1. WHAT CHALLENGES DOES
NATIONAL CULTURE CREATE
FOR MANAGERS AND
DIRECTORS FROM THE UK WHEN
MANAGING OPERATIONS IN
POLAND AND THE CZECH
REPUBLIC?
Stephen Donald Lynn
Dissertation submitted to Oxford Brookes University for the partial
fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS
ADMINISTRATION.
October 2003

2. ii
DECLARATION
This dissertation is a product of my own work and is not the result of
anything done in collaboration.
I consent to the University’s free use, including online reproduction,
including electronically, and adaptation for teaching and educational
activities of any whole or part item of this dissertation. I agree that this
dissertation may be available for reference and photocopying at the
discretion of the University.
Stephen Lynn
Word count: 19,999 words

3. iii
ABSTRACT
Title What challenges does National Culture create for managers
and directors from the UK when managing operations in Poland
and the Czech Republic?
Author Stephen Lynn Date October 2003
This research aims to determine the national culture of The Republic of
Poland and The Czech Republic using the well-known model developed
by Hofstede.
The national culture of both countries has been determined using an
established questionnaire (Value Survey Module 1994) in English, Polish,
and Czech languages, obtained from the Institute for Research on
Intercultural Co-operation (IRIC). A sample was also taken from the UK to
allow the results to be calibrated with original survey of IBM by Hofstede.
Semi-structured interviews with a small number of UK nationals working in
both countries were conducted to provide insight into the results of the
questionnaires and to attempt to highlight the challenges faced by UK
managers. The results having been analysed are compared with the
results of other studies and research covering these two countries. Then
the findings are related to the experiences of managers from the UK to
explain the challenges national culture creates for UK managers working
in either of these countries. This area is important as where national
culture and business culture conflict the national culture is likely to prevail.
All of the models used in the analysis of national culture have some
limitations and deficiencies; this does not invalidate their use, but does
mean care is required in performing surveys and also in interpreting their
results.
The research indicates that both countries have distinct national cultures
and that these provide unique challenges for UK managers working in
these countries. There is clearly a need for further research into national
culture generally and specifically in this region of the world.

4. iv
CONTENTS
page
Declaration………………………………………………………………. ii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………… iii
Table of Contents………………………………………………………. iv
List of Tables……………………………………………………………. v
List of Appendices………………………………………………………. vi
Chapter page
1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND……..……..... 1
2. LITERATURE REVIEW………………….………….….. 7
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY………………..………. 40
4. RESEARCH FINDINGS……………………...……...…. 47
5. DISCUSSIONS…………..……………………………… 54
6. CONCLUSIONS…………………………………………. 68
7. RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………….… 74
References………………………………………………………………. 76
Bibliography……………………………………………………………..
80

5. v
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
I Linear Active versus Multi-Active 25
II Achievement / Ascription 29
III Kolman et al.: Calibrated and Un-Calibrated Results 31
IV Pavlica and Thorpe cited in Kolman et al. 33
V Nasierowski & Mikula: Calibrated and Un-Calibrated Results 35
VI A Comparison of Todeva, Kolman et al. and Nasierowski
and Mikula
37
VII Poland: A Comparison of Research 55
VIII Czech Republic: A Comparison of Research 61
IX Poland, the CR and UK: A Comparison of Research 66

6. vi
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page
A Background data: Poland, the CR and UK 81
B Questions from Semi-structured Interviews 83
C VSM94: Statistical Data for the Three Countries 85
D VSM94: Un-Calibrated Results 87
E VSM94: Calibration Adjustment and Calibrated Results 88

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this research is to gain an understanding of the national
culture of The Republic of Poland (“Poland”) and the Czech Republic (“the
CR”) and then to compare the results with other studies of both countries.
This will lead us onto examining the challenges national culture creates for
managers and directors (“managers”) when managing operations in these
countries.
To assist in putting the research into context it is important to have some
understanding of the history of both countries. To provide this the
following issues have been briefly examined below: background
information on Poland, the CR, and their historic connections with the UK.
A detailed definition of culture and some key terms used. The final section
provides an overview of the dissertation.
1.2 THE COUNTRIES AND THEIR HISTORY
Both Poland and the CR have historic and cultural links with the UK. For
example a Polish government in exile operated out of London during
communist rule in Poland; the ceremonial trappings of government only
being returned to Lech Walesa when he became president of Poland.
During World War II (“WWII”), both Poles and Czechs fought alongside the
allies (Lewis 1999). The RAF included both Czech and Polish pilots. After
WWII the UK became home to many exiled Polish and Czech nationals.

8. - 2 -
Following the fall of communism, hundreds of UK nationals of Polish and
Czech descent returned to the countries of their birth (or in some cases
parents or grandparents). Their role (regardless of intention) became one
of providing help and advice in developing a free market economy. Most
had the benefit of having been educated and trained in a developed
country (mainly Western Europe or North America) with a free market
economy. They were often able to speak the local language and in many
cases had distant relatives in the region.
The CR is a relatively young country, having been created on 1 January
1993 when the Federal Republic of Czechoslovakia was split into two
separate Republics: Czech and Slovakia. Czechoslovakia was itself
created out of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. “The Czechs have a long
history as a people but a short statehood. The advantages of lying at the
heart of Europe has proved to be a mixed blessing as other nations have
happily marched in and then hung around” (Prague in Your Pocket 2003,
p.10).
The CIA (appendix A) states that Poland was established in 1918. Whilst
this may be technically correct in respect of the current (third) Republic of
Poland, it does not fully explain the position. Poland had previously
existed as a separate country (albeit with different borders) before being
split between three powers. “Poland should not be underestimated.
Bigger than Italy or the UK, its land area equals that of the Netherlands,
Belgium, Denmark, Austria, Switzerland and the CR combined” (Lewis
1999, p.254). At one stage (1479) Poland also had the Crown of Bohemia
(now part of the CR) and so in effect they were one country (Salter and
McLachlan 1996, p.609).
The Gross Domestic Product (“GDP”) of the CR (USD 15,300) is 60%
higher than Poland (USD 9,500), 98% of the population of Poland is made
up of those with Polish descent, this compares with only 81% of the CR
being made up of those with Czech descent. In both Poland and the CR

9. - 3 -
agriculture accounts for only 4% of GDP, however the issue of agriculture
and its influence on politics is much greater in Poland than the CR.
Their languages are both Slavic and related but distinct. Their approach
to politics is different; the current Czech President (Klaus) supports a free
market economy and while Prime Minister followed in the footsteps of
Margaret Thatcher. In Poland, the current President, (Kwasniewski) was
the Junior Minister for Youth and Sport under the last communist
government. Some may fail to understand why you go to a lot of trouble
to get rid of the communists from power, and then elect one as president.
Later chapters will provide further information on Poland and the CR,
where this is relevant to the discussions. However it should be apparent,
that both countries have some issues in common, for example 40 years of
communist rule, and yet many differences. A summary of statistical data
on both of these countries and the UK, covering issues such as size, type
of government and religion is given in appendix A.
1.3 KEY TERMS
Culture: There is no universally accepted definition of the term culture
(Brown 1995, cited in Griseri 2002). The meaning of culture will be
examined further in the literature review. The following definition is a
useful and relatively complete definition:
Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit of and for behaviour
acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive
achievement of human groups, including their embodiment in artefacts; the
essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and
selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on
the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other hand as
conditioning elements of future action. Culture is something that is shared
by almost all members of some social group; that the older members of the
group try to pass on” to “the younger members and something (as in the
case of morals, laws and customs) that shapes behaviour (Kroeber and
Kluckholm 1952 cited by in Miroshnik 2002, p.526).

