Environmental and Cultural Limits

35
2. ENVIRONMENTAL AND CULTURAL LIMITS
Preface
The cultural paradigm seems to embrace every aspect of reality, in the sense that
from it accordingly all actions seem to follow. However, it seems that nature has a
scale based upon the laws of the universe, which may collide with the parameters
which drive a particular civilisation. The problem with the Western one in particular
seems that often the physical limits imposed by the biosphere are not respected.
The Area of Research
The industrial revolution is described as representing the most prominent cause of
environmental harm globally. It is argued that it also constitutes the evolution of
Western civilisation, which in turn derives from 17th
century ideologies (capitalism
and communism) which seem to be born out of the three monotheistic religions
(Judaism, Christianity and Islamism). It is moreover argued that the speed and the
size of harming to the environment has never been so relevant as today’s, and thus
radical changes might be globally needed within the near future.
Multidimensional equilibrium of a society is described as the suitable limits to be
followed in any dimension of reality. The appropriate scales, according to Illich, are
to be considered the human and natural ones. The Illichean joyful austerity is
investigated. It basically constitutes a model for an ideal society in which the natural
and human limits are followed without frustration, enjoying not more than how much
may be get out of nature, according to its universal laws.
Psychological investigation is often advocated by institutions (e. g. Agenda 21
within the United Nations’ sphere) but eventually it does not seem always to be
granted the correct importance it deserves. It seems that at the operative level to
control and evaluate projects involving people within their environments constant
psychological monitoring and investigation might prove useful tools.

36
The steady state economy is described as a model which might prove helpful,
especially in the West, to decide on development related issues.
Disciplinary Cultural and Scientific Objectives of the Research
It is pointed out how the cultural crisis might be the mother of all crises (ecological,
social, economic, political), hence a possible solution might have to be searched
within the cultural sphere. The crisis of the dominant civilisation, the namely the
Western one, seems evident under all aspects and it is argued that the underlying
principles of such a culture often do not take into consideration the environment and
society’s natural needs and limits.
Psychology (and environmental one in particular) is believed to be a fundamental
paradigm in each dimension of life. Psychological factors might prove relevant
when analysing the management of society as well as that of the environment. It is
argued that more involvement of environmental psychology might be advisable at all
levels in any sphere of society.
A key difference when considering the set of possible choices within a certain
society might be represented by the assumption which holds that physical and non-
physical elements have a different nature and accordingly face different limits.
While the first ones are limited in space and time, the latter might be increased
indefinitely (knowledge for instance). It may prove useful to aim at improving and
developing non-physical elements, so to favour both society and the environment.
Work Phases
Environmental and cultural limits have been investigated in several terms, namely:
The refusal of the concept of limit typical of Western civilisation
Illich’s multidimensional model
The importance of the psychological aspects in environmental decision making
The steady state economy and its possible effects on Western civilisation

37
Disciplinary Advancements and Expected Results
Western civilisation might be perceived as the main cause for environmental harm at
the global level. Thus it may be argued that once the ideological pillars on which it
is based on will be eradicated, also most of the alarming environmental dangers
might decrease. It could perhaps be interesting to investigate how different
civilisations or ideologies based on different values might behave in regard to the
biosphere, and whether and why one particular civilisation or ideology might be
more suitable to become the dominating one.
A difficulty in clearly determining which are the proper limits for any case might
arise, in that the natural thresholds proposed by Illich within the multidimensional
model may appear sometimes too general in their definition and description.
Moreover, different people have different points of view, and would probably
recommend different choices for what limits to different issues are concerned. Many
civilisations throughout history seem to have vanished because they did not chose the
optimal scales for their development. It may be interesting to compare these
civilisation’s causes of extinction and draw a possible outcome for different
scenarios for our contemporary dominating culture.
The Main Sources For the Research
The main source for Western civilisation’ analysis was Dalla Casa, while for the
multidimensional model one were Brown and Illich. The part on the description of
the psychological aspects concerning environmental decision making was supported
by the work of Bonnes, Carrus and Passafaro as well as Diamond.

38
3. DIFFERENT VISIONS OF THE WORLD
Preface
It might appear important to underline how the paradigms on which a civilisation is
based on shape all of its approaches. It seems that so far, especially in the West, the
environmental and social aspect have not be sustained and acknowledged as much as
they should have been.
It is pointed out that the insufficient importance granted to social and environmental
aspects within the dominant civilisation might be counter balanced by legal
recognition of the two by local and global authorities. Often communities’ and
indigenous’ rights seem to lose value in favour of corporations’ ones. The outcome
of such trend might be the arising of new enclosures. It appears that right and
resources which once were taken for granted have started to decrease. Civil
economy and its characteristics are briefly looked at. The benefits from the adoption
of such a model might seem to often overcome those from the current one.
It might be argued that traditional and to a lesser extent Oriental civilisations embody
a concept of man which seems quite different to Western culture. They believe that
every subject within the universe (man included) is made of the same universal
substance, only different for the role and function within the biosphere. This concept
does not put man on top of the biosphere, as the Western paradigm seems to hold.
Land grabbing is just an example highlighting the principle that man is within the
dominant paradigm conceived above nature and its inhabitants. On another level,

