Toward Sustainable Green Cement Enhanced by Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) Slag

Prime Archives in Material Science: 2nd
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Book Chapter
Toward Sustainable Green Cement
Enhanced by Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
(BOS) Slag
Talal Salem3
*, Pengcheng Jiao1,2
*, Nizar Lajnef3
, Assel
Jexembayeva4
and Rimma Niyazbekova4
1
Institute of Port, Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Ocean
College, Zhejiang University, China
2
Engineering Research Center of Oceanic Sensing Technology
and Equipment, Zhejiang University, Ministry of Education,
China
3
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan
State University, USA
4
Technical Faculty, Saken Seifullin Kazakh Agro Technical
University, Kazakhstan
*Corresponding Authors: Talal Salem, Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, MI 48824, USA
Pengcheng Jiao, Institute of Port, Coastal and Offshore
Engineering, Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan
316021, Zhejiang, China
Published November 09, 2020
This Book Chapter is a republication of an article published by
Talal Salem, et al. at Materials in July 2020. (Jexembayeva, A.;
Salem, T.; Jiao, P.; Hou, B.; Niyazbekova, R. Blended Cement
Mixed with Basic Oxygen Steelmaking Slag (BOF) as an
Alternative Green Building Material. Materials 2020, 13, 3062.)
How to cite this book chapter: Talal Salem, Pengcheng Jiao,
Nizar Lajnef, Assel Jexembayeva, Rimma Niyazbekova. Toward
Sustainable Green Cement Enhanced by Basic Oxygen
Steelmaking (BOS) Slag. In: José Alexandre Bogas, editor.

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Edition. Hyderabad,
India: Vide Leaf. 2020.
© The Author(s) 2020. This article is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
This study investigates the effects of basic oxygen steelmaking
(BOS) slag on the mechanical and chemical properties of
ordinary Portland cement (OPC) type I. The BOS-enhanced
cement is produced and casted into cubic and beam-like samples
for the compressive and three-point bending tests, and the
compressive and flexural strengths are experimentally measured.
Numerical simulations are conducted to validate the
experimental result and satisfactory agreements are obtained.
XRD investigations are then carried out, which indicates that 5%
BOS is the optimal ratio to accelerate the hydration process
while increasing the amount of hydration products, especially at
the early curing age of 3 days. Scanning electron microscope
(SEM) images further indicate that BOS can be used to prevent
the development of microcracks while mitigate their propagation
within cement mortar. Our study indicates that the compressive
strength of OPC can be critically increased by BOS at the
relatively low concentrations of 5%. At the end, cost analysis of
partially replacing OPC with (0-15%) of BOS was reported.
Keywords
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking Slag; Blended Cement;
Sustainability; Cost Analysis
Introduction
Approximately over 30 million tons of concrete are consumed
globally each year, with a cement market size exceeds USD

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400 billion [1,2]. Negative environmental impacts are associated
with the production of Portland cement, e.g., approximately 5%
of energy use and 10% of CO2 emissions are associated with
production of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) [3,4]. Generally,
improving the overall performance while maximizing the
application of market-limited industrial wastes lead to the
emerging sustainable Portland cement in the cement and
concrete industries [5-7]. Thus, different approaches were
examined to resolve the environmental issues resulted from
cement production, including replacing cement with by-product
wastes that can produce concrete having almost the same
behavior as normal concrete at late ages (> 28 days) [8,9].
Studies have been conducted to exhibit the effect of partially
replacing Portland cement with diverse industrial byproduct
wastes, such as basic oxygen steelmaking slag (BOS) [10-12].
Annually, more than 50 million tons of stainless steel is
produced globally, which brings tons of steel byproducts wastes
[13-15]. China, India, Japan and United States are the highest
steel producer all over the world, with over than 70% of global
steel production [16,17]. To effectively employ the byproducts
wastes in the production of blended cement, it is necessary to
investigate the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of
the new class of cement. Different studies have been conducted
to evaluate the physic-chemical properties and toxic potential of
different types of BOSs [18,19], as well as the usage of BOS in
production of belite sulphoaluminate cement and cementitious
composite materials concretes [20,21]. Moreover, BOS has been
successfully used as a coarse aggregate in various applications,
including asphaltic concrete, railway substructure, shoulders and
road base material [22-25].
Recent studies were conducted to investigate the influence of
adding steel slag on the cementitious properties and hydrations
of cement. For instance, Guo et al. proposed a new approach to
effectively recycle BOS slag and increase its reactivity, to be
used as a supplementary cementitious material [26]. Qiang et al.
studied the influence of steel slag replacement (> 30%) on the
durability of the concrete (i.e., chloride permeability, drying
shrinkage, and carbonation resistance) [27]. Also, Liu and Li
investigated the degree of fineness of the slag powder and its