10. - 4 -
As defined above this is the term used to bind together the beliefs,
attitudes, values, norms that are held by a group of people.
Apart from defining culture it is important to define several other terms that
are frequently used in this research.
Society: a group of people, but not necessarily a country, a society could
cover a region; for example the Irish, which are spilt between two
countries, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland.
National Culture: The culture values held by one country (or region). It is
important to note that national culture is not the only type of culture.
Writers often refer in addition to:
Corporate (or organisational) Culture: The culture of one company or
group of companies under common control. Much has been written about
corporate culture and how to change it. “Culture is to the organisation
what personality is to the individual – a hidden yet unifying theme that
provides meaning, direction, and mobilisation” (Kilmann et al. 1985 citied
by Sweeney and Hardaker 1994, p.4).
Professional (or occupational) culture: The culture of one group of
employees for example, accountants, lawyers, lorry drivers, or cleaners.
This research is focused on national culture and other types of culture are
referred to only where appropriate.

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1.4 CHALLENGES
A brief review of the business press and professional journals indicates
that the challenges and stress facing managers are possibly greater than
ever before. Over recent years there has been a growth in the number of
expatriate managers. This has been caused by the growth of companies
with operations around the world (multi-national corporations, global
companies, transnational corporation or any other term that could be used
to describe them) and the move in various parts of the world towards a
free market economy (e.g. China, Central Europe).
Working abroad is likely to lead to additional challenges and possible
stress on top of that which may be considered ‘normal’ (whatever that may
be). “Differences in national culture influence not only the entry mode but
also the perceived difficulty surrounding the integration of foreign
personnel into the organisation” (Kessapidou and Varsakelis 2002, p.268).
This supports the view that UK managers would be well served by
understanding the national culture they need to integrate into or at the
very least to be able to work with.
Both Poland and the CR offer unique opportunities and challenges for
managers from the UK, as will be seen in the coming chapters.

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1.5 AN OVERVIEW OF THE DISSERTATION
Chapter 1: This chapter has provided a brief overview of the aims of the
research and background information on the countries to be researched.
Chapter 2: The literature review contains a critical review of the current
literature on national culture; it also provides further definitions of culture
and some contextual information on culture. However much of the
chapter is concerned with looking at two well-known models of classifying
national culture and reviewing research performed in respect of Poland
and the CR.
Chapter 3: The research methodology provides an explanation of how the
research was conducted.
Chapter 4: The results chapter is a relatively short and factual chapter,
which summarises the work undertaken.
Chapter 5: The discussion chapter draws together the results of the
research, then compares and contrasts this with the existing literature
(reviewed in Chapter 2).
Chapter 6: Conclusions, highlights the challenges faced by UK managers,
and tries to take an objective view of the value of this research in light of
various concerns raised by Hofstede when researchers try to replicate his
research.
Chapter 7: The final chapter briefly makes recommendations for future
research.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 OVERVIEW
The review of the literature has been spilt into several sections. The first
section examines the views of various authors as to the importance and
relevance of culture in today’s business environment. Having established
that an understanding of culture is vital, the next section explores the
various definitions of culture. This is followed by an examination of the
current writings on culture and how it refers to business relationships on
an international level. There are various models of National Culture that
have been devised to assist in analysing and comparing culture, a
summary of these is provided. This is followed by a summary of the
results of other studies that have covered Poland and the CR. This is
provided separately to the review of the actual models in order not to
confuse the discussion of the value of the models and the cultures of
Poland and the CR.
2.2 THE RELEVANCE AND IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE
Not all management writers consider culture to be a key issue. Where
some writers ignore culture others often cite it as a deficiency in their
work, whilst there are some who find that culture a vital issue. One of the
criticisms of the work of Michael Porter is his “inattention to matters of
culture and the cultural dynamic is Porter’s most important omission”
(O’Shaughnessy 1996, p.12). Others argue, “Culture still seems like a
luxury item to most managers, a dish on the side. In fact, culture
pervades and radiates meanings into every aspect of the enterprise.
Culture patterns the whole field of business relationships” (Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner 1997, p.16). Others suggest, “Cultural differences
are overrated and insignificant (e.g. Markoczy, 2000)” (Pressey and
Selassie 2003, p.354), although in the same article they conclude, “the
evidence obtained suggests that cultural differences might not be the
powerful force popularly assumed, it does not suggest that cultural

14. - 8 -
differences have no impact or are redundant” (Pressey and Selassie 2003,
p.366-367). Yet “there are continuing and non-random cultural differences
between European countries and regions that have been identified within
a multitude of cross-cultural studies using different measures for cultural
values” (Brodbeck et al. 2000), p.4). Emanuela Todeva (1999) provides
four research perspectives that regard culture as worthy of research:
2.2.1 Social Anthropology
This type of research focuses on cultural values, attitudes, both in a single
company/country and across borders. The work of Hofstede falls into this
category.
2.2.2 International Dimensions of Organisational Behaviour
This type of research focuses on cross-cultural issues, such as leadership
and management. The work of Adler can be included in this category.
2.2.3 General Management and Strategy Writers
This type of research focuses on how best to manage companies and
enterprises across borders, examples include the work of Bartlett and
Ghoshal. Much of the management writing in the 1980’s, for example
Peters and Waterman (1982) expounded the view that there is a ‘best way
to manage’. Most of their research was based on US companies, whilst in
fact the ‘best way’ to manage a company in the US may not apply to other
countries, and can often have the opposite effect. The cause of the failure
of multinational business is often culture (Miroshnik 2002). This clearly
implies that a sound working knowledge of culture is vital for all
businesses operating in more than one cultural environment. It also
supports the view that there is not one ‘best’ way to manage. In fact
“rather than there being ‘one best way of organising’ there are several
ways, some very much more culturally appropriate and effective than
others” (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 1997, p.19).

15. - 9 -
Much has been written on the relationship between Strategy, Structure,
and Culture. Weick 1985 (cited in Hofstede et al. 1990) argued that
culture and strategy are overlapping concepts. Therefore to ignore culture
would result in part of strategy being ignored.
The research of Laurent (cited by Miroshnik 2002) indicates that the
existence of culture means that the transnational organisation is a myth.
Although “It is not difficult to change culture when people are aware that
the survival of the community is at stake, where survival is considered
desirable” (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 1997, p.23).
2.2.4 International Dynamics
This type of research focuses on how to deal with culture and provide
training to cope with it. The work of Richard Lewis, in particular his book
‘When Cultures Collide’ would fall into this category.
2.2.5 Conclusion
The above highlights the value of researching culture and its impact. The
current advertising slogan of HSBC (one of the worlds largest banking and
finance organisations) is ‘the world’s local bank’. This is clearly an attempt
to emphasise the importance that they place on local culture and
knowledge. There has been some research (Floyd 2002) that has
suggested that the choice of the method of investment and national
culture can affect the success of an investment.
Jean Monnet, one of the architects of the European Community (now the
European Union) stated that if he had to start the challenge of integrating
Europe again, the starting point would probably be culture (cited in
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 1997). At the time of writing, both
Poland and the CR are 6 months away from joining the European Union.
In short “to ignore cultural differences is unproductive” (Miroshnik 2002,
p.527).