39
also the economic paradigm has maybe become too dominant in shaping societies
nowadays. An artificial identity shaped by the market for man seems to have
substituted a more natural one, shaped on natural requests and laws. Even the
socialist paradigm seemed, however to be mainly predatory of the environmental
resources, as much as capitalism is. In the West, as well, development seems to be
increasing only with the increase in consumption. Technology, finally, is often
perceived as well as a new divinity to which each should obey.
The 2007 financial crisis seems to have revealed that dreadful outcomes might
prevail when people live above the limits imposed by nature, or simply above their
possibilities. A new paradigm might perhaps be constituted by acknowledging
mainly man and nature to the detriment of market and the state, which often seem to
go beyond for importance and outcomes than the social and ecological spheres. In
this sense a wider and more intense participation of the so called civil society might
be perceived as advisable.
Sometimes, choices which go against the dogmas of consumerism and technology
might prove to be the best ones in many fields, for intrinsic values to social and
environmental resources is substituted with extrinsic one.
Work Phases
The overview of the different visions of the world constituted of the following in-
depth analysed:
Ecocentric versus anthropocentric civilisations
The involvement of the environmental and social sectors
The 2007 financial crisis and the new enclosures
Since 2008 the majority of the population has become urban. It may seem useful to
investigate the effects on the social and environmental spheres of such shift from the

40
country to cities, involving accurate studies within the social, economic and political
dimensions.
It may prove urgent to enquire how the environment is utilised throughout the
world. In this sense it could prove useful to highlight how and where
overexploitation occurs. This would perhaps have to be contrasted with effective
policies adopted by governments so to enforce the principle of who pollutes or
overexploits needs to face an appropriate sanction.
A theoretical model proposed by Mattei which adds the social and environmental
spheres to that of the state and market might be investigated. How a more intense
inclusion of the former might impact on today’s societies, both at the local and global
level? It is argued that often the power of the economic institutions and corporations
is excessive, thus clashing environmental and social rights. It seems that a detailed
analysis on where and how this occurs could prove useful. Representative
democracy seems perhaps not always to be able to guarantee a correct and
transparent way of enhancing social and environmental issue. It seems that cases
throughout the world in this sense might be investigated.
Latouche investigated the relation between the Western paradigm and the
overexploitation of land, while Brown analysed the social changes which brought the
majority of people to move from the countryside to urban areas. Ricoveri’s work
was concerned with the legal recognition of environmental and social rights and the
causes of the 2007 financial global financial crisis as well as the theme of new
enclosures. Mattei proposed a different model to conceive society based on the
social and natural spheres while Shiva denounced the invading power economic
global economic actors possess to the detriment of communities and the
environment.

41
4. KNOWLEDGE VS. TECHNOLOGY
Preface
It may seem that the concept of progress for Western civilisation is often linked to
growth, especially in economic terms. However, progress might be perhaps intended
in different ways, as it happened for other civilisations in the past and as still occurs
among the traditional ones, nowadays. Progress might be in fact conceived as an
optimal level of inner well being, matched by material resources which are just
enough for living without having to struggle or suffer. Progress might be intended in
non-material ways, as an increase in the level of knowledge and internal serenity, for
instance.
It is highlighted how the concept of progress may vary in time and space, and seems
only a subjective choice. Medieval China is pointed out as an example from the past
of a civilisation that although it had the possibility of investing and increasing its
material dimension preferred to widen other ones which were closer to interior
development. Models and examples from current days of choices aligned in this
sense might be those described (e. g. Slow Food, Slow Cities, Permaculture,
Transition Towns and Smart Cities movements and networks)
Institutionalisation is analysed. A concept coined by Illich to describe how
structures, hierarchies and delegation often bring less benefits than they intend to, to
the detriment of creativity, subsidiarity, deprofessionalisation, self organisation and
curiosity and joy of learning by doing autonomously. Participatory budget is
presented as a way of involving communities in the decision of local management, as
recommended by the United Nations, among others.

42
It is highlighted how there seem to arise different and contrasting positions in regard
to the most appropriate meaning of the concept of progress. Technology, for
instance, is perceived as helpful for an increase in a civilisation’s progress, while
others believe that it may represent, in a certain way, an obstacle.
In ancient times there arose to perhaps prevail a more coherent way of living a life
which consisted in being open to all aspects of it. Hyper specialisation, typical of
today’s society, seems to promote the developing of competences and skills only in
particular sectors. One might refer to specialised people to solve specific problems,
differently to other historical times when people seemed to live a more integrated
relation with life and the reality which surrounded them. This may have perhaps be
induced by a more and more evident detachment from man to his environment.
The role of technology is investigated. It appears, to be a force which shapes
civilisations’ destinies, often much more than what it ought to do.
Work Phases
The comparative overview between the key aspect of knowledge and technologies
has been composed by:
The philosophical vs. the economic conception of progress
The concept of institutionalisation
The issue of how humanistic formation might affect societies might be further
developed and analysed. It seems that current educational and forming agencies
have chosen to improve and further expand technical formation, to the detriment of
the humanistic one. An in-depth analysis on the topic may prove useful to discover
which of the two might be preferable to form the citizens of tomorrow. New
competences and skills might in fact prove more of an investment in this sense, in

43
order to allow the people, especially the young, to better understand and thus deal
with the up-coming world.
Dalla Casa studied the concept of progress in all of its facets. Fukuoka and King
explored the permaculture one. Illich introduced institutionalisation along with
deprofessionalisation. The United Nations and in particular Agenda 21 is a key
reference for participatory budget. Nussbaum is the main source for the investigation
of the value of humanistic formation, while Morin highlights the importance of
adjourning today’s competences and skills which might result fundamental for living
in tomorrow’s world.

44
5. THE RELATION BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE AND CULTURE
Preface
The importance of culture might perhaps be best estimated by developing an in
depth-analysis on its main agent, namely knowledge. It seems that how knowledge
develops and is produced, and how it is passed on might unravel important effects on
culture.
A theoretical model concerning the relation between the energetic regime and the
communication system is explored. Psychoanalysis, analytical psychology and
ecobiopsychology are generally described and looked at.
Some recent technology-based movements and ideas are presented (e. g. the Khan
Academy, Open Source Ecology, Granary of Memories, soft power). Culture is
defined as a possible defence and tool for enhancing democratic participation.
The pillars on which the industrial model is based on are described and analysed.
A theoretical model based on the convergence of energetic regime,
communication system and psychological vision of reality is proposed.
Positive and negative effects of technology followed by different practical and
theoretical examples are illustrated.

