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The career development of Mexican American adolescent
women:
A test of social cognitive career theory.
Flores, Lisa Y.. Ohio State U, Dept of Psychology, Columbus,
OH,
US, [email protected]
O'Brien, Karen M.
Flores, Lisa Y., Ohio State U, Dept of Psychology, 1885 Neil

Avenue
Mall, Columbus, OH, US, 43210-1222, [email protected]
Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol 49(1), Jan, 2002. pp. 14-
27.
J Couns Psychol
US : American Psychological Association
US : Wm. C. Brown Co.
0022-0167 (Print)
1939-2168 (Electronic)
English
career choice model, Mexican American adolescent women,
contextual variables, social cognitive variables, career
aspiration,
prestige, traditionality, feminist attitudes, predictors
This study tested R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown, and G. Hackett's
(1994)
model of career choice with 364 Mexican American adolescent
women. Path analyses were run to determine the influence of
contextual and social cognitive variables on career aspiration,
career choice prestige, and traditionality. Partial support for the
model was evidenced as nontraditional career self-efficacy,
parental
support, barriers, acculturation, and feminist attitudes predicted
career choice prestige. Acculturation, feminist attitudes, and
nontraditional career self-efficacy predicted career choice
traditionality. Feminist attitudes and parental support predicted
career aspiration. The paths between nontraditional career
interests
and the 3 outcome variables were not supported. Finally, none
of
the background contextual variables in this study predicted
nontraditional career self-efficacy. Implications of the results
and
suggestions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO
Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Journal Article

*Mexican Americans; *Occupational Aspirations;
*Occupational
Choice; *Occupational Success Prediction; *Sociocultural
Factors; Models
PsycINFO Classification:
Population:
Location:
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Occupational Interests & Guidance (3610)
Human
Female
US
Adolescence (13-17 yrs)
Empirical Study
Print
Journal; Peer Reviewed Journal

Accepted: Mar 21, 2001; Revised: Mar 19, 2001; First
Submitted:
Feb 2, 2000
20060710
American Psychological Association. 2002
http://dx.doi.org.lopes.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/0022-0167.49.1.14
cou-49-1-14
2001-05923-002
APA PsycArticles
The Career Development of Mexican American Adolescent
Women: A Test of Social
Cognitive Career Theory
By: Lisa Y. Flores
Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University;
Karen M. O'Brien
Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College
Park
Acknowledgement: This study was based on the doctoral
dissertation of Lisa Y. Flores, which was
conducted under the direction of Michael J. Patton. An earlier
version of this article was presented at the
108th Annual Convention of the American Psychological
Association, Washington, DC, August 2000.
We thank Nancy Betz, Mary Heppner, and Fred Leong for
helpful feedback on earlier versions of this
article; Kristopher Preacher and Robert MacCallum for
statistical consultation; Jamilla Griffin and Jason
Quarantillo for assistance with coding data; and the students,
teachers, counselors, and administrators of
the participating schools.
Mexican American women constitute a significant portion of the
American population (U.S. Bureau of the

Census, 1996), are underrepresented at all levels of education
(Carter & Wilson, 1993; Lango, 1995;
McNeill et al., 2001; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1991), and are
overrepresented in low-paying
occupations traditionally occupied by women (Arbona, 1989;
Arbona & Novy, 1991; Ortiz, 1995).
Relatively little empirical research has been conducted to
identify the variables that contribute to the
educational and occupational underachievement of Mexican
American women. Indeed, researchers have
noted that the career development of Hispanics has received
only slight consideration in the counseling
and vocational literature (Arbona, 1990; Fouad, 1995; Hoyt,
1989; McNeill et al., 2001), and they have
questioned the generalizability of career development theories
to Hispanics (Arbona, 1990, 1995;
Fitzgerald & Betz, 1994; Hackett, Lent, & Greenhaus, 1991).
The purpose of this study was to investigate
the applicability of a current model of career choice to the
experiences of Mexican American adolescent
women and to extend the current model to incorporate variables
that are hypothesized to be salient to this
population.
It is well documented that Hispanics are the least educated
when compared with other major racial/ethnic
groups in the United States and that, among Hispanics, Mexican
Americans have the lowest high school
and college completion rates (47% and 6.5%, respectively; U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 1996). Mexican
American women are less likely to graduate from college than
their male counterparts (Ortiz, 1995;
Tinajero, Gonzalez, & Dick, 1991), and their representation in

higher education decreases significantly at
each successive level (Carter & Wilson, 1993). Moreover, those
Mexican American women who pursue
higher education confront many stressors and may experience
psychological distress as they seek to
reconcile their career aspirations with their familial and cultural
values (Niemann, 2001).
Education is related to occupational status, and thus, the
restricted employment status among Mexican
American women is not surprising given their low educational
attainment. Arbona (1989) reported that,
occupationally, Hispanic women were concentrated in low and
mid-level technical, service-oriented, and
clerical type jobs. According to Ortiz (1995), Mexican
American women were less likely to be
professionals or private business owners and earned less money
when compared with women from other
racial/ethnic groups and Mexican American men. Moreover,
Mexican American women who were in
professional occupations were more likely to choose traditional
and low-status occupations (Ortiz, 1995).
A review of the literature on Mexican American women
revealed inconsistencies between their
educational and vocational achievements and aspirations. For
example, Arbona and Novy (1991)
reported that the majority of Mexican American college women
in their study aspired to investigative and
enterprising type jobs. It is interesting that the percentage of
women who expected to enter these fields
was smaller than the percentage of women who aspired to these
careers, whereas the opposite was true
of those who aspired and expected to enter fields that have
typically represented traditional career
options for women. Other studies revealed that Mexican

American girls aspired to careers that required a
college degree and to obtaining a postsecondary education
(Hernandez, Vargas-Lew, & Martinez, 1994;
Valenzuela, 1993). Reyes, Kobus, and Gillock's (1999) study
indicated that 87% of the girls in a sample of
predominantly Mexican American 10th-grade students aspired
to nontraditional or male-dominated
careers. Clearly, a difference exists between Mexican American
women's educational and vocational
aspirations and their actual achieveme nts, suggesting that these
women may not be realizing their
educational and career potential.
Prior studies on the career development of Hispanics have
focused primarily on their educational and
career aspirations (Arbona & Novy, 1991; Hernandez et al.,
1994; Reyes et al., 1999) and the factors
postulated to be related to their educational success (Cardoza,
1991; Fisher & Padmawidjaja, 1999;
Gandara, 1982; Gillock & Reyes, 1999; Hess & D'Amato, 1996;
Keith & Lichtman, 1994; Lango, 1995;
Ramos & Sanchez, 1995; Rodriguez, 1996; Valenzuela, 1993;
Vasquez, 1982; Wycoff, 1996). Other
studies have examined the barriers that Hispanic students
anticipate in their educational and career
endeavors (Luzzo, 1992; McWhirter, 1997). The research to
date provides insight into the career
development of Hispanic individuals but contains limitations
that restrict its use.
First, several studies are descriptive in nature, and while helpful
in understanding patterns of behavior
with this group, they do not further knowledge regarding the

salient predictors of career behaviors.
Second, several studies included racially/ethnically diverse
samples (in which the number of Hispanics
were disproportionately small) or failed to report the ethnic
background of Hispanic participants. Because
of the educational and occupational differences between
racial/ethnic groups and among Hispanics,
investigating ethnically diverse subgroups individually seems
warranted (Arbona, 1995). Another
limitation of the existing studies is that many included both
women and men. Given differences in Mexican
American women's and men's educational attainment,
occupational status, and socialization within the
culture, women and men should be investigated separately to
understand the effects of cultural and
gender role socialization on career decisions. Finally, few
studies have assessed the influence of cultural
variables, such as acculturation, on Hispanics' career-related
behaviors (Arbona, 1995).
One notable exception to the research described above was a
study investigating the educational plans
and career expectations of Mexican American high school girls
(McWhirter, Hackett, & Bandalos, 1998).
McWhirter and her colleagues studied the utility of Farmer's
(1985) model of career commitment and
aspirations in explaining the educational planning and career
expectations of Mexican American
adolescent women. They extended Farmer's model by including
acculturation and perceived barriers in
their theoretical models. The results of this study indicated that
their models described the educational
and career plans of a sample of Mexican American girls;
however, only a modest amount of variance was
accounted for by the models. Thus, McWhirter et al. encouraged
researchers to include additional