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2.3 CULTURE
One definition of culture was given in the introductory chapter, however
there are other definitions. Once culture has been defined, (even if not as
precisely as would be ideal) it is then possible to examine how culture is
made up and the issue of bias.
2.3.1 Other Definitions of Culture
“Culture is considered as a nebulous construct that is difficult to define
(Triandis et al. 1986)” (Pressey and Selassie 2003, p.355). Researchers
have in the past catalogued over 100 definitions of culture (Kroeber and
Kluckholm 1952 cited in Miroshnik 2002). The following are a small
sample of definitions to represent the wide range of definitions and interest
from various perspectives and to draw out common ideas.
Culture is “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the
members of one organisation from another” (Hofstede 1991, p.262 cited in
Hofstede 1998, p.478). Hofstede often refers to culture as the software of
the mind.
“A series of rules and methods that a society has evolved to deal with the
recurring problems it faces. They become so basic, almost like breathing,
that people no longer think about how they approach or resolve them”
(Trompenaars, cited in Bickerstaffe 2002, p.31). Trompenaars appears to
base his definition on the work of Schien who states “culture is the way in
which a group of people solves problems and reconciles dilemmas”
(Schien citied in Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 1997, p.6). Rodger
Keesing, an anthropologist (cited by Jaeger 1986, p.179) also implied
rules in his definition, defining culture as “an individual’s theory of what his
fellows know, believe and mean, his theory of the code being followed, the
game being played”.

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“Culture is the way of life of the group of people” (Foster 1962, cited in
Miroshnik 2002 p.525). This is similar to Lewis: “Culture: the customs,
beliefs, art and all other products of human thought made by a particular
group of people at a particular time” (Lewis 1999, p.451).
In a work context, culture can perhaps be best summed up as “How things
are done around here” (Drennan 1992, Mullins 1996 cited in Griseri 2002,
p.112).
“The strength of an organisation rests in its ability to negotiate, renegotiate
and resolve these dilemmas with all interested parts at both an internal
and external level” (Gergen, 1992 cited by Pavlica and Thorpe 1998,
p.134). The idea of resolving dilemmas in organisations is very similar to
the terminology used by others to define culture; there is a link between
national culture and corporate or professional culture, referred to in
section 1.4 (p.4).
The key themes, which may be extrapolated, appear to be:
• a way of life (Foster, Lewis),
• the views of a group (Foster),
• dealing with problems/ resolving dilemmas (Trompenaars, Gergen),
• explicit and implicit (Keesing).
By explicit, we mean something that is likely to be visible and could
possibly be a tangible item whereas implicit is less likely to be clearly
visible, it suggests something deeper. The idea of a way of life and
inclusion of the views of others suggests that it covers more than one or
two individuals.
2.3.2 The Layers of Culture
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner use the analogy of an onion, to
explain culture as layers.

18. - 12 -
The outer layer, is the explicit products of culture, which are the things that
can generally be touched, for example buildings, fashions, art and parks,
although language is also an explicit product of culture. The explicit
products of culture are the result of the norms and values. The norms and
values provide the middle layer of the onion. Norms are the sense a
group has or what the group believes is ‘right’ and ‘wrong’. Values are
what we use to determine ‘good’ and ‘bad’. Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner believe that values are often more internal than norms. The inner
layer of the onion is our assumptions about existence. “Understanding the
core of the culture onion is the key to successfully working with other
cultures“ (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 2003). This layer will be
more difficult for an outsider to recognise, this layer is “so basic that, like
breathing, we no longer think about how we do it” (Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner 2003). The split into 3 layers is supported by others
(Schein 1981 citied by Jaeger 1986).
Other writers (BPP 2002, p.182) have made other analogies such as to an
iceberg, however an onion appears to provide the one which is most
conceptual in the sense that layers of culture (the onion) can be peeled
away to get to deeper levels or layers.
2.3.3 Bias
Culture: “The problem rests not only with the definition of the concept, but
also with the biases of its measurement, interpretation and analysis”
(Todeva 1999, p.607). Lewis develops this point further “we smile at
foreign eccentricity, congratulating ourselves on our normality” (Lewis
1999, p.8), yet those we smile at, from their point of view consider
themselves normal and us eccentric.

19. - 13 -
The language we use may not be flexible enough to allow an accurate
description of a situation that another language may be able to more fully
cover. Lewis (1999) provides an interesting example of the colour green,
in English we have one word for green, however the Zulus need to be
more precise and so have 39 words for green. In performing research
care should be taken to ensure that the language we use does not cause
bias in the results. To continue the example cited by Lewis if we
performed a survey of Zulus in English on colours the choice of language
would at best limit the accuracy of the results or potentially create bias.
Even in the English-speaking world care needs to be taken with the use of
language, America and Britain are often described as two countries
separated by a common language, and words do not always have the
same meaning. For the same reason a Pole or Czech who speaks fluent
English may encounter some difficulties in answering a questionnaire in
English as even if they fully understand the questions, they may think
about the answer in ‘Czech’ or ‘Polish’ before answering in English. (For
example when an Englishperson who speaks French is asked a complex
question in French, they may translate the question into English in their
head, formulate an answer and then verbalise this in French.)
“Culture is prior to research. The very questions we ask are already
shaped by our cultural assumptions and cast in our cultural categories.
We pull our respondents’ answers into our own mind-sets – and in the
process, often loose the distinctive ways they think” (Hampden-Turner
1991, p.94). We should bear in mind that “organisational theories are
therefore culturally bounded” (Hofstede 1983, p.47). As human beings we
cannot delete our culture, at best we can endeavour to consider the issue
of bias when undertaking research into national culture.

20. - 14 -
2.4 NATIONAL CULTURE
This research is focussed on the national culture of Poland and the CR.
There are two potential pitfalls here, firstly a tendency by many (especially
business people) to categorise Central Europe (formerly referred to as
Eastern Europe) often as one homogenous region and secondly to ignore
the fact that the region and the countries making it up have changed
numerous times over the past century. Nasierowski and Mikula sum this
up as follows:
Central Europe is considered largely homogenous by business communities
(Nasierowski 1992), something congruent with the political and economic
circumstances uniting the region over the last 50 years. This period of time
might have been significant enough to leave its mark on the culture of each
of the countries in the region. Each possesses a unique history, with periods
of independence and decades (or centuries) of foreign rule, different
languages, habits, social traditions and religions (Nasierowski and Mikula
1998, p.505).
Poland and the CR are two countries within Central Europe. One example
of how the region has changed is that during the eleventh century the
capital of Poland was moved from Gniezno to Krakow due to its
”vulnerability to the expansionist Czechs and Germans” (Salter and
McLachlan 1996, p.607-608).
Determining national culture is in effect an attempt to categorise and
understand implicit assumptions about life (the third layer of the onion to
use the terminology of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner).
Several writers have researched national culture and developed models
for classifying national cultures, each have their own strengths and
weaknesses, below is a review of the key models and writers on culture.

