654321 3738 394041424344 4546 47 48 4950 515253545556
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 121314 151617 1819 20212223 2425 26 2728 2930 31 32333435 36 3738 394041424344 4546 47 48 4950 515253545556
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 121314 151617 1819 20212223 2425 26 2728 2930 31 32333435 36 3738 394041424344 4546 47 48 4950 515253545556
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 121314 151617 1819 20212223 2425 26 2728 2930 31 32333435 36 3738 394041424344 4546 47 48 4950 515253545556
5655545352515049484746454443424140393837363534333231302928272625242322212019181716151413121110987654321
5655545352515049484746454443424140393837363534333231302928272625242322212019181716151413121110987654321
5655545352515049484746454443424140393837363534333231302928272625242322212019181716151413121110987654321
565554535251504948474645444342414039383736353433323130292827262524232221201918171615141 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1213
1 10
1 14 1 18
1 7 Shift 1 to 10Shift 1 to 7
Shift 1 to 14 Shift 1 to 18
Shift 1 to 18Shift 1 to 14Shift 1 to 7

70
Model with 56 holes and shift 1-->9 (18)
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
70 (1/2) 110 51 46 56 72 85 89 80 30
35(1/4) 110 48 43 55 75 87 92 84 30

Model with 56 holes and shift 1-->7(14)/ second measure
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
70 (1/2) 110 46 43 55 77 93 96 84 30
35(1/4) 110 43 40 54 80 95 99 88 30

Model with 56 holes and shift 1-->5(10)
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
70 (1/2) 110 41 40 54 82 102 104 88 30
35(1/4) 110 38 37 53 85 104 107 92 30

Model with 56 holes and shift 1-->4(7)
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
70 (1/2) 110 38 37 53 86 108 109 91 30
35(1/4) 110 35 34 52 89 110 112 95 30
By changing the shift, the strength and curvature of our models changed.
The curvature (similar to a minimal net) is the main aspect to parameterize.
It is important that when turning to architecture (second part of our study),
we can predict how our building or model will change and which shapes
can be generated. In architecture, it is not possible to make every time a model
of the building to check whether the curvature is adequate. This is why it is
important to have all the different curvatures mapped in Grasshopper.
A chart or a catalogue is an easy way to tabulate measurements and to use
these measurements for creating a parametric rule. The catalogue includes
data for four different shifts, from the lowest to the highest shift.

71
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Height(mm)
1/4 or 3/4 measurements
1-->18
1-->14
1-->10
1-->7
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Height(mm)
Middle measurements
1-->18
1-->14
1-->10
1-->7
Above the chart with measurements
(on the left page), one can see the
plan of the frame superimposed with
vertical lines. These lines represent
the measuring points 0-3-6-9-12-
15-18-21-24. The start and the end
points were the reference points.
At every line we took two measure-
ments, one in the middle (70mm)
and one at a quarter (35mm) of the
model. The measurement at one
quarter will be the same as at three
quarters due to symmetric properties
(which is the case only when using
two identical frames).
Graphs allow other representations
of the measurements. They clearly
show the lower the shift, the more
extreme the curvature gets. Or the
higher the shift, the more flatter
the middle curvature gets. In both
graphs we see that al the models
more or less have the same turning
point from concave to convex. This
point will be very useful in further
parameterization.
Based on these observations we
derived a formula to describe the
curvaturedependingontheshift.This
formulawasfurther usedtogenerate
all the curvatures in our Grasshop-
per models. The advantage of the
formula is that we also can use other
shifts than the ones we tested,
allowing more options. Additional
information about the parametriza-
tion and digitalization can be found
in the section ‘Parametrization’.