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effect on the mechanical properties (i.e., compressive strength) at
early and late ages (i.e., 3 and 28 days), and it was found that
mechanical properties, especially at late ages, can be
significantly improved by increasing the fineness of the slag
powder [28]. On another hand, Ouda and Abdel-Gawwad
reported that replacing silica sand by BOS slag will affect the
physico-mechanical and radiation shielding characteristics of
cement mortars [29]. Gonzalez et al. developed a alkali-activated
binder in which over than 50% of steel slag was utilized to
produce cementitious material that meet the performance
requirements for the general use class of cements [30].
Moreover, Lu et al. found out that activation of BOS through
adding NaOH and Na2SiO3 results in alkaline activated binder
that meet the performance of ordinary Portland cement mortars
[31].Here, we report blended slag-cement, in which ordinary
Portland cement was enhanced by basic oxygen steelmaking
(BOS) slag. The enhanced physical, chemical, and mechanical
characteristics are investigated, and an optimal 5% BOS
replacement content was reported in terms of the increment in
the compressive strength exceeding the standards required by the
ASTM C109 [32]. The work reported here can be drawn as the
following, Section 2 carries out the physico-chemical properties
(i.e., particle size distributions, XRD and XRF) and methods
(i.e., ASTM standards) used to investigate the mechanical
performance of both OPC and BOS cement mortars. Section 3
presents and results for the mechanical performance and micro-
scale characteristics (i.e., SEM and XRD) of cement specimens
to fully understand behaviors of the proposed blended cement.
Section 4 develops numerical simulations (i.e., ABAQUS) to
validate the mechanical response of the BOS-enhanced cement,
and satisfactory agreements are obtained. The blended Portland
slag cement reported in this paper leads to the advanced
understanding on the blended cements that uses byproduct
wastes for different construction applications. In Section 5 a cost
analysis of replacing OPC with (0-15%) of BOS was reported.

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Materials and Methods
Physical-Chemical Properties
BOS is the by-product of molten iron processing, which has
different types of steel slags depending on the type (grade) of
steel and the furnace being used during the production process
[33]. Typically, BOS can be obtained by melting cast iron with
lime or dolomite flux in the gaseous oxygen. The impurities in
cast iron are mainly the carbon, phosphorus, silicon, and
manganese. The CO2 is found to be volatilized here, while other
oxides (i.e., iron oxides, silicon oxides, manganese oxides) are
combined with the lime or dolomite that are obtainable from the
slag. The BOS considered in this study was obtained from JSC
“ArcelorMittal Temirtau” (Temirtau, Kazakhstan)
“ArcelorMittal Temirtau” with a density of 2083.73 kg/m3
, a
hydrogen ion concentration of = , and a
conductivity of 1.09 ms/cm. The OPC used in this study was
obtained from Alpena cement plant in the (Michigan, United
States) with Blaine fineness of 372 m2
/kg, air content of 8% and
autoclave expansion of 0.05%. The particle size distributions of
BOS and OPC were measured via the 3071A Analyzer, as
presented in Figure 1. Its worth mentioning that BOS was
grinded Cryogenic grinding method using “Micron powder
system” to obtain the mean particle size of 16 µm. The chemical
compositions of BOS and OPC used here are presented in Table
1. BOS had iron oxides-to-calcium oxides weight ratio of
46.91 %, and the aluminum oxide-to-silica oxide weight ratio of
12.72%.
Table 1: Chemical composition and loss on the ignition results (wt.%) of BOS
and OPC.
SiO2 CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO MnO SO3 TiO2 P2O5 LOI
OPC 19.94 64.20 4.86 3.15 2.71 2.83 1.67 - - 2.5
BOS 12.03 46.17 1.53 21.66 4.53 5.10 0.77 0.58 2.52 2.3