21. - 15 -
2.4.1 Edward Hall
Hall put forward the simplest and oldest of these models. He took the
view that the context of communication affects the understanding and the
content of communication. Low context societies take communication at
face value. The opposite is high context societies where more of the
message will need to be interpreted. In a high context society much of the
message may not be clear and must be interpreted from non-verbal
communication, for example the tone of voice and body language. This
model can be applied to all cultures to provide some insight, but is now
rather simplistic when compared to the work of Trompenaars and
Hofstede.
2.4.2 Richard Lewis
Lewis believes that societies can be categorised in to three groups: linear
active, multi active and reactive (Lewis 1999).
Linear Active: Societies that are linear active prefer to start and finish a
task, before moving on to the next task, they tend to value schedules and
being punctual.
Multi-Active: These societies tend to believe in multi-tasking, they chop
and change from task to task and often try to perform several tasks at the
same time. They do not like to be confined by set schedules.
Both linear and multi active societies believe that their approach makes
the best use of time.
Reactive: These are often called ‘listening societies’ and tend to listen
first to establish the other side and their position, then react by providing a
considered response. They tend to be skilled at using non-verbal
communication.

22. - 16 -
Again, the Lewis model has value but is still over simplistic. Can all
societies be divided into one of three types? When explaining how
different cultures deal with meetings he explains that the British approach
is “Formal intro. Cup of tea and biscuits. 10 minutes small talk (weather,
comfort, sport) casual beginning” (Lewis 1999, p.116, figure 56). Whilst
this may be the case in some firms it does not always occur and
potentially results in culture being oversimplified in people’s minds.
2.4.3 Fons Trompenaars
Trompenaars developed a model with seven key dimensions. The first
five of these are based on five relational orientations developed by Talcott
Parsons over 60 years ago (Parsons 1951 cited by Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner 1997, p.8).
Universalism / Particularism (“U/P”): Universalism means seeing things
as clear cut (black and white issues) for example, what is right is always
right and what is wrong is always wrong. Those with a particularist view,
take a more pragmatic approach, for example, what is right and wrong
depends on the specific relationship and situation.
Individualism / Collectivism (“I/C”): The key issue here is which is more
important, the individual, or the group. “Individualism has been described
(Parsons and Shils) as a ‘prime orientation to the self’, and
communitarianism as ‘a prime orientation to common goals and
objectives’” (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 1997, p.50). Religion is
also considered to play a role here:
There is considerable evidence that individualism and communitarianism
follows the Protestant-Catholic religious divide. Calvinists had contracts or
covenants with God and with one another for which they were personally
responsible. Each Puritan worshipper approached God as a separate being,
seeking justification through works. Roman Catholics have always
approached God as a community of the faithful. Research has found that
Catholics score higher on group choices and Protestants significantly lower
(Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 1997, p.52-53).

23. - 17 -
Emotional / Neutral (“E/N”): Those with an emotional stance believe that
showing emotion, for example leaving a room in anger is entirely
acceptable and part of the normal process of life. Those who favour a
neutral stance will be objective and detached, showing emotions may not
be considered acceptable.
Specific / Diffuse (“S/D”): This orientation indicates how involved a
person will become in an issue. A specific person will have limited
involvement, only allowing sufficient time to deal with a specific issue.
People with a diffuse orientation are likely to become much more involved
in an issue, immersing themselves fully into whatever is to be achieved.
Achievement / Ascription (“A/A”): In an achievement orientation, people
are promoted and advancement is based on their individual achievements.
Ascription is where progress is based on ascribed values, for example
birthright, age, gender, or membership of a clan or a group.
The following two orientations were not part of the original work of
Parsons and were added by Trompenaars.
Past and present / Future (“PPF”): This reflects people’s view of time,
some see time as a straight line, a sequence of events, others see time as
a circle, with the past, present, and future interconnected.
Internal control / External control (“I/E”): This indicates whether they
see control as coming from within themselves or from the wider world.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner both view these orientations as being
circular in nature and not linear. They believe that countries can have
degrees of each orientation; they do not just have one or the other. They
also state that they are reconcilable, this being the key to managing
culture in that you have to reconcile the dimensions (Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner 1997).

24. - 18 -
The work of Trompenaars has attracted very little criticism in the way that
the work of Hofstede has (section 2.4.4, p21-24). The strength of his work
lies in the desire to reconcile differences and take a more pragmatic
approach. He recognises that a dimension should not be measured on
the basis of one test and he appears not to categorise people. However in
his recent work he put forward a model that “identifies four competing
organisational cultures that are derived from two related dimensions”
(Trompenaars and Woolliams 2003, p.364) the model results in four
possible culture types (Incubator, Guided Missile, Family and Eiffel
Tower). This neatly fits in the management consultants 2 by 2 matrix;
over simplification to this level does nothing to enhance his earlier theories
with Hampden-Turner on National Culture. Is he now saying national
culture can be put in a matrix? If so he appears to be contradicting
himself when he said, “rather than being ‘one best way of organising’ there
are several ways, some very much more culturally appropriate and
effective than others” (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 1997, p.19).
Now there are only four types of corporate structure.
2.4.4 Geert Hofstede
Hofstede based his initial research on the results of a survey of IBM
performed at two points in time: 1968 and 1972. The total number of
surveys completed exceeded 116,000 (Hofstede 1983). The number of
surveys completed was not the same for each country surveyed and in
some cases there were large differences in sample size. Despite the
large sample size writers have criticised the sample, as not being
representative, as the majority of respondents were middle class
managers. Whilst the model may continue to be valuable, the data is now
over 30 years old. It was collected when the world was very different to
now. For example, in the 1960’s and early 1970’s very few people
travelled abroad, there were fewer multinational companies, although they
were growing (Gladwin citied by Sondergaard 1994), and it was the height
of the cold war.

25. - 19 -
Hofstede developed four dimensions in his model. A fifth was added later.
The five dimensions are:
Power distance (“PD”): Mulder inspired the term (Hofstede 1983).
Hofstede defines it “as the extent to which the less powerful members of
institutions and organizations within a society expect and accept that
power is distributed unequally” (Hofstede 1994). Low PD means that
there will be less distance between a boss and their subordinates,
whereas a high PD indicates a more hierarchical approach. High PD
indicates that there is unequal power distribution and that often there is
greater centralised control. Employees can be afraid to disagree with
employers and this can result in higher levels of unionisation (if permitted)
and poor labour relations. The index will normally give a score of between
zero and a hundred, 0 indicates small power distance and 100 indicates
high power distance.
Individualism (“IND”): “Individualism is the opposite to Collectivism.
Individualism stands for a society in which ties between individuals are
loose: a person is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her
immediate family only. Collectivism stands for a society in which people
from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which
continue to protect them throughout their lifetime in exchange for
unquestioning loyalty” (Hofstede, 1994). The index will normally give a
score of between zero and a hundred, 0 indicates a collective approach
(Japan is often citied as an example) and 100 indicates an individual
approach (America is often citied as an example). This dimension is
almost identical to the I/C dimension developed by Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner (section 2.4.3, page 16).
Masculinity (“MAS”): The title of this dimension is not entirely helpful; as
to some it could imply a sexist statement. Where this occurs it is in fact a
good example of how our own culture can affect our views and create bias
as indicated above (section 2.3.3, p.12-13). “Masculinity is the opposite of
Femininity. Masculinity stands for a society in which social gender roles