72
109 104 96 89Curve Heigh t
Strongness
Flexibilit y
Density
Curve height
Strength
Density
Flexibility
The diagram above illustrates the conclusions made from the four single s-curvilinear shape prototypes
each with a different shift. By changing the shift, the curve is changing, as well as the density. The higher
the shift, the more expressed the hyperbolic curve, the stronger and the denser the structure and the less flexible the
prototype becomes. The hyperbolic curve thus influences the strength and the flexibility of the structure.
In the next research process we discovered that by bending the single, double and triple s-curvilinear prototypes, we
could detect stronger elements. These are indicated by the red squares in the catalogue shown on the next pages.
This higher strength is due a.o. to the more pronounced convex and concave shapes created by the bending. More
specific: on the bending point in these elements, the hyperbolic curve is more expressed.
1-7
109 104 94 89
Shift 1-10 1-14 1-18

73
Weaving
Borders
Strong
Strong movement
Winding
No borders
Weak
Little movement
Winding
Borders
Strong
Strong movement
Weaving
Changing direction
of the middle frame
to weave.
No border in the
middle, only at the
ends.
Open shape: first experiments
• Push - pull movements
• Assessment of strength
Weaving effects upon moving the
middle frame:
by moving up or down, and/or
twisting the middle frame, new
concave and convex curvatures
with smaller or larger voids are
formed.

76
Final model (December 2015):
The model and its qualities can be
summarized as followed:
Spatial qualities are created by the
use of ‘building blocks’ (such as
an inner courtyard or hanging
parts) by the use of only 3 different
s-curvilinear frames: a single, double
and the triple one (see p.77).
Depending on the curvilinear fame
used, another shape is created by
bending, as shown on the right
page.
The resulting ‘triple s-curve shape’
whichmorespecificallycorresponds
to a ‘three-void shape’, shows more
opportunities to build on top.
In the model, there are different
densities, depending on the used
shifts for the building blocks. The
higher the shift, the denser the
building block is.
All the elements include as
patterntheplainweave;whichgives
the elements structural qualities
due to the interlacing. The created
concave and convex shapes give
strength to the elements.
Each element has a woven frame,
which reinforces the structural
capacity of each separated element.
The main questions arrising from
this model were:
Will the system be composed
of building blocks connected to
each other or will it be conintuous
woven and how?
How to create a continous pattern
from one shape to the other?

77
Final model (December 2015) including two- and three-void shapes, achieved by bending the s-curvilinear shapes.

78
Diagrams of possibile intermediate connections.
Examples, using different connections and borders.
Continuous weaving and connections
Research was performed on different kind of intermediate pieces:
double strings single strings border
without border crossing straight
weaving curved mold
Based on these tests, we are able to conclude that intermediate
pieces using borders are stronger; Subsequently we found that the
problem solves itself by the use of a structural beam.

79
Bending
Open form closed form
closed frame
Concave - convex
112 holes (2 x 56)
112 strands
140 mm height
length = length open form
Closed form
As shown in the image above, we can observe the evolution of the form-finding process. An open form was created as to allow
more possibilities to create new shapes. By bending the open form into different shapes, a stronger closed form was discovered,
due to its convex and concave shape. Closed prototypes were reconstructed by using a two- and three-voided frames (above
the two-voided closed frame is shown). These closed prototypes achieved by bending into a closed two-voided or three-voided
shape, maintained the characteristics of the earlier obtained concave and convex shapes of the open s-curvilinear prototypes.

80
x
x
Y
Y
2Y
Y
Parameterization
a) Height:
Height = 2 y, shift 14
The curvature of the created
hyperbolic curve stays the same.
However, the density is reduced.
b) Radius (same shift):
(R45, R55, R65)
The bigger the radius, the less
explicit is the hyperbolic curve.
The density remains the same.
c) Two different radii:
The hyperbolic curve is no longer
in the middle, but moves to the
smaller radius.
R 55 to R 65
x > y
R 65R 55
Length = Length
c2
c1
Average c1 & c2 = 65
The image below illustrates the relation
between elements with a different radius.
When the radii of the voids are changed, the
length of the shape is kept and the relation be-
tween the inner circle and the outer circle stays
the same.
x
y

81
R 45 mm
=x1
R 55mm
= x2
R 65 mm
= x3
x3
x3
x2
x1
x1
x2

82
# Strings
2x36
# Strings
2x56
# Strings
2x86
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 13 14 15 16 17
Distance= X
x
x
x
d) Quantity of wires:
The more wires distributed over the same distance, the denser and the stronger the structure becomes.
This should be taken into account for the view. The denser, the lower the porosity and the less the visibility become.
There is no influence on the hyperbolic curve.
e) Changing the shift:
The higher the shift, the stronger and denser the structure becomes.
The hyperbolic curve is more explicit, the higher the shift.
The more explicit the hyperbolic curve is, the stronger the shape becomes.