45
Work Phases
The effects of knowledge on culture have been investigated under different points of
view:
Within the industrial model
Within energetic and communication systems
In regard to technology and its impact on society and the environment
A specialised investigation in the field of matter/energy relations might be
undertaken. Physical and philosophical point of views on the topic might be
interesting to further develop.
How and when knowledge is produced might represent a key point to be further
enquired in order to fully understand what might be the best ways to enhance
knowledge’s product, namely culture. Empathy is briefly included in the chapter’s
analysis, but it may prove a key point for developing further discussions on many
present and future fields regarding mankind, especially from the psychological point
of view.
For the topics of matter/energy relation and ecobiopsychology Pusceddu is the
source. Dalla Casa and Rifkin investigate different aspects of knowledge and
empathy. Nye is the proposer of the concept of soft power. Ricoveri may be related
to the concept of culture intended as a defence and tool for democratic participation
and direct democracy.

46
6. DEVELOPEMENT
Preface
Sustainable development seems to be a widely utilised expression in different
sectors, nowadays. However, it might seem important to remind that development is,
in physical terms, related to growth. Increases in the quantity of energy used, food
and water and the objects which surround our life might not perhaps result as the
most feasible way if environmental and social issues are to be tackled. The only
sustainable development, the one which does not imply an increase in physical
elements of the biosphere, might be the inner one, concerning the mind and spirit, or
in general the intangible aspects of reality. As for the material type of development,
maybe an opposite direction ought to be taken by everyone, one more aimed at
reducing or decreasing, rather than the one related to developing or increase.
It is pointed out how since the 1970s artificial energy has overtaken natural one, thus
implying a series of environmental and social issues related to such a global shift. In
this sense, man might be perceived as having chosen such a model bewitched by the
more tangible and immediate benefits from artificial energy to the detriment on the
environment and society.
It is highlighted how the widespread accumulation of goods appears at least arguable.
Massification and standardisation, it is pointed out, seem to represent lifestyles which
do not entail an appropriate awareness in relation to environmental and social issues.
One of the reasons for the choice of such a model might be represented by a wrong

47
type of economics which is nowadays perceived as a totem by most private and
public subjects both at the local and global level and which seems to have imposed
its principles to most aspects of life.
Work Phases
The concept of development has been expanded into the different following
dimensions:
The energetic one
Resources related to food and water
Lifestyle and habits
The principle of precaution and the one according to which who pollutes must be
made to pay might perhaps be considered as juridical pillars for a paradigm which is
concerned with the indirect costs of a consumerist society. A comparative study of
where and how such principles are enforced and what the practical outcomes of
putting into effect such provisions might prove perhaps relevant.
Dalla Casa, Illich, the World Wildlife Fund and the European Union were the main
sources for the investigation concerning the relationship between man and energy in
the past, present and future of mankind. Dalla Casa and Shiva are the main
references for what the aspects of lifestyle and practices are concerned.

48
7. THE NETWORK IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE INDIVIDUAL
Preface
It may seem important to shift to a different philosophical paradigm when dealing
with the biosphere and its related issues. A different approach, based on the
conception of network of elements related with and affecting one another may prove
more feasible even to solve different sets of problems both at the local and global
level.
The pillars of ecobiopsychology are described and analysed thoroughly (i. e.
phylogenesis, ontogenesis, emergent properties).
Physical disciplines such as quantum physics, thermodynamics and astrophysics
are described in general.
It is argued that the biosphere might be conceived as a set of elements each related to
each other in a delicate balance (i. e. homeostasis). An analogy with society might
perhaps be drawn, in that a civilisation seems to be supported also by the energetic
level it requires. Since energy explains homeostasis, energy-related issues might
prove decisive for each civilisation in this sense. Since today’s society might appear
energy-devouring and because natural resources are limited, it may seem advisable,
in order to maintain the homeostasis of our civilisation, to increasingly resort to
renewable energetic sources.

49
Work Phases
The topic of how the network might prove the most appropriate model to conceive
the biosphere as well as society has been dealt with through the analysis of the
following different dimensions:
The laws of the universe
The laws of the biosphere
The level of entropy of society has in time increased, it is pointed out, thus implying
negative outcomes for the environment. It is argued that in physical terms, macro,
meso and micro issues might be dealt with through the tools of astrophysics,
thermodynamics and quantum physics.
The enquiry on the ecobiopsychological model derived from Pusceddu and the
Italian Association of Ecobiopsychology. Themes related to the conception of
network for the biosphere referred to Dalla Casa. Energetic issues inflected on
civilisations come from the work of Illich.

50
8. JOYFUL AUSTERITY
Preface
A model of civilisation more based on human and ecological parameters might prove
a positive shift for improving the current situation globally under different aspects.
This might not mean to necessary have to get back in time and refuse modernity
altogether. Technology might perhaps prove useful if developed in an ecological and
social way. As often, the tool does not necessarily bring positive or negative effects,
but rather, the way it is used may result more relevant to determine the outcomes.
Illich’s joyful austerity (or conviviality) paradigm in thoroughly described and
examined as a possible model to be followed, especially by Western civilisation.
It is pointed out how any given level of artificial goods and services might not
manage to satisfy needs which are of other nature (i. e. social or environmental). It
might seem that as long as the social and natural spheres are taken as a parameter
from which deciding how to base a society, positive outcomes could seem to arise
especially within the inner dimension (probably to the detriment of material aspects)
of life. It could seem fundamental for any society to keep a given level of
independency and autonomy from a global system of connections, differently to the
what the ecobiopsychological discourse holds. Too much dependency might in fact
prove a weak point for a society’s welfare. At the same time, a network of
connections (among different peoples for instance) might prove useful as long as