26. - 20 -
are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused
on material success; women are supposed to be more modest, tender,
and concerned with the quality of life. Femininity stands for a society in
which social gender roles overlap; both men and women are supposed to
be modest, tender and concerned with the quality of life” (Hofstede 1994).
The index will normally give a score of between zero and a hundred, 0
indicates feminine and 100 indicates masculine.
Uncertainty avoidance (“UA”): Cyert and March inspired the term
(Hofstede 1983). “The extent to which the members of institutions and
organizations within a society feel threatened by uncertain, unknown,
ambiguous, or unstructured situations” (Hofstede 1994). UA is not the
same as risk avoidance (Hofstede 1991, citied in Nasierowski and Mikula
1998, p.503) although low UA implies a “willingness to take risk in life”
(Hofstede 1983, p.61 citied in Nasierowski and Mikula 1998, p.503).
“Uncertainty-accepting cultures are more tolerant of behaviours and
opinions that differ from their own; they try to have few rules as possible,
and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist, allowing
many currents to flow side by side” (Hofstede and Bond 1998, p.11). The
index will normally give a score of between zero and a hundred, 0
indicates lower UA (people will accept a high level of ambiguity) and 100
indicates high UA (society requires more clear guidance, often indicated
by detailed and precise rules and structure).
Long term orientation (“LTO”): This dimension was not originally part of
the Hofstede model. It was defined by a group of researchers who were
examining culture from a Chinese perspective. LTO was adopted by
Hofstede and included as a fifth dimension in his later research. It was
originally known as the ‘Confucian Dynamism’. LTO is the opposite of
short-term orientation (“STO”). LTO stands for a society, which fosters
virtues, oriented towards future rewards, in particular perseverance and
thrift. STO stands for a society which fosters virtues related to the past
and present, in particular respect for tradition, preservation of ‘face’, and
fulfilling social obligations” (Hofstede, 1994). The index will normally give

27. - 21 -
a score of between zero and a hundred, 0 indicates a short-term approach
and 100 indicates a long-term approach.
In the case of each of the 5 dimensions referred to above it is technically
possible to achieve scores of less than zero and greater than 100. The
Hofstede dimensions and Value Survey Module 1994 (“VSM94”), which
has been used in this report, is probably the most widely used model to
survey national culture, however it is not without its potential flaws and
critics. The four main areas of criticism are:
A Linear Approach: The model works by assigning a value to each
dimension. The dimensions are seen as linear, so countries can be
plotted on a dimension and are easily comparable on the surface.
Trompenaars although inspired in his early days by Hofstede
(Trompenaars 1997) believes that the Hofstede model is too simplistic and
that countries can occupy more than one place and should not be
determined by allocating a number, however scientifically. Trompenaars
own approach is to use circles. Whilst Trompenaars’ point is valid, the
Hofstede model does provide a scientific basis for directly comparing
countries and as such remains a valuable model.
Perceived versus Internalised: There is a second and potentially more
damaging criticism of the Hofstede model, one of the major failings of a
model of this nature is that the results are gathered from questionnaires.
With this type of approach there is always a danger that people are telling
you either (a) how they think they should react or (b) how they would want
to react, rather than how they would actually react if the situation really
occurred. When answering questions do respondents give their own
perspective (the desired answer in the eyes of the researcher) or provide
information that they believe is expected of them (Todeva 1999).

28. - 22 -
Internal Consistency: Spector et al. conducted a study of 23 nations and
provinces, the questions comprising VSM94 were included as part of the
survey. They then tried to determine if the results of VSM94 were
internally consistent, this was achieved by the use of the mathematical
concept of coefficient Alpha. Their results, “clearly show that the VSM94
has an unacceptably low internal consistencies for all five subscales
across most of our country/province samples at the participant level”
(Spector et al. 2001, p.276). The implication here is that use of VSM94
does not provide results that are internally consistent and so is of little
value. Hofstede (2002a) countered the results of this survey. He believed
that the Spector et al. survey was flawed. The reasons are as follows:
(a) Spector et al. referred to the 1984 abridged version of his 1980 book,
called Culture’s Consequences, which did not “contain the source data,
statistical proofs and sections on methodology” (Hofstede 2002a, p.171),
thereby implying that Spector et al. had not properly studied his work or
examined the statistical basis.
(b) Spector et al. failed to heed the warning provided with VSM94,
regarding implementation. In particular they appear to have ignored the
warning that samples should be matched as far as possible in all criteria
other than nationality. Spector et al. do mention that the samples are not
balanced (in terms of gender and sample size) but do not appear to
acknowledge that this is a flaw. This flaw is also relevant to point (c) listed
below. The warning to match samples by Hofstede was evidently taken
into account by Nasierowski and Mikula (1998) when conducting their
research in respect of Poland.
(c) Spector et al. also attempted to analyse the data on an individual level
as well as a national level, while the VSM94 has been designed for groups
rather than individuals. “Comparing forests is not the same as comparing
trees” (Hofstede 2002a, p.171). Spector et al. countered this by pointing
out that “we reported the internal consistencies at the aggregate level, and
results were not appreciably different from those at the individual level”

29. - 23 -
(Spector et al. 2002, p.175). The conclusion to this discussion is that the
sample was so diverse in various criteria (age, gender and level of
employment) that great care should be taken in drawing any conclusions
from the results on either a national or an individual level. Not all writers
corroborate the views of Spector et al. Sondergaard (1994) examined
reviews, citations, and replications of Hofstede’s work and stated “The
analysis of the replications showed that the differences predicted by
Hofstede’s dimensions were largely confirmed” (Sondergaard 1994,
p.451).
“A Triumph of Faith – A Failure of Analysis” (McSweeney 2002, p.89):
McSweeney undertook a detailed analysis of the model developed by
Hofstede. In particular he examined five assumptions on which the work
of Hofstede is based. In his view should any one of these prove to be
invalid then the validity of the model as a whole is in doubt. These being
(a) there are three discrete cultures: organisational, occupational and
national, the assumption being that people in the same job around the
world have a common world-wide occupational and professional culture so
that differences must be cased by national culture. (b) the national is
identifiable in the micro-level, the local individual surveyed being treated
as representative of the population as a whole. (c) national culture creates
questionnaire response differences, McSweeney argues that the results
could have been categorised differently and could have produced equally
valid (or in his argument – invalid) differences. (d) national culture can be
identified by response difference analysis and (e) it is the same in any
circumstances within a nation. McSweeney believes that the Hofstede
model fails on each of the five points. He concludes:
The limited characterisation of culture in Hofstede’s work; its confinement
within the territory of states; and its methodological flaws mean that it is a
restricter not an enhancer of understanding particularities. The
identification claims are fundamentally flawed and the attribution of
national level actions/institutions to national culture is an easy but
impoverishing move. We may think about national culture, we may believe
in national culture, but Hofstede has not demonstrated that national culture
is how we think (McSweeney 2002, p.116).