83
18
Shift
14
u
v
s
t
22
28
density - pravacy -view
strength
space shape convex - concave
strength

84
f) Change of shift and strands
By changing the quantity of strings
within one prototype, no problems
were detected. Yet by changing
the shift within a single prototype,
problems of holes emerged.
The diagrams down the page
explain how to prevent these holes:
the holes can be prevented by
changing the shift step by step
(not abruptly as shown in the first
diagram).
Note in the last diagram that
where the shift is changed in the
structure, the density becomes
lower and the structure less strong.
This further motivates the step-by-
step approach and can be solved
by adding a string on top (which
means thickening the material in
this part of the structure).
Strings
Shift and quantity of strings
Shift
Shift
Changing shifts, creates a hole. Solution to deal with the gap. Solution to prevent holes/ openings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

85
g) Double skin
Research was done to create a
double skin, as shown in the im-
age below. These layers can create
different kind of functions as will be
further discussed.
By using layers, also three spaces
are created: an inner, in-between,
and outer space.
Advantages:
A double skin can be very useful. If
the outer skin is open and orient-
ed in the direction of the south,
climbing plants can grow. The
leaves of the plants are able to
protect the inner rooms from direct
sunlight in the summer and they
will fall in the winter to let in the
lower sun beams into the room
Additionally, the second structure
can filter the polluted air from the
environment.
Working with two layers also gives
the opportunity to improve the
ventilation system, as further
discussed in the chapter
‘Responsive systems’.
At last a second skin can be a big ad-
vantage for cladding. For example,
it can just be a straight skin as
shown in image of the prototype.
The holes are regular and the
cladding can be standardized.
Double skin
+
Nature

86
h) Directionality of the system:
The system W
.
E
.
F
.
T
.
offers different
possibilities of directional growth in
the x, y and z directions by using
different kinds of shapes.

87
Conclusion
Through the first process of form finding using curvilinear weaving,
we found structural capacities due to the interlacing by weaving, the
hyperbolic curve (which is a shape which guides the forces) and the
quantity of strings. The use of a curvilinear frame gives rise to concave
and convex shapes in the prototypes, with a particular strength due to
the hyperbolic curve.
The height has no influence on the hyperbolic curvature, yet it affects
the density and so the strength.
The bigger the radius, the more explicit the hyperbolic curve becomes.
By changing the shift, some weaker parts are created, which can be
solved by thickening the material.
Working with double layers can add beneficial features to the system
by creating for example special ventilation systems, as will be further
exploited in this research.
This process of form finding lets us understand the structural capacities
of weaving in a curvilinear frame.
We thank Iñaki Bedia for his contribution to this chapter.

89
Responsive systems
Introduction
examples and analysis
W.E.F.T. a responsive system

90
Responsive systems
A responsive system is able to react and adapt to a living environment
by taking data of this environment. It are systems that feel, observe,
listen, react, learn and interact. Before going on with analysing our sys-
tem as a responsive system, we analysed the state of art in responsive
pavilions and how to evaluate them.
Take data → process data → Response
Warped (2008)
Omar Khan
This embedded responsive system designed by Omar Khan is made of pieces of
plywood, responding to changes in the environment by twisting and bending
between open and closed conditions.1
By changing directionality of the wood grain, Khan reaches different actions of
each element joined by a connection piece.
In this system, the humidity sensor, which is evoking the twisting, is contained by
the material itself. It means that the responsive capacity is determined by the struc-
ture of the material itself.
This system doesn’t need supply of external energy nor any kind of mechanical
or electronic control. We can classify this system as a zero energy consumption
system.
This natural system opens a way to truly ecologically embedded architecture in
constant interaction with its environment.
Humidity → Change shape of elements → Global change
WARPED, By Omar Khan.1
1. Retrieved from: http://cast.b-ap.
net/reflexivearchitecturemachines/warped/