variables when developing future models of the career
development of Mexican American adolescent
women. Moreover, McWhirter et al. suggested that Lent,
Brown, and Hackett's (1994) social cognitive
career theory had promise for advancing knowledge regarding
the career development of Mexican
American women.
Lent and his colleagues (Lent et al., 1994) extended Bandura's
(1986) social cognitive theory and Hackett
and Betz's (1981) career self-efficacy theory to develop a social
cognitive career theory (SCCT) that
hypothesized the influence of personal, contextual, and social
cognitive factors on interest formation,
career goals, and performance. Of interest in this study are the
propositions of SCCT that background
contextual variables exert an influence on career self-efficacy,
which in turn directly influences career
interests. In addition, Lent et al. posited that career interests
directly influence career goals and that
career self-efficacy both directly and indirectly (through career
interests) influences career goals. Finally,
proximal contextual variables were hypothesized to exert direct
effects on career goals (see Figure 1).
Lent and his colleagues suggested that SCCT may be used to
guide inquiry on the career development of
women and racial/ethnic minorities, and they recently advocated
for more research to test the hypotheses
related to the contextual variables in their model (Lent, Brown,
& Hackett, 2000). Recent studies provided
partial support for the model with racially diverse middle school
students (Fouad & Smith, 1996) as well
as Asian American (Tang, Fouad, & Smith, 1999) and Black

college students (Gainor & Lent, 1998);
however, no studies to date have investigated the validity of
SCCT with Mexican American adolescent
women.
Figure 1. Portions of Lent, Brown, and Hackett's (1994) model
of career choice tested in the present study
To test this theory, when operationalizing the constructs
advanced by Lent et al. (1994), we selected
variables that were hypothesized to be salient for racial/ethnic
minorities or women. Specifically, in our
model, we operationalized background contextual variables to
include acculturation level, feminist
attitudes, and mothers' modeling through educational attainment
and occupation. Multicultural
researchers have identified the importance of examining within-
group differences of racial and ethnic
subgroups, and Casas and Pytluk (1995) discussed acculturation
as one variable that differentiates
Hispanic subgroups or individuals within a subgroup. Moreover,
McWhirter et al. (1998) noted that
acculturation was the only variable that they added to Farmer's
(1985) model that accounted for
significant variance in the educational aspirations of Mexican
American girls. Other researchers also
documented that acculturation was positively related to
educational aspirations (Ramos & Sanchez,
1995), in addition to interest in nontraditional careers (Reyes et
al., 1999), college attendance (Hurtado &
Gauvain, 1997), and achievement styles (Gomez & Fassinger,
1994) among Hispanic students.
Other variables, specifically feminist and gender role attitudes,
have been shown to relate to the career
choices of young women (Betz, 1994; O'Brien & Fassinger,

1993), such that women with traditional
gender role attitudes exhibited lower levels of career orientation
and aspiration than women holding
liberal gender role attitudes. Among Mexican American girls,
nontraditional gender role attitudes were
positively related to higher levels of educational and career
expectations (McWhirter et al., 1998) and
academic achievement (Valenzuela, 1993; Vasquez-Nuttal,
Romero-Garcia, & De Leon, 1987). For
Mexican American women, cultural expectations about gender
roles may result in traditional gender role
attitudes or nonfeminist attitudes (Ginorio, Gutierrez, Cauce, &
Acosta, 1995; Reid, Haritos, Kelly, &
Holland, 1995), which in turn may contribute to lower levels of
career achievement.
In addition, parental factors, such as occupation and educational
level, were found to relate to academic
achievement and parental involvement in Mexican American
students' educational and career planning
(Keith & Lichtman, 1994). With regard to the influence of
mothers, having a mother who attended college
was predictive of college attendance and persistence among
Latinas (Cardoza, 1991). However, other
studies that assessed the role of parents' educational or
occupational attainment in children's educational
and career aspirations reported no relation (Fisher &
Padmawidjaja, 1999; Hernandez et al., 1994; Hess
& D'Amato, 1996; Lango, 1995; Reyes et al., 1999), possibly
because of the highly skewed number of
parents with lower educational and occupational levels in these
samples. The influence of mothers'
educational level and occupational traditionality were included

in the present study to determine their
influence on daughters' career development.
According to SCCT, these background variables were
hypothesized to influence nontraditional career
self-efficacy or confidence in pursuing nontraditional career -
related tasks for women (Lent et al., 1994). In
turn, nontraditional career self-efficacy should exert a direct
effect on both nontraditional career interests
and career goals (i.e., career choice prestige, career choice
traditionality, and career aspirations). Indeed,
these relations have been supported in prior studies, which
reported that career self-efficacy was related
to career interests and careers considered among Hispanic
students (Bores-Rangel, Church, Szendre, &
Reeves, 1990; Church, Teresa, Rosebrook, & Szendre, 1992;
Lauver & Jones, 1991). In addition,
research has shown that career interests were related to careers
considered among Hispanic students
(Bores-Rangel et al., 1990; Church et al., 1992). These findings
were consistent with SCCT, which
posited a direct link between career interests and career goals.
We also hypothesized, in accordance with SCCT (Lent et al.,
1994), that the proximal contextual variables
of perceived support from parents and perceptions of barriers
will influence career choice prestige,
traditionality, and career aspirations. Among Latinas,
encouragement and emotional support from families
have been found to be predictive of educational achievement
(Hernandez et al., 1994; Keith & Lichtman,
1994; Ramos & Sanchez, 1995) and college attendance
(Vasquez, 1982; Wycoff, 1996). With regard to
perceived barriers, Hispanic students reported experiencing
more barriers to education than students
from other racial/ethnic groups (Luzzo, 1992; McWhirter,

1997), and Mexican American women who
experienced negative family attitudes related to their college
attendance were more likely to attend
college close to home (Wycoff, 1996). McWhirter et al. (1998)
found no relation among perceived barriers
and Mexican American girls' educational or career plans.
However, they suggested that the influence of
perceived barriers on academic and vocational goals be further
tested with additional samples. It is
possible that Mexican American adolescent women's increased
levels of perceived barriers to their
educational or career goals may alter their decision making,
such that they plan to pursue careers that
present the least resistance.
In summary, this study was designed to test several tenets of
SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) with a sample of
Mexican American adolescent women. Specifically, we explored
the influence of background contextual
variables, namely, acculturation level, feminist attitudes,
mother's educational level, and mother's
occupational traditionality on nontraditional career self-
efficacy. Additionally, we investigated the
contributions of nontraditional career self-efficacy,
nontraditional career interests, parental support, and
perceived barriers to career choice prestige, career choice
traditionality, and career aspirations. These
dependent variables were selected because of their importance
to women's career development
(Fitzgerald, Fassinger, & Betz, 1995; O'Brien & Fassinger,
1993). A secondary purpose of this study was
to obtain descriptive information regarding participants'
demographic characteristics, career choices,

plans following high school graduation, choice of
colleges/universities, and reasons for choosing these
schools, given the lack of data regarding this population and
their career plans.
Method
Participants
Participants were Mexican American adolescent women enrolled
in their senior year of high school. At the
same time, Mexican American adolescent men were surveyed
for a later study. Participants were drawn
from two large public high schools in a mid-sized town (a
population of approximately 30,000) in south
Texas. The community is close to the United States–Mexican
border and is heavily influenced by the
Mexican culture. A high percentage of U.S. citizens who are of
Mexican descent live in this area, and this
is reflected in the student population at the high schools, in
which almost 95% of the students are
Mexican American.
A total of 931 surveys were distributed to students; 831 were
returned (450 female, 381 male), resulting in
an 89% overall return rate. Women who were in their senior
year of high school and who identified as
Mexican American were included in this study (n = 377). Of
these women, 13 were dropped from the
study because of incomplete data, resulting in a total sample of
364. Participants ranged in age from 16
to 21 years with a mean age of 17.47 (SD = 0.70). The average
number of people living at home was
4.83 (SD = 1.71; range = 2 to 13).
Eighteen percent of the students (n = 65) reported that they
were first-generation Mexican American, with