30. - 24 -
The comment by McSweeney concerning the idea of ‘how we think’ is in
effect the same as the point made by Todeva referred to above (p.21)
concerning the idea of perceived versus internalised. Other writers have
found evidence to support the work of Hofstede. “Hofstede’s national
cultural characteristics seem to be a good indicator of cultural values and
representation, but not of practice” (Harvey 1997, p.144). One reason for
the high level of criticism may be that in social sciences as opposed to
pure physics is that it is harder to prove a theory than to disprove a theory.
Therefore it is easier for writers to criticise Hofstede rather to put forward
their own theories.
2.4.5 Conclusion
Having reviewed the models of Hofstede and Trompenaars in some depth
and tried to balance the views of the authors with their critics we can
conclude that no model will fully explain national culture and the idea of
reconciliation should be borne in mind.
Defining cultures through the use of broad behavioural dimensions may not
adequately capture national differences. For instance… the inadequacy of
the individual/collectivism dimension to accurately predict employee
attitudes toward continuous improvement practices…Continuous
improvement practices may be popular in both individualistic and collective
cultures, but for quite different reasons (Marchese 2001, p.132).
2.5 POLAND AND THE CR
The body of material on the two countries is growing, however many
writers often refer to these countries in part, often including data that
covers only one of the two countries, with other data covering the other.
This makes it difficult to build up a picture of comparable data.

31. - 25 -
2.5.1 Lewis
Lewis categorises countries depending on whether they are linear or multi-
active in the form of a scale, which is shown in table I.
TABLE I
LINEAR ACTIVE VERSUS MULTI-ACTIVE
Linear 1 Germans, Swiss
2 Americans (White Anglo-Saxon Protestant)
3 Scandinavians, Austrians
4 BRITISH, Canadians, New Zealanders
5 Australians, South Africans
6 Japanese
7 Dutch, Belgians
8 American subcultures (e.g. Jewish, Italian, POLISH)
9 French, Belgians (Walloons)
10 CZECHS, Slovenians, Croats, Hungarians
11 Northern Italians (Milan, Turin, Genoa)
12 Chileans
13 Russians, other Slavs
14 Portuguese
15 Polynesians
16 Spanish, Southern Italians, Mediterranean peoples
17 Indians, Pakistanis etc
Multi-Active 18 Latin Americans, Arabs, Africans
(Source: Lewis 1999 adapted from figure 6, p.40)
The UK is the most linear active of the three, preferring to finish one
activity prior to starting the next. Both Poland and the CR fall midway
between being linear or multi-active. Poland is only listed as an American
sub culture and not in its own right. To managers from the UK it may
appear that Poles and to a greater extent Czechs are slightly unfocused
and appear to jump from issue to issue. The countries listed (in table I)
that form part of Central Europe are all listed between 8 and 13 on the
scale, indicating that they all fall mid way between linear and multi-active
but are clearly not all the same. Lewis goes on to provide a table of
dialogue versus data culture and of reactive culture; however he omits
both Poland and the CR from both of these tables. Whilst the table
provided by Lewis is interesting, it provides no real basis for a detailed
comparison of cultures or gaining greater detailed insight into national

32. - 26 -
culture. Lewis includes separate chapters on Poland, the CR, and the UK
that provide a very interesting insight into the three countries, however
they do little to provide a framework to allow direct comparison. The
following summaries are taken from these chapters and have been
included as the terms and comments allow for some comparison with the
work of Hofstede and Trompenaars.
CR: Values include, individualism, work ethic, lack of self-confidence and
flexibility. Kissing and hugging in public is rare, however a handshake at
the start of a meeting is mandatory. Czechs are normally punctual for
meeting, “they believe that sound procedures are good for business and
seek common ground with partners, just as Germans do” (Lewis 1999,
p.265). Although not listed in the table of dialogue versus data culture,
Lewis describes them as dutiful listeners, who do not normally give
feedback or interrupt. This appears to suggest that the CR is a reactive
culture. “Czechs resent power imposed from outside” (Lewis 1999,
p.264).
Poland: “It is in Poland that the faith” (the Catholic Church) “assumes
disproportionate importance” (Lewis 1999, p.255). Kissing and hugging in
public is common. Generally Poles will arrive slightly late. First names
are generally not used in a business situation.
The work of Lewis is a worthy read for any businessperson planning to do
business in any of the countries covered by his work, although for this
research his work is not so directly relevant.
2.5.2 Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
The authors in their book, “Riding the Waves of Culture” provide a very
useful insight into the three countries. The following section provides a
summary of the seven dimensions referred to above (section 2.4.3, p.16-
17) however first they examine whether a company is considered to be a
social group or a system.

33. - 27 -
Is a company a system or a social group: In the UK 52% of
respondents saw the company as a system rather than a social group
compared with 67% in Poland and 71% in the CR. This extremely high
rating is likely to be the result of 40 years of communism, as many of the
countries of the former Soviet block, saw companies as systems rather
than social groups e.g. Russia 69% and Bulgaria 72%. Although care
must be taken not to treat the countries of the former Soviet block as
homogenous, as will be shown they are not all the same, as shown by
Lewis in table I (section 2.5.1 p.25). The result for Poland seems high,
when you consider the strong influence of the Catholic Church on the
country and the Church’s view on the importance of the family, yet the
opposite can be argued. The Church says the family is important, so
people put their efforts into the family and view the company as merely a
system to provide resources to support the family. This highlights two
points (a) in respect of Poland the influence of religion, which will be seen
throughout this research and (b) the importance of interpretation of results,
which is mainly subjective judgement.
Universalism / Particularism: In research they asked whether people
would lie to protect a friend who whilst driving over the speed limit injured
a pedestrian. Those who would lie are taking a particularism approach
and those who would not lie for their friend take a universal approach. In
the UK 91% would take a universal approach, compared with 83% in the
CR and 74% in Poland. Again in Poland we see the importance of the
family coming through. Interestingly there was a wide spread of results for
the former Soviet block countries, in Russia only 44% would take a
universal approach.

34. - 28 -
Individualism / Collectivism: They asked a question to determine if
people would opt for individual freedom or group responsibility. Just over
half (59%) of Poles opted for individual freedom, compared to 61% from
the UK and 68% of Czechs. The Czechs are only 1% behind the US on
69%. This follows religious divide referred to above, Poland is 95%
Catholic and the most collective, the CR is the most individualistic and is
39% Catholic.
Emotional / Neutral: Respondents were asked if they would show
emotions openly at work. 44% of Czechs and 45% from the UK would not
show emotions openly compared with 70% of Poles. Only the Japanese
and Ethiopians were less willing to show emotions than the Poles.
Specific / Diffuse: Would you spend your time painting the house of your
boss? 11% of Czechs and 12% from the UK would, this compares with
24% of Poles. The answer to this and the three questions for U/P, I/C and
E/N in each case show that the UK and the CR are closer to each other
than to Poland. This appears to indicate that the CR and the UK are
similar. However a second question was asked: Should companies
provide housing to employees. 76% of Czechs think they should which
compares with only 18% from the UK. Poles fall in the middle with 29%
who think they should do. This apparent contradiction highlights the
importance of not reading too much into the result of one question or study
and to look for corroborating evidence. It also supports the view of
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner that these characteristics are circular
and not linear.
Achievement / Ascription: The authors asked two questions; (a) The
most important thing in life is to think and act in the ways that best suit the
way you really are, even if you do not get things done. (b) The respect a
person gets is highly dependent on their family background. The answers
to these questions are summarised below in table II.