91
FAZ Pavilion (Frankfurt, 2010)
Achim Menges, Steffan Reichart and Scheffler + Partner
The FAZ summer pavilion built in 2010 on the northern embankment of the river
Main in Frankfurt’s city center provides an interior extension of the popular public
space. 2
The pavilion is based on an integral structural and hygroscopic responsive system.
This system evokes a reaction to weather changes. The surface of the elements
will be fully opened (see picture below) when it is a sunny or dry day with a low
humidity level.2
When the rainfall approaches and relative humidity increases, the pavilion
elements are closing to form a rain screen. This is because the humidity triggers an
autonomous response.2
When the rain stops, the humidity drops and the elements are opening again.
The changing pavilion, in constant feedback and interaction, embod-
ies the capacity to sense, actuate and regulate, this all within the material
itself.1
This responsive characteristic is engrained in the material’s hygroscopic
behaviour and anisotropic (directional dependence) properties.3,2
Breadboard deformation.4
4. Retrieved from: http://www.dbz.de/
imgs/39812413_e5fbf1eccc.jpg [Accessed 15
January 2016]
5. Retrieved from: http://www.achim-
menges.net/?p=4967 [Accessed 15 January
2016]
FAZ Pavilion: Opening state in good weather.5
2. Materialcapacity,p.53-59,In:‘Material
computation’, Achim Menges, AD Architectral
Design March/April 2012, Vol. 82 (2), p. 1-144
3. Ecological urban architecture: qual-
itative approaches to sustainability, materially
informed computational design in ecological ar-
chitecture, Thomas Schröpfer, Basel: Birkhäuser,
2012, p.66-68
Hygroscopic behaviour: refers to the ca-
pacity of the substance, in this case wood,
to take moisture from the atmosphere
when dry and to yield moisture to the
atmosphere when wet.

92
The desorption (removal) of water by natural evaporation reduces the distances
between microfibrils in the cell tissue resulting in a substantial increase in strength
due to the interfibrillar binding and an overall dimension decrease.3,2
Wood has a constant dimensional movement because it continuously
responds to changes in the surrounding relative humidity by adjusting the bound
water content within the cell walls.2
These changes of shrinking and swelling by adsorption and desorption of water
are fully reversible.
The shape changes are also related to the directionality of the grain in the layers
of the plywood strips. Dimensional changes in the plywood along the longitudinal
axis are negligible but the transversal movements are significant because of the
microfibrils orientation in the dominant wall layer: they are orientated at a slight
angle to the longitudinal axis of the cells.
The veneer is combined in this project with another synthetic composite, to expand
the linear dependency of swelling and shrinking, in order to achieve highly specific
and diverse shape changes. Opposite geometrical response can be evoked by the
same environmental changes (bending and straightening).
Following parameters contribute to getting different shapes:
1) fibre directionality
2) layout of the composite
3) length-width-thickness ratio
4) geometry of the element
5) humidity control during the production phase.
Relative humidity is also temperature-dependent. That’s why this pavilion is also
thermal responsive: also when the temperature drops, the surfaces will close.
FAZ Pavilion: Closed state in bad weather.5

93
Topotransegrity - Non-Linear Responsive Environments (2016)
Robert Neumayr
Topotransegrity is project about responsive architecture that can be introduced
in public spaces, challenging the long-held assumption about architecture as a
passive arrangement.
This project currently investigates networked ways that enable architecture itself to
operate as an intelligent interface that connects spaces, users and performance
criteria in real time , as well as integrates the impact of such spatial configurations
on urban space and urban public life.6
It is a kinetic structure capable of various transformations from small-scale sur-
face articulations to large surface deformations, which can generate temporary
enclosures (private space), by constant evaluation of its surroundings. It also
reconfigures according to these changing conditions.
The changes are done by sensors’ input and output and are directly related to the
specific event schedule of its environment. It drives the generic transformations,
initiating and locating the deformations that control the access and the circulation
within the public spaces, and generates small emergent temporary spaces, with
host programmes related to ongoing events.
Additionally, the structure allows different degrees of transparencies.
The transformations are based on the response to the movements and behavioural
patterns of the visitors within the structure:
the visitors influence the size, orientation and development of the temporary
enclosures, previously established by the program mode.
Finally, it affects the orientation of the surface tiles, based on the positions and sizes
of the visitor crowds.
On a long-term basis, the paths and motion patterns chosen by individual
users, are influencing the surface topography by indicating and levelling the most
frequented parts. They define the actual width of circulation spaces, temporary
level connections, entrance areas and thresholds according to the number of visi-
tors at every point in time during the period of use.6
(Topotransegrity: (Top) Different generated
transformations of the system;6
(Bottom) Spatial
arrangement.7
6. Retrieved from: http://rhizome.org/
editorial/2006/apr/12/topotransegrity-non-lin-
ear-responsive-environments/ [Accessed 22
January 2016]
7. Retrieved from: http://www.un-
square.at/?p=165 [Accessed 22 January 2016]