37.9% (n = 138) second generation, 11.3% (n = 41) third
generation, 19.2% (n = 70) fourth generation,
and 10.7% (n = 39) fifth generation. With regard to
acculturation level, 17% (n = 61) were categorized as
“very Mexican oriented,” 38% (n = 138) “Mexican oriented to
approximately balanced bicultural,” 34% (n =
123) “slightly Anglo oriented bicultural,” 10% (n = 37)
“strongly Anglo oriented,” and 1% (n = 5) “very
assimilated, Anglicized.”
The educational level of the female and male head of household,
respectively, was as follows: completed
elementary school, 24% and 21%; attended high school, 25%
and 23%; high school graduate, 19% and
21%; attended college/university, 14% and 12%;
college/university graduate, 10% and 12%; and graduate
or professional degree, 2% and 1%.
Eighty-seven percent (n = 317) of the students planned to attend
a 2- or 4-year college/university
following their high school graduation, with the remaining
students indicating plans to attend technical
school (5.5%), work (3.2%), enlist in the military (2.1%), and
marry or stay at home (0.5%). Among
students with intentions to continue their education at a 2- or 4-
year college/university, almost half (43.2%,
n = 137) reported that they would work either full time (1.9%, n
= 6) or part time (41.3%, n = 131). Over a
third (39.1%, n = 124) planned to attend the local 4-year
university, and 19.2% (n = 61) planned to attend
the local 2-year community college. The most often cited
reasons for choosing to attend the college or
university of their choice were because it was close to home and
family (36.5%, n = 116), had a good
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program of study (10.7%, n = 34), was a good college/university
(6.9%, n = 22), and was affordable or
inexpensive to attend (4.1%, n = 13). Sixty-eight percent (n =
214) indicated that they would rely on
financial aid (e.g., loans, grants, and work study) to finance
their education, whereas 31.5% (n = 100)
hoped to earn scholarships, 26.5% (n = 84) planned to receive
financial support from their parents or
other family members, and 25% (n = 78) planned to work.
Procedure
Data collection occurred during the fall semester of the school
year. Student participation was solicited
through English IV classes because every senior was required to
enroll in this class. Data collection
occurred across 4 days, and Lisa Y. Flores met with every
English IV section (n = 46) at both schools.
English teachers escorted their students to a central room at the
beginning of the class period and stayed
to monitor students' behaviors.
Packets containing an informed-assent form, an entry form for
cash prizes, and the research instruments
were distributed to students as they entered the room. The
questionnaires were counterbalanced to avoid
order effects from fatigue. Participants were told that the
investigator was interested in studying the career
development of Mexican American adolescents. Students were
told that it would take them most, if not
all, of the class period to complete the questionnaires and were

encouraged to work quickly. The
investigator told the students that two of the surveys looked
very similar (each listed the same
occupations and educational programs), but these surveys asked
students to rate either interests or skills.
Students were informed of a possible follow-up study and were
invited to participate in future studies. As
an incentive to participate in the study, students who completed
and returned the surveys were eligible for
a random drawing for cash prizes (10 prizes for $20 and 1 prize
for $50).
Instruments
Acculturation level
The Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans
(ARSMA–II; Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995)
was a 30-item scale that assessed association with and identity
with the Mexican and Anglo cultures on
two independent subscales. Participants responded to the items
using a 5-point scale ranging from not at
all (1) to extremely often or almost always (5). An acculturation
score was calculated by subtracting the
mean score for items on the Anglo Orientation Subscale (AOS)
from the mean score for items on the
Mexican Orientation Subscale (MOS). On the basis of their
acculturation score, participants were
categorized into one of the five acculturation levels described
by Cuellar et al. (1995). Levels range from
very Mexican oriented (1) to very assimilated (5). Middle
categories represented bicultural individuals.
Thus, high scores were indicative of a strong orientation toward
the Anglo culture.
The ARSMA–II, as well as prior to its revision, the ARSMA, is
one of the most widely used measures to

assess acculturation among Mexican Americans, and evidence
suggests that it is a reliable and valid
instrument. Adequate internal consistency coefficients have
been reported for the two subscales with
multiple samples (range from .79 to .83 for the AOS and .87 to
.91 for the MOS; Cuellar et al., 1995;
Cuellar & Roberts, 1997; Lessenger, 1997). Reliability
coefficients of .77 for the AOS and .91 for the MOS
were obtained in the present study.
Cuellar and his colleagues also reported a test–retest reliability
estimate for the AOS and MOS over a 2-
week interval of .94 and .96, respectively. Concurrent validity
was assessed by comparing scores on the
ARSMA–II with scores on the ARSMA and yielded a
correlation coefficient of .89. Concurrent validity for
the ARSMA–II was further supported when its two subscales
correlated in the expected direction with the
dominant group and ethnic group subscales of the Stephenson
Multigroup Acculturation Scale
(Stephenson, 2000). Lessenger (1997) provided additional
support for concurrent validity when she
reported that acculturation scores on the ARSMA–II correlated
positively with other acculturation
measures. Construct validity was supported when acculturation
scores on the ARSMA–II were compared
across generations, and differences were found between
generation levels in the expected directions
(Cuellar et al., 1995; Lessenger, 1997).
Feminist attitudes
The Attitudes Toward Feminism and the Women's Movement
Scale (FWM; Fassinger, 1994) was used to

measure feminist attitudes. The FWM is a 10-item scale that
assessed attitudes about the feminist
movement. Participants rated their agreement with the items
along a 5-point scale ranging from strongly
disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Scale scores were obtained by
averaging the items; high scores reflect
profeminist attitudes.
Fassinger (1994) reported that the FWM had high internal
consistency (α = .89), and O'Brien and
Fassinger (1993) reported an internal reliability coefficient of
.82 for the FWM with a sample of adolescent
women. Cronbach's alpha for this sample was .68. Enns and
Hackett (1990) reported a 2-week test–
retest reliability coefficient of .81 with female college students.
Convergent validity for the FWM was
supported when the FWM was positively correlated with
measures assessing attitudes toward women,
gender roles, and feminism (Enns & Hackett, 1990; Fassinger,
1994). In addition, the FWM correlated
positively with items assessing feminist identification and
favorability toward the women's movement
(Fassinger, 1994). Finally, Enns and Hackett (1990) reported
that the FWM correlated in the expected
directions with both interest and involvement in feminist
activities. Divergent validity estimates revealed
that the FWM was not measuring gender role characteristics,
dogmatism, and social desirability
(Fassinger, 1994).
Mother's level of education
A single item asked participants to indicate the highest level of
education completed by their mother.
Options ranged from elementary school to graduate/professional
school. High scores represented high

levels of education.
Mother's occupational traditionality
An item asked participants to indicate their mother's
occupation, which was later categorized according to
traditionality. Traditionality of mother's career was computed
on the basis of the percentage of women
employed in a given career and was obtained through the
Statistical Abstract of the United States (1998),
a publication of the U.S. Bureau of the Census. The U.S. Census
Bureau relies on information from the
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and Employment and Earnings
to report these data. Scores ranged from 6
to 99, with high scores representing careers with high
concentrations of women. This indicator of career
orientation has been used in previous studies of women's career
development (O'Brien, 1996; O'Brien &
Fassinger, 1993; O'Brien, Friedman, Tipton, & Linn, 2000).
Nontraditional career self-efficacy
Self-efficacy expectations with regard to nontraditional
occupations were assessed using a short form of
the occupational self-efficacy questionnaire used by Church et
al. (1992). The self-efficacy questionnaire
used in this study was comparable with career self-efficacy
measures used by Betz and Hackett (1981)
and Lauver and Jones (1991). The original occupational
questionnaire contained a total of 31 occupations
for which participants rated their confidence in their ability to
successfully learn to perform the job. The
nontraditional career self-efficacy scale used for this study was