35. - 29 -
TABLE II
ACHIEVEMENT / ASCRIPTION
Question UK Poland
Czech
Republic
Act as suits you (%) that disagree 56% 21% 13%
Respect depends on family background
(%) that agree
11% 20% 13%
(Source: Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 1997, adapted from figures
8.1 and 8.2, p.105-106)
The authors believe that in relation to the first question where only a small
majority disagrees, the countries are ascription orientated. Hence both
Poland and the CR are oriented to ascription, the Czech being the most
oriented towards ascription. The UK being achievement orientated.
In the second question Poland (a Catholic country) is the most ascription
orientated of the three, the UK (a Protestant country) is the most
achievement orientated (the results of the UK may indicate a backlash
against the former class system in the UK). The results for the UK and
Poland are consistent with question 1 (Act as suits you), however the CR
compared to Poland in this question is more achievement orientated than
ascription orientated.
The shift in the CR highlights (a) the importance of not trying to categorise
a country using only one question or one measure and (b) the complexity
of national culture generally. For example a response to a question
concerning a friend or relative may be completely different to the response
to a similar question concerning a boss or work colleague.

36. - 30 -
Past and present / Future: This was tested using the Circle Test created
by Tom Cottle. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner averaged the results
to give a numeric value to long term versus short term. In effect what was
calculated was a figure comparable to the LTO dimension in the Hofstede
model. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner appear to have simplified the
concept of time from their original idea, in order to obtain a numeric result.
On a scale of 1 to 7, the Poles scored 4.31 (almost identical to the
Americans with a score of 4.30), the UK 4.50 and the Czech’s 5.55. This
indicates that the CR has a longer-term view and that Poland has a
shorter-term view.
Internal / External control: Two questions were asked. The first asked, if
it was worth trying to control natural forces, for example the weather. 36%
from the UK thought it was, compared to 38% from Poland; no score was
given for the CR. The second question asked was, what happens to me is
my own doing? 59% of Czechs, 66% of Poles, and 77% from the UK
believe that they have control over their own fate. The second question is
much more personal. The results indicate that the more personal the
issue the more likely people are to feel they have control of it regardless of
culture. Again the 40 years of communism may have caused people to
feel that their lives are governed by external factors rather than internal
factors, as the state took many decisions on behalf of individuals.
2.5.3 Hofstede
Research covering both countries: Kolman, Noorderhaven, Hofstede,
and Dienes undertook research that covers both Poland and the CR. In
1998 the authors conducted a survey of students in four countries (the
CR, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia). The average sample per country
was 100. The Netherlands was included to allow the results to be
calibrated. The survey was performed using VSM94.

37. - 31 -
TABLE III
KOLMAN ET AL.: CALIBRATED AND UN-CALIBRATED RESULTS
Poland Czech Republic
Dimension
Un-
calibrated
Calibrated
Un-
calibrated
Calibrated
PD 35 62 51 78
IND 61 55 74 68
MAS 45 87 39 81
UA 65 85 61 81
LTO 42 45 25 28
(Source: Kolman et al. 2003 adapted from tables III and table IV.)
The results of this survey provide a useful basis for comparison with this
research; however although the results were published in 2003, the
research was carried out in 1998 and so is now 5 years old. This is
important as 40 years of communism is likely to have had an impact on
the culture of each country, following its fall it is entirely possible (in fact
likely) that the culture of both countries will start to revert to their pre
communism state. Surveys need to be performed on a regular basis to
monitor any shift. Secondly the survey sample in each country covered
university students. Whilst this makes the results comparable internally, it
also means that they were based on a section of society where behaviour
and attitudes are not yet mature. The sample for example, is unlikely to
have had any real experience of the work place and its environment,
unlike the IBM managers in the original survey, although calibration of the
results should have resolved this issue.
CR: Based on the findings of Kolman et al. the CR can be described as
follows:
PD: the CR position was “above the midpoint of the scale” (Kolman et al.
1998, p82).

38. - 32 -
IND: Individualism is more prominent than a collective approach. This is
confirmed by the work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (section
2.5.2 p.28) and Lewis (section 2.5.1 p.25).
MAS: The split of roles appears to be strong.
UA: The Czechs score highly on this indicating that they prefer clearly
defined situations.
LTO: The CR is focused on medium term results, rather than long-term
investment. These results are not corroborated by the results of the work
of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (section 2.5.2 p.30), which
indicated that the CR takes a long-term view, not a short-term view like
Poland or America.
Other than this survey there is little other research on the CR using the
Hofstede model. Pavlica and Thorpe undertook a survey of managers’
perceptions comparing the CR and UK. Their data collection methods
included the use of VSM94 (Pavlica and Thorpe 1998) however the results
of this part of their work are not reported in their article. (Although Kolman
et al. were able to locate figures for their article ‘Cross-cultural differences
in Central Europe’). The results cited in Kolman et al. are shown in table
IV.

39. - 33 -
TABLE IV
PAVLICA AND THORPE CITIED IN KOLMAN ET AL.
Dimension Calibrated
PD 67
IND 38
MAS 151
UA 80
LTO 5
(Source: Adapted from Pavlica and Thorpe cited by Kolman et al. 2003)
Two dimensions are striking; MAS at 151 is extreme, higher than the 81 in
the Kolman et al. survey and LTO of 5 (Kolman et al. of 25) is very low
suggesting a focus on the past and present rather than the future. Again
not supported by the work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner or Lewis.
Pavlica and Thorpe conclude, “essential differences exist between Czech
and Western Cultures in many important respects – history, tradition,
politics and education” (Pavlica and Thorpe 1998, p.133). Of their sample
of 49 Czech managers, only 1 was female. “This is explained by the
virtual inaccessibility of managerial positions to women in the Czech
Republic, and is completely cultural” (Pavlica and Thorpe 1998, p.138)
indicating a high (possibly even extreme) masculinity score. “The only
woman from this group wrote about the lack of time she now had for
housework” (Pavlica and Thorpe 1998, p.140).

40. - 34 -
Poland: Emanuela Todeva undertook a detailed study of a small number
of Polish students at Bialystok Polytechnic in 1995. The aim was to try to
determine the position of Poland using internalised values rather than
perceived values. This research provides an interesting comparison as
again it is based on students. Although she does not provide the actual
figures and only refers to the results as low, medium or high. Todeva
came to the following conclusions: Medium PD, high IND, medium MAS
and low UA. Todeva, made two interesting points on her findings
concerning PD and IND.
PD: “The internalised norm of high PD… could be explained both by the
role of the Catholic Church with its hierarchical structure and philosophy…
and by the extensive hierarchical structures developed in organizations as
part of the bureaucratic machine of the central planning system” (Todeva
1999, p.617).
IND: “Their explanation during the discussion for the high individualism
choice was quite clear. They referred to the Catholic church which
projects individuals as wholly responsible for their actions” (Todeva 1999,
p.618). This view is contradicts the research of Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner (p.16) who state that Catholic countries are normally
more collective than individualistic.
Wojciech Nasierowski and Bogusz Mikula also performed a survey of
Poland; again a sample of a country in the original IBM survey was taken
in order to allow the results to be calibrated. Their survey was based on
the Value Survey Module 1982 version (“VSM82”); the predecessor to
VSM94. Students and those with some limited work experience formed
the sampling frame. The respondents were matched in respect of gender,
age, and type of employment; this resulted in a matched sample of 50
males and 30 females. Table V provides a summary of the un-calibrated
and calibrated results.