51
standardisation is not made to be the rule (like globalisation, for instance) since
different realities might require different solutions.
A civil economy, it is argued, might enhance more socially and environmentally-
friendly solutions for different sets of problems (e. g. the adoption of local
currencies, microcredit).
Direct participation of the people to public life might be supported by technology,
which may counter balance the distance between the single individual and the
institutions (e. g. civic applications) is discussed.
Work Phases
Joyful austerity is analysed in different terms and aspects such as:
The productivity-conviviality relation
The relational-commercial goods relation
The macro and micro sizes of reality
The effect of technology on democratisation
An investigation on how much the system influences the people and the environment
might prove fundamental in understanding how reality works and how it could be
improved. How much are we living away from human and natural needs in different
parts of the planet? What are the effects of different attitudes and behaviours?
Which might prove to be positive and negative effects for each model adopted?
Illich was the main source in regard to the joyful austerity theme, as well as to that
regarding the relation between the artificial and natural dimension of reality.

52
9. RELATIONAL SOCIETY
Preface
The West seems to be undergoing a phase in which different crises are
simultaneously occurring. It may seem advisable to individuate the causes of such
an outcome (which might be found within the cultural dimension) and the tools and
solutions which could prove helpful in changing a negative future which seems likely
to be coming.
The negative endogenous approach is thoroughly described and investigated, as well
as the importance of a relational society as the fundamental pillar on which to build a
different paradigm.
It is highlighted how market economy seems an attempt to build an economic
system which can work without taking into account the difference between extrinsic
and intrinsic individual motivations. In this sense, helpful tools for measuring the
level of happiness and satisfaction within a society might be enhanced and developed
(e. g. gross national happiness, genuine progress indicator).
The capability of changing the environment he lives in and the sense of possibility
seem to represent the main difference between man and the other elements inhabiting
the biosphere. Accordingly, these two aspects might appear fundamental in
understanding how and why the current social and environmental spheres are in such
negative condition. In this regard, the Convention of the Council of Europe on the
Value of Cultural Heritage For Society is briefly looked at.

53
The extrinsic/intrinsic motivation model seems to be fundamental when dealing with
how societies are shaped and behave. To detect the most important needs of people
and make sure that society acts accordingly could prove one of the secrets for
overturning a dominant paradigm which seems more and more departing from a just
and feasible pattern.
Work Phases
The concept of relational society has been investigated under several aspects,
namely:
The relation between an underlying cultural background and society
The increase in private resources to the detriment of common ones
Different ways to measure people’s well being
One might analyse what the outcomes of believing in a particular set of values imply.
What outcomes will result when a society follows Western civilisation’s values and
principles? What outcomes result from different models?
How in time the availability of private and public resources has affected societies?
What possible outcomes may derive from a further increase in the former or in the
latter?
How the forming agencies and institutions related to the current Western
consumerist model are working? What actions might be implemented within such
subjects in order to begin long-lasting changes in the dominating culture?

54
Bartolini and Latouche were the main reference for investigating how civilisations
are shaped depending on the set of values and principles they are based on, and how
the negative endogenous growth model is changing our lives. Bartolini thoroughly
analysed the extrinsic/intrinsic motivations’ problem and the issues related to the
capacity of shaping the environment as well as the sense of possibility which seem
both meaningful for mankind. The Council of Europe was the source for the
information regarding the Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage For Society.

55
1. THE ENVIRONMENT’S CULTURAL PARADIGM
To believe that all value judgements are to be claimed by humans
is a sort of philosophically indefensible anthropocentrism
Arne Naess
Environmental Philosophy: A Cultural Vision of the World
Medieval Italian poet Dante Alighieri wrote in his Divine Comedy (Inferno, Chapter
26) “ye were not made to live like unto brutes, but for pursue of virtue and of
knowledge”. Culture and knowledge might for humans be one of the most important
needs. It might be right to believe that such need could be regarded to as one of the
most important one, for all living beings need to feed and reproduce, but only
humans seem to possesses some kind of consciousness (animals might in fact only
have instincts).
This could be the main characteristic which differentiates us from the rest of the
subjects of the biosphere, and it may therefore be fundamental for us to try and
satisfy such peculiar need. This could mean that the most important aspect in human
life might be the interior, spiritual, emotional one. In a way one might argue that

56
only after these, more pragmatic and mundane needs might hence be satisfied
(feeding, sheltering, reproducing and so on).
In environmental philosophy the most important schools of thought throughout
the history of ecology might be identified as anthropocentric, critical-anthropocentric
and biocentric1
.
Anthropocentrism is typical of those philosophies which place mankind at the
centre of the universe, acknowledging it the right of exploiting the biosphere and
limitless liberty over nature (strong vision) or as a wise administrator (weak vision).
The critical-anthropocentric vision is the one which recognises the fact that man has
overexploited nature, to become its conqueror (e. g. deep ecology). Now that he
lives in a more and more artificial world, he is no longer used to the natural one and
is no longer able to relate to it. Finally, biocentrism underlines the fact that life has
an intrinsic value, a meaning independently from the fact that man confers values to
such preciousness. This last school of thought might further be divided into two
branches: biocentric individualism and holistic biocentrism. The individualistic
approach recognises moral dignity to the single living being as such, while the
holistic vision recognises moral dignity and importance only to individuals as parts
of a homogeneous group (species, communities, ecosystems and so on)2
.
Anthropocentric
Vision
Strong Vision
Weak Vision
Critical-Anthropocentric
Vision
(e.g. Deep Ecology)
Biocentric
Vision
Individualistic
Holistic
Table 1. 1 Classification of the Different Environmental Philosophical Positions3
– From
Anthropocentric going through the critical-anthropocentric ending with the biocentric vision more and
more prominence in granted to nature to the detriment of the role of man4
1
Refer to Pagano, Piergiacomo (2006) Filosofia Ambientale Mattioli 1885, p. 11
2
Ibidem, p. 11-12
3
Ibidem, p. 11
4
Ibidem