modified to include seven male-dominated
occupations (e.g., electronic equipment repairer, police officer,
mechanical engineer). Occupations were
categorized according to the percentage of women in the
occupation according to U.S. census data (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 1998). A brief description of the
occupation was provided for each job title.
Participants were asked to rate their confidence in their ability
and skills to successfully learn to do the
jobs. Participants responded to the items using a scale ranging
from very unsure (1) to very sure (4).
Although studies typically use 5-point scales to measure
strength of self-efficacy, we followed the
reasoning of Bores-Rangel et al. (1990), whose sample
predominantly consisted of Hispanic students,
that students may dependably and meaningfully discriminate
these four bipolar levels. Occupational self-
efficacy scores for male-dominated occupations were obtained
by averaging the responses to the items.
High scores reflected strong levels of nontraditional career self-
efficacy.
Church et al. (1992) reported an internal consistency reliability
of .95 for the 31-item self-efficacy scale
with a sample of predominantly Hispanic racial/ethnic minority
high school students. Convergent validity
was supported with a sample of Mexican American boys when
nontraditional career self-efficacy was
positively related to nontraditional career interests,
consideration of nontraditional careers, and selection
of careers dominated by men (Flores, 2000). Divergent validity
estimates indicated that nontraditional
career self-efficacy was not related to acculturation or feminist
attitudes (Flores, 2000). Church et al.
reported that the self-efficacy scale was not measuring aptitude.

An alpha coefficient of .81 for the short
version of the nontraditional self-efficacy scale was obtained in
the present study.
Nontraditional career interests
Students' nontraditional occupational interests were assessed
using the same male-dominated
occupations on the nontraditional career self-efficacy scale.
Participants were asked to indicate their
interest in the jobs listed on a scale ranging from dislike (1) to
like (3); this scale is similar to ones used in
other career interest inventories. Scoring the nontraditional
career interests scale consisted of summing
the items and dividing by the number of items to obtain a mean
score. High scores reflected strong levels
of interest for the nontraditional or male-dominated
occupations.
Church et al. (1992) reported an internal consistency reliability
of .86 for the 31-item interest scale with a
sample comprising mainly Hispanic students. Construct validity
was supported when the original scale
correlated positively with another interest measure (Church et
al., 1992). In addition, among a group of
Mexican American boys, it correlated positively with
nontraditional career self-efficacy, consideration of
nontraditional careers, and choice of nontraditional careers,
providing support for convergent validity
(Flores, 2000). It was not related to feminist attitudes (Flores,
2000). Cronbach's alpha was .74 for the
present study.
Parental support

The Career Support Scale (CSS; Binen, Franta, & Thye, 1995)
was used to assess the amount of
perceived support and encouragement that participants received
in their career pursuits from their
parents. The CSS was adapted by assessing support from both
parents concurrently rather than
individually and by reducing the number of items (10 items that
were cross-listed on both Mother and
Father subscales were retained). Sample items included “My
parents agree with my career goals” and
“My parents and I often discuss my career plans.” Participants
responded to the 10 items using a 5-point
scale ranging from almost never (1) to almost always (5). Scale
scores were obtained by averaging the
items. High scores reflected strong levels of perceived support
from parents.
Reliability estimates were .87 for the 22-item Mother–CSS and
.90 for the 18-item Father–CSS (Binen et
al., 1995). Internal consistency for the modified CCS used in
the present study was .76. Discriminant
validity estimates indicated that the Mother and Father
subscales were not significantly correlated with
social desirability (Binen et al., 1995).
Perceived occupational barriers
The Perceptions of Barriers scale (POB; McWhirter, 1997) was
a 24-item scale that assessed ethnic and
gender-related occupational and educational barriers. Because
the present study assessed career choice
goals, only those items of the POB that measured participants'
job-related barriers were included. Eight
items, which assessed anticipated future gender and ethnic
discrimination in the workplace, were used for

this study. Individuals responded to the items using a scale
ranging from strongly agree (1) to strongly
disagree (5). Scale scores were derived by averaging the
responses. High scores reflected low
anticipation of gender or ethnic discrimination in a career.
McWhirter (1997) reported an alpha coefficient of .89 for the
job discrimination items, and a reliability
estimate of .91 was obtained with the present sample. Construct
validity was supported when McWhirter
(1997) found significant differences in anticipated job
discrimination between Mexican American and
European American students, boys and girls, and Mexican
American girls and European American girls in
the expected directions.
Career choice prestige and traditionality
Participants were asked to list their top three career choices.
The traditionality rating of the top career
choice was obtained with the same procedure for mothers'
occupational traditionality.
Career choice prestige was determined on the basis of Stevens
and Featherman's (1981) socioeconomic
index of occupational status. Scores ranged from 13 to 89, with
high scores indicating prestigious
careers. This indicator of career choice has been used in
previous studies of women's and racial/ethnic
minorities' career development (O'Brien, 1996; O'Brien &
Fassinger, 1993; O'Brien et al., 2000; Tang et
al., 1999).
Career aspiration

The Career Aspiration Scale (CAS; O'Brien, 1992) contained 10
items that assessed participants' goals
and plans within their career field. Example items included “I
plan on developing as an expert in my
career field” and “I do not plan on devoting energy in getting
promoted in the organization or business I
am working in.” Participants indicated whether the items
applied to them by using a 5-point scale ranging
from not at all true of me (0) to very true of me (4). Scale
scores were derived by calculating the mean
score for the items. High scores indicated strong aspirations in
one's career pursuits.
Internal consistency of the CAS has been reported as .76
(O'Brien & Fassinger, 1993) with female high
school students and .77 (Dukstein & O'Brien, 1994) and .80
(Nauta, Epperson, & Kahn, 1998) with female
undergraduate students. In the present study, a reliability
coefficient of .61 was obtained. Converge nt
validity for the CAS was supported by relations with multiple
role self-efficacy, career decision-making
self-efficacy, and career salience (O'Brien, Gray, Tourajdi, &
Eigenbrode, 1996). Discriminant validity was
demonstrated through the absence of relations between the CAS
and social desirability, as well as a
negative relation between the CAS and a measure of the relative
importance of career versus family
(O'Brien et al., 1996).
Demographic information
A demographic information survey was included to obtain age,
gender, race/ethnicity, grade level, number
of people living at home, family income, plans following high
school graduation, parents' level of

education, and parents' occupations. If participants were
planning to continue their education following
high school, information regarding their major of study, choice
of college/university to attend, sources of
financial support for education, and reasons for choosing the
college/university was obtained.
Results
The means, standard deviations, ranges, and reliability
coefficients for each of the measured variables,
along with a correlation matrix, are presented for the full
sample in Table 1.
Means, Standard Deviations, Ranges, Reliability Coefficients,
and Correlations Among the Measured
Variables
Model Predicting Mexican American Adolescent Women's
Career Choice Prestige
The original sample of 364 Mexican American young women
was randomly split into two samples. A
sample consisting of 262 women was used to test the original
models, and a validation sample consisting
of 102 women was set aside for confirmation purposes in the
case that any of the models were revised. A
path analysis was conducted using the EQS (Version 5.7)
statistical package (Bentler & Wu, 1995).