94
Algae Canopy (Expo 2015)
Claudio Pasquero and Marco Poletto
Claudio Pasquero and Marco Poletto proposed at the expo Milano 2015 a bio-
digital architecture powered by organisms. It was presented as a vision, but later-on
they built a small version of the Algae Canopy which is called the Algae Folly.
They use a 3 layered EFTE cladding system enhanced with microalgae
organisms. They use a CNC welding technique to get the cushions
under stress and get a dynamic behaviour of the water that travels through it.
The physical parameters are: the weather patterns , the human activity and the
visitors’ movement. The sensors are the flows of energy, water and CO2
working.
When the sun shines, algae photosynthesize and grow, thus reducing the
transparency of the canopy. The presence of people underneath the canopy will
trigger electro valves to alter the speed of the algae flow and to create a differenti-
ation across the space.
The Algae Canopy will produce oxygen equal to 4 hectare of woodland and equal
to 150 kg of biomass per day.8
Remarks:
In this system, the only external consumption of energy comes from the electric
volts measuring the visitors’ movements. Besides this source of energy, the algae
emerge as energy source themselves. Controlling the algae production also re-
quires energy. But if we compare what we gain with what we lose of energy, we
have a positive energy building.
Every day you have to ‘harvest’ the building to start over again, because once the
algae are produced, they don’t disappear by themselves. But what is harvested is
useful, namely biomass.
What happens at night, is not very clear. Supposedly, the canopy doesn’t work…
If we evaluate the differences between the Algae Canopy and the Algae Folly, we
observe a large difference in how it looks in real time and on a render. So probably
the designers of this system needed more techniques than they initially estimated.8
Algea Canopy 8
EFTE: Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene: fluorine
based plastic polymer. High corrosion resistance,
high strength over a wide temperature range,
high melting temperature, chemical, electrical
and high energy radiation resistance properties.
Most of the time used as a cushion.
8. Algea Canopy and Algea Folly, Re-
trieved from: http://www.ecologicstudio.com
The working process of the canopy, triggered by
people underneath.8

95
How to analyse and criticize a responsive system?
There are different kinds of reactive systems. Responsive systems can be analysed
as follows:
- Is it a low-tech or high-tech system?
- how much motors for the system? (each element or global?)
- how are the elements connected?
- What is the energy efficiency?
- is the energy source inherent or/and external?
- is energy needed for the motors/electronic devices to respond?
(ex: parasite, Jordi Truco & ADDA, elements are connected)
- is there zero energy consumption?
(ex: FAD pavilion)

- What are the production costs?
- How much material is needed?
- Is it ecologically produced?
- How acts the actuator in the project?
- Does the system deal (efficiently) with a problem?
- Which are the advantages that the system has for the environment or is it just
aesthetic?
- food - air filtration
- light/shade - privacy
- ventilation - ...
- What defines the response of the system?
- the environment
- a computer
(ex. hypo surface: the global shape is defined top down)
- Is it a bottom-up or top-down system?
The parasite: All the elements are connected.
One movement evokes a movement in the
whole shape.
Retrieved from: http://www.elisava.
net/en/studies/master-advanced-de-
sign-and-digital-architecture-mention-
research [Accessed 10 January 2016]

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