57
It might be fundamental that the cultural approach of mankind shifts more and more
toward a vision which contemplates man at the same level as the rest of the elements
of the biosphere, instead that keeping a position of supremacy as it seem to have
been so far in many regions of the world.
It seems that from culture, and in particular from its values and principles, each
thought and action will as a consequence generate from man. From a particular
culture particular ethics might be generated. Accordingly, also a certain set of
principles, values, society, economic, political and juridical system might be
produced.
Deep Ecology and the Theory of Emotional Affinity Toward Nature
From the psychological point of view, many authors underline the role of affective
and emotional aspects in influencing our behaviours. The so called theory of
emotional affinity toward nature proves a natural human tendency towards nature.
Such theory holds that human beings have a biologically funded attraction toward
nature, which derives from the process of evolution of the specie5
.
Some researchers enquired whether the observation of a state of degrade of one’s
environment could help emerge a deeper availability to that person to the
examination of nature in general. An important aspect in this sense might be
represented by the cultural, economic and political context of the country in which
people live. Such cultural differences could influence the perception of people of
nature and environmental problems. One of the most used parameters by
5
For such reason our well being would depend a great deal from the relation we establish with the
surrounding natural environment, with which we need to live in harmony and synergy. Moreover, the
hypothesis that direct contact with nature (e. g. to practice open air activities, observe animals and
plants in their habitats, pay attention to the change of seasons and weather phenomena) could promote
affinity toward nature and the behaviours of protection of it have obtained several empirical proof in
the relative literature. All of this seems to support the ever-growing trend, currently existing in the
practice of environmental education, to favour experiences and the direct contact with nature in order
to promote a deeper sensitivity to people’s environmental problems. Refer to Bonnes Mirilia, Carrus
Giuseppe e Passafaro Paola (2006) Psicologia Ambientale, Sostenibilità, Comportamenti Ecologici
Carocci, p. 121-123

58
psychologists to differentiate the different cultural systems of different countries is
the so called level of individualism/collectivism6
.
Deep ecology is a way of believing and perceiving the universe which derives
from philosophies and doctrines that, from the beginning of mankind’s appearance
on the planet, have characterised his relation with the biosphere. The term and
school of thought was born out of the vision of Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess
in the 1970s7
.
It may seem that such a cultural motivation could be the justification for an
effective protection of the environment also at the juridical level. It could appear just
that the elements, animals and plants would be regarded as rightful of an equal
dignity to that given to man by juridical systems, because of their ethical and moral
importance.
The whole life and all of the activity of German theologian, musician, physician
and medical missionary Albert Schweitzer are based upon his philosophy and in
particular around the principle on which it is funded: the respect for nature and life.
In his first trip to Africa he identified and elaborated this principle, although he had
been interested and studied philosophy since he was young. He was interested in the
issue of development of civilisation and culture, and the relation and influence with
6
Within the world there exist cultures which are more individualistic than other ones. They usually
tend to promote and emphasise the pursuit of personal interests as opposed to group or collective ones.
On the contrary, collective-oriented cultures emphasise above all the group and collective well being,
as well as the importance of cooperation in order to reach goals which concern society as a whole. In
general, cultures such as the Japanese one are described as greatly collectivists and oriented to the
maintenance of the group’s harmony, while cultures such as the American one are described as highly
individualistic. The differences existing between the perception of environmental issues among
people belonging to different countries can be caused, as well as by traditional culture, from different
concrete experiences regarding environmental problems. Another cross-cultural study has
highlighted, for instance, that Japanese and American people confer different weights to different
environmental hazards, even though both use common dimensions to classify different environmental
hazards. The Japanese, for instance, confer a greater risk to nuclear hazards. Probably the objective
different experience between the two peoples in regards to such issue (Japan has unfortunately directly
experienced the effects of nuclear destruction) brings the Japanese to value the nuclear risk as a more
serious and real problem. Ibidem, p. 130-134.
7
Naess claims that, between surface and deep ecology, the difference is represented by the fact that in
the first one preserving the environment is only motivated by man-related reasons (as his personal
interest in exploiting nature), while in the second one man is seen only as one of the many subjects
which live on the planet (man should try and live regardless of his personal needs according to the
laws of nature and the needs of the other subjects in the sense that he is not ethically or morally
superior to them). Refer Dalla Casa, Guido (2011) Ecologia Profonda – Lineamenti Per una Nuova
Visione del Mondo Mimesis, p. 12-13