The hypothesized model predicting career choice prestige tested
the paths from acculturation level,
feminist attitudes, mothers' educational level, and mothers'
occupational traditionality to nontraditional
career self-efficacy; nontraditional career self-efficacy to
nontraditional career interests; and nontraditional
career self-efficacy, nontraditional career interests, parental
support, and perceived future barriers to
career choice prestige. The exogenous variables, which included
the background and proximal contextual
variables, in the model were allowed to covary.
Adequacy of model fit was determined by using a variety of
goodness-of-fit measures, including the chi-
square test, the comparative fit index (CFI), the goodness-of-fit
index (GFI), the root-mean-square error of
approximation (RMSEA), and the standardized root-mean-
squared residual (SRMR). The CFI and
RMSEA goodness-of-fit measures are preferred indexes by
which to assess model fit (Loehlin, 1998).
If a model provides adequate fit, a small chi-square value and a
nonsignificant p value are expected.
Values for the CFI and GFI indexes range from 0 to 1; models
with values above .90 have traditionally
been considered models with good fit (Loehlin, 1998); however,
values of .95 and higher are suggested
today as the baseline to assess model fit. Models with RMSEA
and SRMR values around or below .05
(“close fit”) are considered acceptable models (Loehlin, 1998).
To further test the adequacy of the model,
Hu and Bentler (1999) recommended joint criteria to minimize
the dual threats of rejecting the right model
and retaining the wrong model. Specifically, a model can be
retained if the CFI is .96 and the SRMR is
≤.10, or the RMSEA is ≤.06 and SRMR is ≤.10. See Table 2 for

a summary of the goodness-of-fit indices
for the career prestige model.
Summary of Model-Fit Statistics
The chi-square statistic for the model predicting career choice
prestige was significant, suggesting a poor
fit. However, given that the chi-square statistic is overly
stringent in its evaluation of exact fit (Quintana &
Maxwell, 1999), other indexes were studied. Examination of the
CFI, RMSEA, and SRMR indexes implied
that the data fit the model poorly, indicating that the fit between
the data and model could be improved.
Thus, the model was rejected.
We attempted to identify modifications to the model to improve
the fit of the model and followed the
suggestions of MacCallum, Roznowski, and Necowitz (1992)
that changes be made only when they are
theoretically meaningful. The Lagrange multiplier test
suggested that the model could be improved by
adding paths from acculturation level and feminist attitudes to
career choice prestige. The influence of
acculturation level on career choice prestige was consistent with
prior research, which indicated that
among racial/ethnic minorities in the United States, levels of
acculturation can directly and indirectly
influence career choice and career expectations (Leong & Chou,
1994; McWhirter et al., 1998; Tang et
al., 1999). Adding the path from feminist attitudes to career
choice prestige was justified on the basis of
prior research that supported the relation between feminist
attitudes (Fassinger, 1990; O'Brien &
Fassinger, 1993) and career outcomes, such as educational

achievement or career choices.
The model was rerun with these changes, and the fit indexes
indicated a superior fit to the data (see
Table 2 for a summary of the fit indexes for the initial and
revised model predicting career choice
prestige). Comparing the chi-square statistic for the initial and
the revised models allows a determination
of whether the modifications resulted in significant
improvement in the model's fit (Quintana & Maxwell,
1999). The revised model was a significant improvement over
the initial model, χ difference(2, N = 262) =
39.94, p < .01.
Because revisions were made to the original model and because
modifications were based on data from
the calibration sample, it was necessary to validate the revised
model using the second sample. The
modified model was run with the validation sample, and the fit
indexes with this group were satisfactory
2
(see Table 2). To determine whether the corresponding paths
had the same values across both groups,
we performed a multiple group analysis with Group 1 as the
calibration sample (n = 262) and Group 2 as
the validation sample (n = 102). This analysis runs the model
simultaneously for both groups and follows
a two-step procedure. First, the revised model was tested and
the path values were estimated for each
group. Next, we tested the revised model again with all paths
constrained to have equal values across
both groups. A comparison of the chi-square statistic for the

multiple group analysis with no constraints
and the multiple group analysis with constraints determines
whether these models were significantly
different. If the chi-square difference between the constrained
and nonconstrained models is significant,
the path coefficients differ across samples. The model
predicting career prestige resulted in a
nonsignificant chi-square value, χ (11, N = 364) = 24.95, p >
.05, indicating that the paths values were not
significantly different across the two groups. Thus, the modified
model was replicated satisfactorily with
the two samples of Mexican American adolescent women,
providing support for the revised model. Table
3 presents the results of the multigroup comparisons for the
model predicting career choice prestige.
Summary of Multigroup Analyses Between Split Sample of
Mexican American Adolescent Women
The next step involved running the revised model using the
combined sample of 364 Mexican American
adolescent women given that the model was replicated for both
groups. See Table 2 for a summary of the
fit indexes. The squared multiple correlation coefficient (R )
was obtained by squaring the residual
coefficient of the criterion variable and subtracting that value
by 1. The R for the model of career prestige
indicated that 8% of the variance in career choice prestige was
accounted for by acculturation level,
feminist attitudes, nontraditional career self-efficacy,
nontraditional career interests, parental support, and
perception of future barriers. See Figure 2 for the revised model
predicting Mexican American girls' career
choice prestige.
2

2
2
Figure 2. Respecified model predicting Mexican American
adolescent women's career choice prestige. *p
< .05
Career Choice Traditionality
The hypothesized model predicting career choice traditionality
tested the same paths identified in the
career prestige model, except that career choice traditionality
was used as the criterion variable. The
contextual variables in the model were allowed to covary.
The chi-square statistic for the model predicting career choice
traditionality was significant, suggesting
that the model demonstrated poor fit. Examination of the CFI,
RMSEA, and SRMR implied a poor fit with
the data; however, the GFI indicated an adequate fit. On the
basis of Hu and Bentler's (1999) criteria, the
model of career choice traditionality was rejected.
Again, attempts were made to identify modifications to the
model based on suggestions that were
theoretically sound. Adding paths from acculturation level and
feminist attitudes to career choice
traditionality were suggested by the Lagrange multiplier, and
these additions were justified on the basis of
previous research (Fassinger, 1990; Leong & Chou, 1994;
McWhirter et al., 1998; O'Brien & Fassinger,
1993; Tang et al., 1999) that found relations among

acculturation levels, feminist attitudes, and career
choice.
The model was rerun with the modifications and the fit indices
improved (see Table 2 for a summary of
the fit indexes for the initial and revised model predicting
career choice traditionality). The values on the
CFI and GFI exceeded .95, and the RMSEA and SRMR values
were less than .05. Further, the revised
model met Hu and Bentler's (1999) recommended criteria for
model acceptance. The chi-square
difference test indicated that the revised model was a significant
improvement over the initial model, χ
difference(2, N = 262) = 25.04, p < .01.
Consistent with the previous method of analysis, the revised
model predicting career choice traditionality
was tested on the validation sample. On the basis of the fit
indexes (see Table 2), the revised model was
supported with this sample. We performed a multiple group
analysis to determine if the path coefficients
2
in the modified model predicting career choice traditionality
could be replicated in the second sample. The
chi-square difference between the constrained and
nonconstrained models resulted in a nonsignificant
chi-square value, χ (11, N = 364) = 6.25, p > .05, indicating that
the values for the paths were not
significantly different across the two groups. Thus, the revised
model and the corresponding path values
were validated with the validation sample. Table 3 presents the
results of the multiple group comparisons

for the model predicting career choice traditionality.
Because the model was replicated with an independent sample,
the calibration and validation samples
were combined, and the revised model was run using the full
sample. See Table 2 for a summary of the fit
indexes. The squared multiple correlation coefficient in the
revised model of career traditionality indicated
that 11% of the variance in career choice traditional ity was
accounted for by acculturation level, feminist
attitudes, nontraditional career self-efficacy, nontraditional
career interests, parental support, and
perception of future barriers. See Figure 3 for the revised model
predicting Mexican American girls' career
choice traditionality.
adolescent women's career choice
traditionality. *p < .05
Career Aspiration
The hypothesized model predicting career aspiration tested the
same paths identified in the previous
models, except that career aspiration was used as the criterion
variable. The exogenous variables in the
model were allowed to covary.
The chi-square statistic for the model predicting career
aspirations was significant, suggesting that the
model demonstrated poor fit. Examination of the CFI, RMSEA,
and SRMR fit indexes indicated a poor fit
with the data; however, the GFI indicated adequate fit. By using
Hu and Bentler's (1999) criteria, the
original model was rejected.