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Figure 1: Particle size distributions of BOS and OPC.
The mineralogy of the BOS and OPC under consideration were
assessed using the x-ray diffraction (XRD) technique. Bruker D8
X-ray diffractometer equipped with Cu x-ray radiation operating
at 40kV and 30mA was particularly used to conduct the XRD
tests at the rate of 2°/min, covering a reflection angle range 2θ of
5−60°. The XRD results of OPC and BOS in the BOS-enhanced
cement are presented in Figure 2. It can be seen that OPC mainly
contains tricalcium silicates (C3S), dicalcium silicates (C2S) and
tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF), and BOS mainly has
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), iron
oxide (Fe3O4), tricalcium silicates (C3S), dicalcium silicates
(C2S) and tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF).
Figure 2: XRD results of (a) OPC, and (b) BOS.

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Methodology
Mechanical Performance Analysis
BOS was used to partially replace the OPC type I with different
dosages, in particular, with 1%, 3%, 5%, 10%, and 15% weight
ratios of OPC. The production of the BOS-enhanced cement was
according to the following steps (i) supplementary cementing
materials were mixed with the OPC for 3 mins at the low speed
the using classic™ quart tilt-head stand mixer to ensure the
pervasion of moisture over the whole particles; (ii) water was
added to the mixed OPC and the W/C ratio was adjusted to
produce a fresh mix flow of 110±5% per ASTM C1437 [34];
(iii) silica sand was slowly added to the mixed materials to meet
the sand-to-cement ratio of 2.75, and mixed for 30 s (he mixed
cement samples were kept for 90 s and then stirred at the
medium speed for 60 s); (iv) BOS-enhanced cement mortar
specimens were casted in 50 mm cubic molds following ASTM
C109 [35], and in 40×40×160 mm prism molds following ASTM
C348 [36]; (v) molds were placed on the vibrating table to
reduce the air bubbles and ensure the proper compaction; and
(vi) after 24 hours the specimens were demolded and placed into
the curing room under the temperature of 20 °C and the relative
humidity of 95%.
The mechanical performance of the BOS-enhanced cement was
evaluated by measuring the compressive and flexural strength
(three-points bending) of cement mortars at curing time of 3, 7
and 28 days as shown in Figure 3. A total of three specimens
were tested for each geometry set using the FORNEY
compression machine to obtain the average strength, and OPC
was used as a reference here.

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Figure 3: Experimental setup for (a) compressive and (b) flexural strength
tests.
Micro-Scale Analysis
The microstructural characteristics of the blended cement pastes
with the 1%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 15% dosages of BOS were
particularly evaluated by the X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis,
scanning electron microscope (SEM) and semi-adiabatic
calorimetry test. The scanning electron microscope (SEM)
images of the hydration products were captured using the Hitachi
TM3030, and the Bruker XFlash MIN SVE microanalysis
system was used to assess the microstructural attributes and
microcrack conditions of the BOS-enhanced cement pastes. Note
that the cement specimens were imaged in high-vacuum mode at
the accelerating voltage of 15 kV.

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Results and Discussion
Figure 4 presents the compressive and flexural strengths results
of the BOS-enhanced cement mortar specimens with different
dosages of BOS (i.e.,0, 1%, 3%, 5%, 10%, and 15%) at curing
ages of 3, 7, and 28 days. Figure 4 (a) and (b) demonstrates the
distribution trends of the compressive and flexural strengths
between the OPC and BOS-enabled cement, respectively. It can
be seen that, partially replacement of OPC with 5% BOS, will
results in approximately 40% increment in compressive strength
at the early age (i.e., 3 days), that was reduced to about 34%
increment at the late age (i.e., 28 days). This is because the
fineness of the BOS which accelerate the hydration reaction and
lead to increase the compressive strengths of the BOS-enhanced
cement samples by improving the microstructures of the cement
stone [9]. However, it was noted that relatively high content of
BOS (≥ 10%) results in reduction in compressive strength, at the
age of 28 days, compared with the optimum dosage of 5% BOS.
Similar observation was reported by Shi et al., in which
compressive strength of the cement mortar was continuously
decreased when the replacement weight ratio of the steel slag
was high than 10% [37].
The flexural strength of the BOS-enhanced cement mortar with
1% BOS was reduced at both early and late curing ages (i.e., 3,
7, and 28 days). Decreasing of the flexural strength was also
obtained for 15% BOS under the late curing age of 7 and 28
days. This phenomenon can be explained by the presence of the
CaCO3, Ca(OH)2, and Fe3O4 in BOS, as shown in Figure 2. In
addition, the relatively high content of Fe3O4 in BOS may has
negative effect on the final hardening of the BOS-enhanced
cement [37]. Schuldyakova et al. observed a similar trend (i.e., a
reduction at the early age flexural strength) when the substitution
level of cement by blast furnace slag was increased [38]. This
examination was explained due to the increase of the water
demand as the slag dosage increase.