59
the way peoples thought or believed in religion. His first attempt was to write a
book which was only a critique to modern society and its spiritual decadence8
.
How the Western Paradigm Relates To the Environment
Judaic civilisation as the first monotheist culture, dating back some 4,000 years ago,
can be regarded as the beginning of Western society. Primitive and Oriental cultures
believe that man is only one of the many subjects inhabiting the biosphere, and that
he should respect the rest of the planet for the mere reason that he belongs to it in the
very same way bacteria and flowers do. It may seem significant to underline how
such concepts are commonly born and shared in the millennial myths of creation of
very many non-Western civilisations. From its very beginning Western culture, as
opposed to primitive and to some extent Oriental ones, has conceived man as created
to belong to a higher and different ontological level of the biosphere as opposed to
the one to which the other subjects belong to, conferring him an ethical and moral
superiority which seems to have been the original and main cause of such paradigm
and its development through history9
.
The deterioration of the environment’s conditions might be primarily attributed to
such vision which confers supremacy to man over the biosphere, along with all of the
implications that such paradigm might bring.
The fact that Western civilisation represents in many aspects today the dominant
paradigm, might represent the logical cause of the compromised situation of the
planet’s current state. A change in the vision of the role of man among other species
8
According to the scholar, to be at the same level the things of the world (meaning worldliness or the
life of societies) and those of life (namely the inner, spiritual life of the individual) should be both
based by thought. Schweitzer believed that the decadence of the modern world was caused by the fact
that material progress was not accompanied by a moral one. The latter did not progress so well for the
fact that it was based on beliefs (the religious one typical of Christianity) and not on a deep reflection:
moral progress was not based upon a meditation toward the essence of things. Going through all the
ethics of the past, Schweitzer found out that they were all somehow limited, either because too far
away and abstract from reality or too relativist, while for him an ethic, to be so, should be absolute:
what they were all lacking was a true and undisputable foundation. Refer to Boccalatte, Valentina
(2004) Albert Schweitzer – Un Nobel Per la Pace: L'Etica del Rispetto per la Vita Atheneum
9
Refer to Dalla Casa, Guido (2011) Ecologia Profonda – Lineamenti Per una Nuova Visione del
Mondo Mimesis, p. 60-62

60
and within the biosphere, and thus a cultural shift, could represent a the key point for
a possible u-turn that might be needed to avoid environmental catastrophe. Once
such cultural change would be obtained, as natural consequence new values could
emerge and become common heritage in the social, economic, political and juridical
paradigms.
Naess believed that there exist basically two main paradigms when dealing with
how mankind relates to ecology: the surface and the deep one. Surface ecology as
opposed to deep ecology holds that some parts of the planet should be preserved and
protected by the catastrophic consequences of the development of the industrial
civilisation. It is believed that to create oases in which the biosphere is allowed to
act freely according to its rhythms and rules could be a sufficient effort. In reality it
seems desirable that even such ideas and models are being adopted, as long as a deep
ecological paradigm is not prevailing and commonly shared10
.
The importance and value of biodiversity are recognised at the juridical level by
the United Nations which instituted the concept and acknowledgment of reserve of
the biosphere. The reserve of the biosphere is an international qualification given by
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation for the
conservation and protection of the environment within the Man and Biosphere
Programme. The reserves of the biosphere are terrestrial, coastal and marine
ecosystems in which, through an appropriate management of the territory, the
conservation of the ecosystem and its biodiversity is associated with the use of
natural resources to benefit local communities: this comprehends research, control,
education and training activities11
.
10
Naess elaborated a distinction between two main types of approaches which man adopts toward the
ecosystem he lives in. According to the philosophical approach one can distinguish between a surface
and a deep ecology. Surface ecology includes as its goal the decrease of pollution and to safeguard
natural settings without changing the Western paradigm: it opposes deep ecology in the sense that it
does not radically modify the dominant philosophical assumptions of Western civilisation. On the
contrary, in the deep ecological vision, a metaphysical importance is given to nature, an importance
which goes beyond the restrictive and deceptive concept of environment which is man-related. When
man destroys nature for its goals he destroys biodiversity. This is even more dangerous, in that the
level of biodiversity of the biosphere indicates the level of the vital and regenerative capability of it.
In some ways, in this second paradigm the very concept of ecology does no longer need to exist,
exactly how it has always been within traditional societies. Refer to Pagano, Piergiacomo (2006)
Filosofia Ambientale Mattioli 1885, p. 9-11
11
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves

61
All of these realise the United Nations’ Rio de Janeiro’s Agenda 21 and the 1992
Convention on Biological Diversity, as well as other international agreements12
.
In 2010 the world’s network of reserves of the biosphere consisted of 580 reserves
in 114 countries spread in the five continents13
. What can be said on the effects of an
environmental education on the collective vision toward biodiversity and the
biosphere? To believe that man is special and not belonging or superior to the
biosphere on an ethical or moral basis might yield to oppression toward the other
subjects (both if exercised by a common citizen or by a public officer or entity).
Such belief, both at the individual or collective level, might often constitute the cause
of harm to someone. Inequality and imbalances both within the environmental and
social resources could bring to revolutions (both by people and the other subjects of
the biosphere).
Why Is Culture More Important Than Technology
The concept of global footprint was introduced in 1996 by Mathis Wackernagel and
William Rees. From 1999 the World Wildlife Fund periodically updates the
calculation of the global footprint in its Living Planet Report. The global footprint
measures the biologically productive area of sea and land needed to regenerate the
consumed resources by human population and to absorb the waste produced14
.
12
The Convention on Biological Diversity, known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is an
international legally binding treaty. The Convention has three main goals: conservation of biological
diversity (or biodiversity); sustainable use of its components; and fair and equitable sharing of
benefits arising from genetic resources. In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies
for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document
regarding sustainable development. Refer to http://www.cbd.int/convention
13
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves
14
By using the ecological footprint one can estimate how many planets would be needed in order to
support mankind, if everyone would live according to a particular lifestyle. By comparing the
footprint of an individual (or region or country) with the amount of per capita available land (that is,
the ratio between total available surface and the planet’s population) one could realise whether the
levels of consumption of the sample are sustainable or not. To calculate the global footprint the
quantities of each consumed good (for instance, wheat, rice, corn, cereals, fruit, vegetables, roots and
tubers, legumes et cetera) and a yield constant expressed by kg/ha (kilograms per hectare) are related.
The result is a surface quantitatively expressed in hectares. One could also describe the global
footprint from an energetic point of view, by considering the carbon dioxide emission quantitatively
expressed in tons, and consequently, the quantity of forested land needed to absorb those tons of CO2.
It seems important to underline that it has been estimated that each person has at his own disposal