Respecifications to the model were suggested on the basis of the
Lagrange multiplier modification index.
The addition of a path from feminist attitudes to career
aspiration was suggested and was supported by
2
prior research (Fassinger, 1990; O'Brien & Fassinger, 1993).
The revised model was reestimated and the fit indices improved
(see Table 2 for a summary of the fit
indexes for the initial and revised model predicting career
aspiration). Examination of the chi-square
differences between the two models indicated that the revised
model was an improvement over the initial
model, χ difference(1, N = 262) = 23.29, p < .01.
The revised model was estimated on the validation sample, and
the fit indexes (see Table 2) suggested
that this model adequately fit the data. We performed a multiple
group analysis to determine if the path
values in the modified model predicting career aspiration would
generalize to other samples in the
population. The chi-square difference between the constrained
and nonconstrained models resulted in a
nonsignificant chi-square value, χ (11, N = 364) = 8.60, p > .05,
indicating that the values of the paths
were not significantly different across the two groups. Thus, the
revised model and the path coefficients
were supported with the validation sample. Table 3 presents the
results of the multiple group comparisons
for the model predicting career aspiration.
Again, both of the samples were combined, and a path analysis

of the revised model was performed
using the full sample. See Table 2 for a summary of the fit
indexes. The squared multiple correlation
coefficient for the model of career aspiration indicated that 13%
of the variance in career aspiration was
accounted for by feminist attitudes, nontraditional career self-
efficacy, nontraditional career interests,
parental support, and perception of future barriers. See Figure 4
for the revised model predicting Mexican
American girls' career aspiration.
adolescent women's career aspirations. *p <
.05
There were no significant paths between the background
contextual variables of acculturation level,
feminist attitudes, mothers' educational level, mothers'
occupational traditionality, and nontraditional
career self-efficacy. Nontraditional career self-efficacy
predicted nontraditional career interests in all
models; however, nontraditional career interests did not predict
any of the three criterion variables of
2
2
career choice prestige, career choice traditionality, or career
aspiration. Acculturation, nontraditional
career self-efficacy, parental support, and perceived barriers
had significant effects on career choice
prestige. Acculturation level and feminist attitudes had a
significant positive effect, and nontraditional

career self-efficacy had a significant negative effect, on choice
of traditional careers, but parental support
and perceived barriers had no significant effects. Finally, higher
parental support and higher levels of
feminist attitudes were predictive of higher levels of career
aspiration. Nontraditional career self-efficacy
and perceived barriers did not significantly predict Mexican
American women's career aspirations.
Descriptive Statistics
A wide range of careers, representing both traditional and
nontraditional occupational fields, were
identified as potential careers for this sample. The top two
occupations endorsed by these women were
traditionally female occupations (teacher = 16% and nurse =
11.3%). Eleven percent intended to be
doctors, and over 6% chose physical therapy as their future
occupation. A total of 76 occupations were
reported. (Contact Lisa Y. Flores for a complete list.)
Discussion
This study was the first to test the validity of SCCT (Lent et al.,
1994) in explaining the career-related
goals of Mexican American adolescent women. Consistent with
SCCT, nontraditional career self-efficacy
predicted nontraditional career interests. In addition,
nontraditional career self-efficacy had a positive
effect on career choice prestige and a negative effect on career
choice traditionality. As hypothesized by
Lent et al., the proximal contextual variables of parental support
and perceived future occupational
barriers directly predicted career choice prestige, and parental
support was predictive of career
aspiration.

However, several SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) propositions were
not supported by data from this sample of
Mexican American women. Specifically, relations did not
emerge between the background contextual
variables (i.e., acculturation level, feminist attitudes, mothers'
educational level, and mothers'
occupational traditionality) and nontraditional career self-
efficacy. Interestingly, nontraditional career
interests did not exert an influence on any of the outcome
variables tested in this study. Moreover, the
proximal contextual variables did not influence career
traditionality, and nontraditional career self-efficacy
did not predict career aspiration.
Finally, although not posited by SCCT, adding paths from
acculturation level and feminist attitudes to
career choice prestige and career choice traditionality were
suggested based on the data and increased
the amount of variance explained in each model. Also, the
addition of the path from feminist attitudes to
career aspiration improved the model explaining Mexican
American adolescent women's career
aspirations.
Explication of potential reasons why several SCCT (Lent et al.,
1994) propositions were not replicated in
this sample of Mexican American women seems warranted.
First, support for the SCCT hypotheses
related to the formation of self-efficacy beliefs was not
demonstrated by our models. Specifically, SCCT
hypothesized that background contextual variables would have
an indirect effect on nontraditional career

self-efficacy through learning activities. Although learning
opportunities were not measured in this study,
contextual factors would be expected to exert an influence on
career self-efficacy, assuming their
relationship to learning opportunities. However, acculturation
level, feminist attitudes, mothers'
educational attainment, and mothers' career traditionality did
not predict nontraditional career self-
efficacy. These findings suggested that other contextual
variables, not assessed in the present study, may
account for the variance in Mexican American women's
nontraditional career self-efficacy. Researchers
might investigate the contributions of related academic and
social experiences, persuasion, and familial
expectations in future models to account for the role of learning
experiences in the development of
Mexican American women's nontraditional career self-efficacy.
With regard to acculturation and nontraditional self-efficacy,
previous research demonstrated a relation
between these variables with another racial/ethnic minority
group (Tang et al., 1999). The nonsignificant
relation with this sample may be due to defining acculturation
level along a single continuum and the
distribution of the sample, which was overwhelmingly bicultural
(n = 237). Future studies should conduct
multisample analyses on the basis of acculturation level to
determine if differences are present among
nonacculturated, bicultural, and highly acculturated individuals.
Feminist attitudes also were not related to nontraditional career
self-efficacy, a finding that has been

consistently reported in samples of predominantly White women
(O'Brien, 1996; O'Brien & Fassinger,
1993). It is possible that the lack of variability in scores on the
measure assessing feminist values made
detecting a relation with career self-efficacy difficult.
Alternatively, feminist beliefs may not be salient for
this sample of Mexican American women, perhaps demonstrated
by mean scores in the mid-range on
this instrument. At times, the feminist movement has been
criticized for focusing on the needs and values
of White women (Espin, 1994). It is possible that moderate
beliefs about feminism combined with little
variability in scores on this measure may have contributed to
the lack of predictive validity of this variable
with regard to confidence in pursuing nontraditional
occupations.
In addition to acculturation and feminist attitudes not predicting
nontraditional career self-efficacy,
mothers' educational level and mothers' career traditionality did
not influence confidence in pursuing
nontraditional occupations. There may be other factors in the
mother–daughter relationship that influence
the strength of the relation to nontraditional career self-
efficacy. Indeed, O'Brien et al. (1996) found that
high school girls' relationships with their mothers often
included conflictual feelings. These feelings could
affect mothers' influence on their daughters' career decision
making. Future research studies should
assess the quality of mother–daughter relationships to ascertain
the predictive ability of mothers'
influence on daughters' career self-efficacy. Alternatively, these
girls may have looked to their fathers for
career role modeling, a finding reported by O'Brien et al.
(2000). Seeking other family members for career
role modeling may be common among Mexican American girls,

especially because Mexican American
women tend to be employed in traditional career fields. Indeed,
over a third of this sample reported that
their mothers were homemakers. Thus, we suggest that future
studies also assess the influence of
additional role models beyond mothers, including fathers, aunts,
uncles, grandparents, siblings, and
peers.
An additional SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) proposition that was not
supported was the hypothesized relation
between nontraditional career self-efficacy and career
aspiration. Although nontraditional career self-
efficacy appears to exert an influence on the types of careers
Mexican American adolescent women
choose, this construct did not contribute to their aspiration or
goals within a given career. Programs that
expose Mexican American women to nontraditional careers and
provide opportunities for increased self-
efficacy in performing tasks associated with nontraditional
occupations could enhance the relation
between self-efficacy and aspiration and perhaps increase the
number of Mexican American adolescent
women who develop interests in and choose nontraditional,
prestigious careers (see O'Brien, Dukstein,
Jackson, Tomlinson, & Kamatuka, 1999, for an example of a
career intervention). Moreover, O'Brien and
her colleagues suggested that educational and career planning
occur far in advance of graduation from
high school. Indeed, prior research recommended the
implementation and evaluation of career-oriented
workshops, classes, or summer programs with middle school
and high school students who are at risk for
educational and vocational underachievement (O'Brien et al.,