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Figure 4: Compressive and flexural strengths for BOS-enhanced and OPC
cement mortars.
Next, the XRD analysis of the BOS-enhanced cement is obtained
at the early age of 3 days, as shown in Figure 5. It can be seen
that, for the BOS-enhanced cement with 1–15% BOS, the main
mineralogical phases were calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H),
tricalcium silicate (C3S), dicalcium silicate (C2S), ettringite (E),
and calcium hydroxide (CH), which were formed in the
significant quantities at the early age [39,40]. In particular, the
variation in the characteristic peak of C3S at 2θ = 29o was less
sharp in the case of 5% BOS, which explains the optimum
conversion of the C3S-to-C-S-H gel during the hydration
reaction [41]. However, other peaks are remained unchanged at
5% BOS, which results in the increasing of the compressive and
flexural strengths for the BOS-enhanced cement.

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Figure 5: XRD results of the BOS-enhanced cement with 1%, 3%, 5%, 10%
and 15 % BOS at the early age of 3 days.
Figure 6 presents the SEM images of the BOS-enhanced cement
mortar specimens at the late age of 28. In general, high
magnification images are obtained with certain slag clusters.
Figure 6a shows that the OPC cement has a homogeneous
structure. This could be due to the calcium silicate hydrate
(CSH) gel fibers form denser overlap to the network structure
and connect with the surrounding unhydrated cement particles
through the hexagonal CH crystals, which tends to form a
framework by staggering [42]. Similar observation is obtained in
Figure 6b, which can be explained by the low amount of 1%
BOS in the BOS-enhanced cement. Figure 6c shows an
increment of CH crystallohydrates intertwined with hydrated
plates of C-S-H gel and needle-shaped ettringite. The inter-tissue
spaces inside the paste frame are filled by CH crystals and C-S-
H gel in 5% BOS in Figure 6(d), which explains the formation of
a dense crystallized structure [43]. Figure 6(e) and (f) are
observed with the loose structures that have noticeable pores
with less dense network structures.

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Figure 6: SEM images for (a) OPC, and BOS-enhanced cement with (b) 1%
BOS, (c) 3% BOS, (d) 5% BOS, (e) 10% BOS and (f) 15% BOS at the
relatively at the late curing age of 28 days.
Numerical Simulations
Numerical Modeling
In this section, the numerical models are developed in ABAQUS
v6.14-1 (Dassault Systèmes Simulia., Providence, USA) to
obtain the mechanical response of the OPC cured after 28 days.
We present the finite element (FE) models to compare with the
experimental results of the compressive and flexural strengths of
the OPC specimens presented in Figure 4 (i.e., the values in bold
and italic) in order to check the experimental setup.

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Figure 7 (a) shows the mesh, loading, and boundary conditions
of the numerical models in the compressive and three-point
bending tests, respectively. The concrete damaged plasticity
(CDP) model is used to define the material properties of the OPC
in the FE models, and the dynamic implicit algorithm with the
solid element (C3D8R) is applied. In particular, the parameters
of the dilation angle, eccentricity, , K, and viscosity are
determined following the study [44]. Figure 7(b) and (c) present
the experimentally measured compressive and tensile behaviors
of the OPC, respectively, which are comparable with the results
presented in the existing study [45]. The compressive and tensile
relations are used to define the OPC in the FE models. Due to the
symmetry of the three-point bending testing, only half of the
cement samples are considered. Displacement-control loading
conditions are used for the compressive and flexural tests. The
geometric and material properties, as well as the mesh and
loading conditions, of the FE models are listed in Table 2 and
Table 3, respectively. The experimental results of the
compressive and flexural strengths are 31.5 ± 0.4 MPa, and 6.35
± 0.02 MPa, respectively. It can be seen that the compressive and
flexural strengths are obtained with good agreements between
the experimental and numerical results.