62
Since the main cause of the degeneration of the state of the planet might be
represented by the misuse of it by people the possible solutions available might be
two: either the number of Western-style people decreases, or the people (especially
in the Western world) should start to rethink their lifestyle and cooperate in order to
reduce their impact on the environment. Western culture has one of its pillar in
consumerism. Everyone is used to try and get as much as possible, increasing the
consumption of goods and services in a limitless fashion, regardless of the other
people and the biosphere. This appears to be, as well as a short-sighted paradigm, a
selfish one. A shift from less individualism toward more empathy with the
environment and cooperation with our fellow citizens might represent an appropriate
cultural shift that mankind could embrace.
English geographer and political analyst Halford Mackinder claimed that natural
resources, population and technology were the three fundamental factors which
determined and explained the power and level of development of a country.
Assuming the natural resources of a land as given, and population bound to reach a
natural maximum level, technology may seem to be the only one of the three
elements which might be improved15
. Technology often seems strictly bound to the
cultural paradigm. A society which has developed its cultural paradigm might create
technological changes which could positively affect lifestyle and society’s impact on
the biosphere.
The key point in this sense might not be, however, to create new clean
technologies which may help us to keep our current level of consumption of goods
and services. The point may be that we could develop our cultural model in order to
make the impact of our lifestyle less severe on the environment and on the peoples of
the world which every day suffer because of the dominating Western cultural
model’s effects. The idea could be to primarily reduce our demand for goods and
services, reach a sort of joyful austerity which still would enable us to live fulfilling
all of our basic needs, granting us maybe less availability of superfluous things but
greater mental and physical health. Just simple actions like buying goods and
services which are locally produced in an environmentally-friendly fashion, deciding
to walk or use the bicycle or public transport, are mere examples of a development in
around 1.8 hectares of land to extract all he needs during his life. Refer to
http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/footprint_basics_overview
15
http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_14/sempa_mac1.html

63
the cultural pattern which does not imply the invention of new machineries or
production techniques.
The United States, for example, possess the highest level of technology available
among the countries within the international community, but the worst lifestyle in
terms of impact on the biosphere and its elements (the global footprint is only one of
the many indicators which prove it16
). A spiritually poor society even if rich in
material and technological terms, when driven by individualism, might yield to
environmental and social degrade.
As well as such new behaviours also new technologies may nevertheless prove
helpful, such for instance recycling as much as we can from the waste produced and
the use of energy from renewable resources. The technological level seems however
less decisive, and anyway a consequence of the way a society perceives its role
within the biosphere and the role of its citizens among the other peoples of the
planet. Low technology and high environmental awareness are typical of traditional
cultures, for instance, implying that to properly behave in regard to nature no high
technological levels seem really needed. This is why greater and greater cooperation
among citizens and peoples and less personal and country individualism may prove a
viable path to be followed.
It might seem understandable and logical that each individual will compete
against other people to get a space to guarantee an acceptable life condition for
himself and his family. But taking as an example the small and defenceless man of
the Pleistocene, from the lush rainforests to the arid and dangerous savannas, one can
suppose that he would find only through cooperation with his fellow companions the
way to effectively conduct his fight for survival. In doing so he was fighting the
most important war, the one between his own atavistic instinct to prevail on others
(which in his past evolutionary history had guaranteed him the best fitness) and the
need to make his instances compatible with those of the other members of the group,
only way to reach a better fitness in the new state of things17
.
16
http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/sustainable-earth/pictures-ten-countries-
with-the-biggest-footprints
17
Some million years have passed and the story is still in these terms; surely the situation has become
enormously more complicated, has been enriched with various philosophical speculations, political
and sociological theories of different ideological nature, but has tragically remained the same at the
very bottom. Refer to Pusceddu, Maria (2010) Gioco di Specchi – Riflessioni Tra Natura e Psiche
Persiani, p. 251-252

64
The Relation Between Cultures of Scale and the Environment
Culture might seem one of the fundamental resources, as explained above, for a real
and effective change in society’s paradigm. Psychological and economic studies
have shown that providing greater levels of culture results in wanting to increase the
consumption of culture at an ever growing pace18
.
A little bit like the effect from the consumption of drugs. When a person is
exposed to culture (in any form, books, food, debates, travelling, conferences, open
air activities, architecture, landscapes, foreign languages, expositions et cetera) he is
likely to feel that he will be wanting more and more of it. This might represent a
positive and reassuring aspect for the people who would want to plant the first seeds
of such an plant, both for personal or social purposes.
Moreover, the so called costs of activation as far as culture is concerned, that is, the
initial expense in terms of time, money and effort which is needed to increase the
level of one’s exposition to culture is ever decreasing. As long as a person (or group,
entity or society) grows in terms of culture, the cost of reaching a higher level of
culture will become, in relative terms, lower and lower19
.
18
From Professor Giovanna Segre’s lecture at the University of Nova Gorica’s (Slovenia) PhD
Economics and Conservation of the Architectural and Environmental Heritage programme during the
academic year 2010-2011.
19
Ibidem