1999; O'Brien et al., 2000). Fouad (1995)
noted the need for such interventions to focus specifically on
Hispanic students. Programs that demystify
the college experience, improve decision-making skills, and
assist participants in learning about
themselves, colleges/universities, and careers could enhance
career self-efficacy.
Also, the SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) proposition that career
interests influence career goals was not
supported by our data; a similar finding was reported with
Asian American college students (Tang et al.,
1999). For this sample of Mexican American women, factors
other than interests, such as confidence in
their abilities to carry out the duties of the career, had a
stronger influence on career goals. Alternatively, it
is possible that Mexican American adolescent women may not
have the luxury of choosing a career
based on their interests. If this finding is replicated in other
samples, we recommend that Lent et al.
consider revising their proposition to reflect the lack of salience
of interests in predicting the career paths
of women of color. Moreover, psychologists might reconsider
the use of a traditional approach to career
counseling with Mexican American women, as other factors
beyond matching interests and careers may
be stronger determinants to their career decisions. Counselors
also need to assess if career choices are
consonant with interests, and if not, they should explore the
obstacles that may be preventing them from
pursuing careers in which they have interests.
Finally, modifications to the model suggested that acculturation
level significantly influenced the selection
of nontraditional, highly prestigious careers, and feminist
attitudes was a significant predictor of career

traditionality and career aspiration. Women who were more
oriented toward the Anglo culture tended to
choose less prestigious and more traditional careers. Also,
women with higher levels of feminist attitudes
were more likely to choose traditional careers and have higher
career aspiration. These relations were
contrary to prior research that suggested that nontraditional
gender role attitudes were positively related
to Mexican American women's educational and career choices
(McWhirter et al., 1998; Valenzuela, 1993;
Vasquez-Nuttal et al., 1987). One possible explanation for these
findings is that acculturated women may
be aware of the sociopolitical atmosphere for women in
workplaces that are dominated by men and thus
may choose to avoid those careers. Results also indicated that
women who ascribed to feminist beliefs
were more likely to be goal oriented within their chosen career.
Indeed, O'Brien et al. (2000) reported this
same phenomenon among a sample of White college women and
suggested that women may choose
nontraditional, less prestigious careers to balance personal and
work demands, yet may desire to achieve
within their career. As such, it is reasonable to expect that these
adolescents may perceive more
opportunities for advancement in traditional careers for women.
Several of Lent et al.'s (1994) propositions were supported by
our data. First, nontraditional career self-
efficacy was found to have a direct influence on Mexican
American women's nontraditional career
interests, career prestige, and career traditionality. As
nontraditional career self-efficacy increased,
nontraditional career interests also increased. Furthermore,

higher levels of nontraditional career self-
efficacy were related to the selection of nontraditional and
prestigious careers. These findings support the
SCCT propositions that people develop interests in areas in
which they have a strong sense of agency,
and they select careers in which they feel confident about their
ability to complete the tasks necessary for
the career.
Second, results of the present study provided empirical support
for Lent et al.'s (1994) proposition that the
presence of support and few perceived barriers has a positive
effect on career goals. Mexican American
adolescent women who perceived support from their parents for
their career pursuits and who anticipated
fewer barriers chose prestigious careers, and women who
perceived their parents to be supportive of
their career goals had stronger levels of career aspiration. This
finding contradicts an earlier study that
found that perceptions of barriers were not predictive of the
career expectations of Mexican American
girls (McWhirter et al., 1998) and replicates those studies that
found that emotional support from the
family was predictive of educational plans and career
expectations (Gandara, 1982; Hernandez et al.,
1994; Keith & Lichtman, 1994; Ramos & Sanchez, 1995;
Vasquez, 1982; Wycoff, 1996).
These findings suggest that Mexican American adolescent
women may choose highly prestigious careers
on the basis of the approval of others or their family
obligations. Indeed, with the exception of feminist
attitudes, parental support contributed more to the prediction of
Mexican American women's selection of
prestigious careers than any other variable assessed in this
study. These findings are important given the

emphasis placed on the family unit in the Mexican American
culture and are consistent with vocational
decision-making behaviors among Asian Americans, a group
who similarly place a high value on family
(Leong & Gim, 1995; Leong & Serafica, 1995). Mexican
American women from traditional families may
not have the support to pursue nontraditional educational and
vocational aspirations if they conflict with
cultural norms and family expectations. Counselors should
address these factors when working with
Mexican American women.
These findings highlight the salience of addressing cultural and
familial expectations when providing
career counseling to Mexican American women. Furthermore,
counseling psychologists should be
encouraged to develop innovative career intervention programs
for Mexican American adolescents that
involve parents and other family members. Parental involvement
in vocational interventions could
facilitate the lines of communication between children and their
parents about career development and
job requirements, which could assist students in planning for
their future. Moreover, parents and children
could clarify the expectations and dreams that each holds
regarding educational and career attainment.
Researching the effectiveness of these programs in students'
educational and career planning is strongly
recommended.
The importance of family also was reflected in the educational
goals of these young women. Most of the
participants who planned to continue their education beyond

high school indicated that they would enroll
in the local 2-year community college or 4-year state university.
Indeed, students reported that the
proximity of the college/university to home was one of the most
important factors in choosing a
college/university. Remaining geographically close to their
families while attending college seems to be a
salient consideration in the educational planning of Mexican
American women. It is unknown, however,
whether these young women choose to stay close to home
because of familial expectations or personal
preferences. It is also unclear whether this choice provides
needed support to pursue their educational
and career aspirations or if their future opportunities are limited
by this decision. Research is needed to
understand how attending college in the same hometown
facilitates or hinders attrition and graduation
rates as well as the career orientation of Mexican American
women.
Future researchers should also consider incorporating additional
variables not included in the SCCT (Lent
et al., 1994) model of career choice given that the hypothesized
models only accounted for 8%, 11%, and
13% of the variance in the prediction of prestige, traditionality,
and career aspiration, respectively.
Because the proximal contextual variable of support contributed
to Mexican American women's career
choice prestige and career aspirations, consideration of other
contextual variables that may contribute to
their career goals is warranted. Indeed, analyses revealed that
the background contextual variables of
acculturation level and feminist attitudes have a direct influence
on the prestige level and traditionality of
Mexican American women's career choices that are not
represented in Lent et al.'s proposed model.

Furthermore, environmental factors related to the school (i.e.,
vocational guidance programs in the
school) are not included in Lent et al.'s model but should be
investigated.
The reliability estimates for the scales used to assess feminist
attitudes and career aspiration were
relatively low, and thus, the findings related to these constructs
should be interpreted with caution. For
example, it is possible that significant path coefficients may
emerge in the career aspiration model with a
more reliable scale. Given the paucity of research with Mexican
Americans, future studies should attempt
to improve on the psychometric properties of the measures used
in this study and to develop new
instruments for use in research with this population. Additional
testing of the revised model with several
samples of Mexican American women is necessary to determine
if these results can be generalized.
Research is also needed to evaluate the validity of Lent et al.'s
(1994) model with Mexican American boys
and men.
As noted earlier, only a modest amount of variance in the
criterion variables was accounted for by the
social cognitive and contextual variables assessed in this study.
Additional variables that may contribute
to career goals should be considered in future studies with
Mexican American women. For example,
researchers have suggested that socioeconomic status and
student ability may be important variables to
assess among Mexican Americans and female participants (e.g.,
Fassinger, 1990; Lauver & Jones, 1991;
McWhirter et al., 1998). Moreover, given that teen pregnancy
and marriage occur with some frequency in
this population, assessing pregnancy and marriage rates at this