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Table 2: Geometric and material properties, and the mesh and loading conditions of the compressive and flexural models for the BOS-enhanced cement samples.
Geometric property (mm) Material property
Compressive
Flexural Density Young’s
modulus
Poisson’s
ratio
Dilation
angle
Eccentricity Ratio uni/biaxial
strength
Viscosity
L b h L b h ρ (kg/m3
) E
(GPa)
v (°) - -
50 50 50 160 40 40 2300 18.889 0.18 35 0.1 1.6 0.667 0.007985
Table 3: Mesh and loading conditions of the compressive and flexural models for the BOS-enhanced cement samples.
Mesh Loading
Compressive Flexural Compressive Flexural
l l Type Displacement (mm) Loading time (s) Type Displacement (mm) Loading time (s)
2 2 D-C 0.4 50 D-C 1 50

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Figure 7: (a) Loading and boundary conditions, mesh and deformed
configurations of the BOS-enhanced cement in the compressive and flexural
testing. Comparisons of the strength-displacement relations for the BOS-
enhanced cement between the experimental and numerical results.
Comparison between the Experimental and Numerical
Results
Considering the expensive and time-consuming characteristics of
the experiments for the OPC, it is typically more efficient to
numerically calculate and predict the compressive and flexural
strengths of the OPC. Parametric studies are conducted using the
numerical model to investigate the influences of the geometric
parameter ratios (i.e., length-to-width and width-to-height ratios)
on the compressive and flexural strengths of the OPC. Figure 8
presents the distributions of the compressive and flexural
strengths with respect to the length-to-width and width-to-height
ratios. It can be seen that the compressive and flexural strengths
are affected by the ratios. However, the variation of the

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compressive strength is more significant than that of the flexural
strength.
Figure 8: Variations of the compressive and flexural strengths of the OPC with
respect to the length-to-width and width-to-height ratios.
Cost Analysis
One of the main aims of this work is to produce blended cements
that meet (or improve) the relevant performance requirements of
the ordinary PC with reasonable cost is one of the main aims in
this work. Thus, a comparative cost analysis was conducted on
PC versus the blended cements developed in the study. The unit
costs of OPC and BOS are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Unit costs of PC and BOS used in production of the blended cements.
Material Cost, $/ton
OPC [46] 123
BOS [47] 200
The total cost of the blended cement under consideration is
calculated in Table 5Error! Reference source not found. at
$ 126.8 per ton of the new class of cement at the optimum
dosage (5% of BOS). When compared with the OPC, the new
cement offers better mechanical performance (in terms of
compressive and flexural strength) with only 3% rise in price.

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Table 5: Calculation of the cost of the blended cements at different dosages of
BOS.
Cementitious materials Cost, $ per ton of cement
100% OPC 123
99% OPC + 1% BOS 123.8
97% OPC + 3% BOS 125.3
95% OPC + 5% BOS 126.8
90% OPC + 10% BOS 130.7
85% OPC + 15% BOS 134.6
Conclusions
In this study, ordinary Portland cement (OPC) type I was
partially replaced by basic oxygen steelmaking slag (BOS) to
investigate the mechanical and micro-scale characteristics of the
BOS-enhanced cement. it was found that introduction of BOS to
the OPC at relatively small amount of BOS (≤ 15% of cement
weight) increase the compressive strength of concrete at early
and late ages. The highest gain in compressive strength was
realized with the addition of 5% BOS (optimal dosage).
However, in terms of flexural strength, it was observed that the
strength development was significantly influenced when BOS
content exceeds 5% BOS. The crystallinity of OPC remains
unchanged (except some consumption of tricalcium silicates)
when relatively small amount of BOS was added. Moreover,
enhancing OPC with 3% and 5% of BOS, results in mitigating
the propagation of the microcrack in the 3D structure of the
cement mortars. Numerical models were developed to compare
with the experimental results, and satisfactory agreements were
obtained.
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