65
Figure 1. 1 Cultures of Scale – The diagram shows a typical culture of scale trend. Along the
horizontal axis inputs (in terms of time, money, effort) of culture are depicted, while on the vertical
one the level of culture gained is measured. To each extra unit of input a relatively greater level of
output is gained, that is, the increase in the extra level of culture gained is always greater, in relative
terms, than the extra amount of input added.
Similarly to nature, culture is something which reproduces itself more rapidly than
what had been needed to make the initial investment for it. Like from a single seed
planted in the ground after some time many flowers or plants can grow, culture
seems to act likewise.
In economics the principle according to which to reach greater and greater
quantities of output a firm needs in proportion less and less investments is known as
economies of scale. To reach an extra ten per cent of output the amount of inputs
needed is then less than ten per cent. This applies only up to a certain scale, after
which constant returns to scale prevail. Eventually after having reached a second
amount, of output decreasing economies of scale prevail, when an extra ten per cent
of input yields to an increase in total output of less than ten per cent20
.
For culture economies of scale seem to prevail. As long as more exposition to
culture is added, more demand and a greater level of culture are acquired by the
individual or group. Culture for this magical mechanism resembles an ever growing
plant. No matter how much of it one adds, the return (as well as the request for it) is
20
http://www.economist.com/node/12446567
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Cultural Output
(levels of culture
attained)
Cultural Input (time, money, energy spent on cultural events)

66
likely to keep growing indefinitely. The term cultures of scale may be used to
explain such principle.
Such concept might prove very significant for policy makers (local and national)
and could be taken into account when deciding whether or not to cut resources to
culture. Such cuts could mean to have fewer and fewer of such seeds to plant. In the
short term marginal positive effects could be missed (when speaking from the mere
economic point of view), but in the long run maybe inestimable missed gains could
result, in social as well as monetary terms.
The positive spill over effects from culture both for individuals and societies
might be felt in the most important aspects of life (spiritual, moral and cognitive) in
terms of missed new knowledge.
The Psychological Aspect of Culture and Its Influence on the Environment
Fusco Girard claims that a low level of resilience, that is the capacity of a system to
react to external shocks, from society’s point of view is represented by the
impossibility of being able to provide and implement more and more innovative and
complex solutions to ever growing problems of environmental, social, economic or
political nature21
.
Culture is the result of the interaction between man and the environment. To
improve the level of culture for each of us might therefore yield to improvements in
the relation between mankind and the biosphere.
The World Heritage Convention is an international convention for the
identification, protection and conservation of the world’s cultural and natural
heritage which is considered of importance for the whole of mankind. The
convention was adopted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation General Conference on 16th
November 197222
.
21
From Professor Luigi Fusco Girard’s lecture at the University of Nova Gorica’s (Slovenia) PhD
Economics and Conservation of the Architectural and Environmental Heritage programme during the
academic year 2010-2011
22
http://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext

67
It might seem important to mention it because of the fact that it represented one of
the first major events which acknowledged juridical value to culture, which was
intended for the first time as richness determined by the product of the interaction
between the environment and man. The convention in fact considers cultural and
environmental heritage as “[...] the link between our past, what we are now, and what
we will pass on to future generations. The cultural and environmental heritages are
important also in that they have always been fundamental references for mankind,
representing our very identity”23
.
Figure 1. 2 Elaboration of United Nations’ 1972 World Heritage Convention’s Juridical
Acknowledgement of the Concept of Culture – The United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation acknowledged in the 1972 World Heritage Convention the juridical concept of
culture for the first time, believed to be the result of the interaction between man and the environment.
Another meaningful and innovative point of the convention for the times in which it
was produced might be represented by the declaration that an important site is a
world heritage, that is, it belongs to mankind as a whole, regardless of where it lies.
By signing the convention, in fact, the countries obliged themselves to acknowledge
that, once inscribed in the list of the convention, the protection of their sites would
become an obligation to the international community. The text goes on: “[...]
Acknowledging the full sovereignty of the countries in which the cultural and natural
heritage [...] is located, and without compromising the property rights guaranteed by
the national legislation, the countries part of this convention recognise that such an
23
Ibidem
MAN ENVIRONMENT
CULTURE

68
heritage represents a world heritage for the protection of which the whole
international community is obliged to cooperate”24
.
Psychology might prove a fundamental aspect within culture and has usually
focused on man by examining him mostly within his interiority, made of awareness,
emotions, personalities, but latest researches have shown how it has been quite
difficult to predict human behaviour without taking into account where man lived.
The environment, landscape and architecture have fundamental influences in forming
our identities, thoughts and emotions. At the same time, man is the living being that
has the highest level of possibilities of modifying the environment in order to adapt it
for his own scopes through changes in the territory and architectural choices.
Environmental psychology also shows that man with his behaviour is the subject
which can more than anyone else produce destructive and harming effects on the
environment. The outside can tell a lot about why a certain person thinks or acts in a
certain way25
.
Further, within psychology another meaningful discipline in this sense might be
analytical psychology. It may represent one of the main ways to explain human
behaviour through the investigation of his inner and most remote part, the
subconscious. The analysis was invented by Freud (father and founder of
psychoanalysis) and was mainly based on the study of the subconscious and dreams.
It was however introduced by Freud’s most gifted scholar and Jung at the beginning
of the twentieth century26
.
Within analytical psychology, finally, ecobiopsychology might appear to be quite
important, in that it combines Junghian approach with the psychosomatic one. It is
branch of analytical psychology, and maybe one of the most recent attempt of study
of mankind and the psychosomatic relation (a relation based on both mental and
physical aspects) humans have experienced with the biosphere since the beginning of
the evolution. It investigates both the biochemical and physical interactions of man
24
Ibidem
25
Starting from the mental representation of the environment, environmental psychology examines
the management of the personal space and the territorial behaviours, the psychological roots of
landscape and architectural aesthetics, the different psychological influences of urban and rural
environments, the optimisation of architectural projecting of residential, institutional and cultural
areas. It furthers takes into consideration influences on mind and behaviour of specific aspects of the
environment, such as lightning, noise, weather conditions. Finally psychological aspects relative to
the promotion of environmentally friendly behaviours are taken into consideration. Refer to Costa,
Marco (2009) Psicologia Ambientale ed Architettonica – Come l'Ambiente e l'Architettura
Influenzano la Mente e il Comportamento Angeli, p. 9-12
26
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22611/analytic-psychology

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