age could provide data regarding how
these events affect the educational and career aspirations of
young women. Relatedly, although this study
included an assessment of several environmental influences on
women's career development, the focus
was on individual variables. Additional research is needed to
investigate the ways in which the social
environment limits the educational and occupational
opportunities of Mexican American women.
Finally, a longitudinal study that assesses the career orientation
of Mexican American women at periodic
intervals following high school graduation is recommended.
Such a study would provide information
regarding the factors that affect the vocational development of
Mexican American women over the course
of their lives. A longitudinal study would also provide useful
information regarding the factors that
contribute to college graduation among Mexican American
women. Future studies could investigate the
barriers encountered by students who do not complete college
and explore the characteristics shared by
those who successfully complete college. Counseling
psychologists could then develop empirically based
interventions to optimize success in college.
In conclusion, the results of this study advanced knowledge
regarding the explanatory power and
limitations of SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) in describing the career
development of Mexican American
adolescent women. Because Mexican American women are
largely underrepresented in higher education
and in nontraditional, high-prestige occupations, investigating

their educational and career aspirations at
a critical decision-making time of their lives (in their senior
year of high school) seems critically important.
Such information could inform counseling interventions aimed
at this population to enable Mexican
American women to pursue academic and career opportunities
that correspond with their ability and
maximize their potential for educational and vocational success.
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Submitted: February 2, 2000 Revised: March 19, 2001
Accepted: March 21, 2001
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Source: Journal of Counseling Psychology. Vol. 49. (1), Jan,
2002 pp. 14-27)
Accession Number: 2001-05923-002
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1037/0022-0167.49.1.14
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Name: NURS_6521_Week1_Discussion_Rubric
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Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Main Posting

Points:
Points Range:
45 (45%) - 50 (50%)
Answers all parts of the discussion question(s) expectations
with reflective critical analysis and synthesis of knowledge
gained from the course readings for the module and current
credible sources.
Supported by at least three current, credible sources.
Written clearly and concisely with no grammatical or spelling
errors and fully adheres to current APA manual writing rules
and style.
Feedback:

Points:
Points Range:
40 (40%) - 44 (44%)
Responds to the discussion question(s) and is reflective with
critical analysis and synthesis of knowledge gained from the
course readings for the module.
At least 75% of post has exceptional depth and breadth.
Supported by at least three credible sources.
Written clearly and concisely with one or no grammatical or

spelling errors and fully adheres to current APA manual writing
rules and style.
Feedback:
Points:
Points Range:
35 (35%) - 39 (39%)
Responds to some of the discussion question(s).

One or two criteria are not addressed or are superficially
addressed.
Is somewhat lacking reflection and critical analysis and
synthesis.
Somewhat represents knowledge gained from the course
readings for the module.
Post is cited with two credible sources.
Written somewhat concisely; may contain more than two
spelling or grammatical errors.
Contains some APA formatting errors.
Feedback:
Points:

Points Range:
0 (0%) - 34 (34%)
Does not respond to the discussion question(s) adequately.
Lacks depth or superficially addresses criteria.
Lacks reflection and critical analysis and synthesis.
Does not represent knowledge gained from the course readings
for the module.
Contains only one or no credible sources.
Not written clearly or concisely.
Contains more than two spelling or grammatical errors.
Does not adhere to current APA manual writing rules and style.
Feedback:

Main Post: Timeliness
Points:
Points Range:
10 (10%) - 10 (10%)
Posts main post by day 3
Feedback:

Points:
Points Range:
0 (0%) - 0 (0%)
Feedback:

Points:
Points Range:
0 (0%) - 0 (0%)
Does not post by day 3
Feedback:
First Response

Points:
Points Range:
17 (17%) - 18 (18%)
Response exhibits synthesis, critical thinking, and application
to practice settings.
Responds fully to questions posed by faculty.
Provides clear, concise opinions and ideas that are supported by
at least two scholarly sources.
Demonstrates synthesis and understanding of learning
objectives.
Communication is professional and respectful to colleagues. .
Responses to faculty questions are fully answered, if posed.
Response is effectively written in standard, edited English.

Feedback:
Points:
Points Range:
15 (15%) - 16 (16%)

objectives.
Feedback:
Points:

Points Range:
13 (13%) - 14 (14%)
Response is on topic and may have some depth.
Responses posted in the discussion may lack effective
professional communication.
Responses to faculty questions are somewhat answered, if
posed.
Response may lack clear, concise opinions and ideas, and a few
or no credible sources are cited.
Feedback:

Points:
Points Range:
0 (0%) - 12 (12%)
Response may not be on topic and lacks depth.
Responses posted in the discussion lack effective professional
communication.
Responses to faculty questions are missing.
No credible sources are cited.
Feedback:

Second Response
Points:
Points Range:
16 (16%) - 17 (17%)
objectives.

Feedback:
Points:
Points Range:
14 (14%) - 15 (15%)

Response exhibits critical thinking and application to practice
settings.
Communication is professional and respectful to colleagues.
Responses to faculty questions are answered, if posed.
two or more credible sources.
Feedback:
Points:

Points Range:
12 (12%) - 13 (13%)
posed. .
Feedback:

Points:
Points Range:
0 (0%) - 11 (11%)
communication.
Feedback:

Participation
Points:
Points Range:
5 (5%) - 5 (5%)
Meets requirements for participation by posting on three
different days.
Feedback:

Points:
Points Range:
0 (0%) - 0 (0%)
Does not meet requirements for participation by posting on 3
different days
Feedback:

Show Descriptions
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Main Posting--
Levels of Achievement:
Excellent
45 (45%) - 50 (50%)
Answers all parts of the discussion question(s) expectations
with reflective critical analysis and synthesis of knowledge
gained from the course readings for the module and current
credible sources.
Supported by at least three current, credible sources.
Written clearly and concisely with no grammatical or spelling
errors and fully adheres to current APA manual writing rules
and style.
Good
40 (40%) - 44 (44%)

Responds to the discussion question(s) and is reflective with
critical analysis and synthesis of knowledge gained from the
course readings for the module.
At least 75% of post has exceptional depth and breadth.
Supported by at least three credible sources.
Written clearly and concisely with one or no grammatical or
spelling errors and fully adheres to current APA manual writing
rules and style.
Fair
35 (35%) - 39 (39%)
Responds to some of the discussion question(s).
One or two criteria are not addressed or are superficially
addressed.
Is somewhat lacking reflection and critical analysis and
synthesis.
Somewhat represents knowledge gained from the course
readings for the module.
Post is cited with two credible sources.
Written somewhat concisely; may contain more than two
spelling or grammatical errors.

Contains some APA formatting errors.
Poor
0 (0%) - 34 (34%)
Does not respond to the discussion question(s) adequately.
Lacks depth or superficially addresses criteria.
Lacks reflection and critical analysis and synthesis.
Does not represent knowledge gained from the course readings
for the module.
Contains only one or no credible sources.
Not written clearly or concisely.
Contains more than two spelling or grammatical errors.
Does not adhere to current APA manual writing rules and style.
Feedback:

Main Post: Timeliness--
Excellent
10 (10%) - 10 (10%)
Posts main post by day 3
Good
0 (0%) - 0 (0%)
Fair
0 (0%) - 0 (0%)

Poor
0 (0%) - 0 (0%)
Does not post by day 3
Feedback:
First Response--
Excellent
17 (17%) - 18 (18%)

objectives.
Good
15 (15%) - 16 (16%)
objectives.

Fair
13 (13%) - 14 (14%)
posed.
Poor
0 (0%) - 12 (12%)
communication.

Feedback:
Second Response--
Excellent
16 (16%) - 17 (17%)
objectives.

Good
14 (14%) - 15 (15%)
Response exhibits critical thinking and application to practice
settings.
Communication is professional and respectful to colleagues.
Responses to faculty questions are answered, if posed.
two or more credible sources.
Fair
12 (12%) - 13 (13%)

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