41. - 35 -
TABLE V
NASIEROWSKI AND MIKULA: CALIBRATED AND UN-CALIBRATED
RESULTS
Dimension Un-calibrated Calibrated
PD 70 72
IND 25 56
MAS 62 62
UA 56 106
LTO Not Studied Not Studied
(Source: Nasierowski and Mikula 1998)
PD: They suggest that high PD indicates an authoritarian style, which
whilst inherent in the culture of Poland, may not be readily accepted by the
respondents. They suggest that together with weak leadership, in
enterprises where the issues of authority and respect are not resolved this
is likely to result in poor performance. They also suggest that Poles may
have a dual approach to authority as the result of Communism.
There is the attitude of official subordination and formal authority – the
Communist Party leaders were often more important than the directors of
the company – and non-recognition of the official authority typically
resulted in persecution. On the other hand, there is an informal attitude
based on respect for, and recognition of, truly accepted values
(Nasierowski and Mikula 1998, p.502).
Other writers support this view.
Acceptance of authority by subordinates is not a matter of course. This
has to do with what Jankowicz (1994, p.483) calls the ‘idiosyncratic stance
towards authority’ of the Poles. Outward respect for authority (or even
servility is important, but need not necessarily be accompanied by any real
commitment from the side of the subordinate (cf Zalazka, 1996) (Kolman
et al 2002, p.82).

42. - 36 -
IND: Here they make an interesting and valuable point “the distribution of
scores can change with age and the ability to accept and accommodate
new realities” (Nasierowski and Mikula 1998, p.504). Their sample was
students, this research covered young professionals; it is possible that the
results of this research reported in chapter 4 will show partly the changes
that can be caused by changes in age. They state that one of the reasons
for low individualism is the concept of shared responsibility, however they
also highlight research that shows Poles do not instantly make good team
players.
MAS: Much of their comments here refer to historic research and provide
little insight into the causes of these results. The results are unsurprising
indicating high MAS.
UA: Nasierowski and Mikula seem surprised by this very high score, when
considered in the context of the respondents. Being young and educated
with job experience in areas of job economic growth, a lower UA would
have been expected. They note that their findings differ from
entrepreneurs who tend to have lower UA.
Table VI provides a comparison of the results of Todeva, Kolman et al.
and Nasierowski and Mikula in respect of Poland.

43. - 37 -
TABLE VI
A COMPARISON OF TODEVA, KOLMAN ET AL. AND NASIEROWSKI
AND MIKULA
Dimension Todeva Kolman et. al.
Nasierowski
and Mikula
PD Medium 62 72
IND High 55 56
MAS Medium 87 62
UA Low 85 106
LTO No result 45 Not Studied
(Source: Summarised version of the tables III and V above).
Great care should be taken in drawing conclusions from the above table,
as Hofstede has commented that samples should be matched as far as
possible. The three surveys all used students as the sampling frame in
one form or another, however each approach was different; Todeva used
group discussions, Kolman et al. used VSM94 and Nasierowski and
Mikula used VSM82. Whilst bearing the warning in mind, (with the
exception of time orientation for which we have only one result) we can
draw the following conclusions:
PD: Poland appears to fall into the medium to high range. Before
communism, Poland historically operated a feudal system, however unlike
the UK, the influence of the local lord only covered a small area, and so
PD was not that great. However Poland also has a long history of
democracy, being the first country in Europe to adopt a codified
constitution in 1791. The influence of communism on society may have
had the effect of increasing PD between the party elite and the workers.
Although from an ideological point of view communism should have
lowered PD.

44. - 38 -
IND: Poland appears to fall into the high / medium range for this. Since
the fall of communism there has been an explosion in the number of
Polish entrepreneurs (many with a desire to make a fast profit), this could
suggest an individualistic approach. Communism in contrast was a
collective idea. Again we may be seeing a change as the culture returns
to the pre-communist period.
MAS: Again Poland appears to fall into the medium range. The Catholic
Church, still plays an important role in the life of Poland and its people, its
involvement stretches to political parties, radio stations and pension funds.
95% of Poles are Catholic (see appendix A) and as a result the extended
family and family values are important. This is likely to encourage a
masculine culture. The church operated throughout the communist period
and support for the Church and its views was one way the population
could show their objections to communist rule, any impact of the
communist period is likely to have been offset by the power of the Church
in respect of this dimension.
UA: It is extremely hard to draw any meaningful conclusions here as the
results range from one low to two highs.
LTO: The one survey indicates that Poland takes neither a short-term
approach to decision, like the Americans nor a long-term approach like the
Japanese. This does not agree with the work of Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, which indicates that Poland is almost identical to
America in taking a short-term approach.

45. - 39 -
2.6 CONCLUSIONS
Having reviewed the literature, the following conclusions can be drawn:
culture is important and whilst it is difficult to define and categorise, this
does not mean research is not worthwhile. There are a number of models
for analysing culture, of which, probably the most used and well known
one is the model developed by Hofstede. Each model has drawbacks and
the choice of a model should depend on the research aims.
The culture of an entity may impact on the responses of those being
studied and in addition “political upheaval in various countries (e.g.,
Poland, Russia) may make it difficult to get an accurate or stable
assessment of a given national culture. A facility-by-facility cultural audit
may be the most effective course to determine practice-culture fit”
(Marchese 2001, p.132).
Human beings are individuals and it is doubtful if a model to fully
understand national culture could ever be developed. The Hofstede
model provides a useful tool to gain insight into national culture.

46. - 40 -
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 RESEARCH APPROACH AND STRATEGY
The literature review has established that whilst not all writers consider
culture to be of central importance, the majority of writers do and its
importance appears to be growing. It is often said that where national and
business culture conflict, the national culture will prevail.
The aim of the research is to identify national culture using young
professionals as a sampling frame. As being young they better reflect the
direction national culture may go in the future and at the same time have
some experience of the world of business, rather than sampling students.
3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The basic aims of this research have been described in the introductory
chapter. These aims have been divided into two questions, which are
distinct but related and follow a logical sequence, namely:
3.2.1 Research Objective One (“RO1”)
To determine the national cultural characteristics of Poland and the CR
using the model developed by Hofstede. Then to compare the results with
other surveys performed in respect of these countries.
3.2.2 Research Objective Two (“RO2”)
To further the understanding of how the national cultures of Poland and
the CR impact on managers from the UK when working in these countries.

47. - 41 -
3.3 SCOPE OF RESEARCH
In order to identify national culture (RO1) the views of 50 people from
each of the three countries were sampled. All of the responses from
Poland and 40% of the responses from the CR came from employees of
firms in one group of companies. In order to ensure consistency of results
the sample from the UK was taken from an organisation similar in size,
structure, and type to those in Poland and the CR. Where the three firms
were unable to provide 50 responses, other companies that provided
professional services and where possible matched the other criteria were
chosen. The samples were chosen by self-selection, various contacts in
professional service companies where approached and asked to pass
copies to their colleagues who might be prepared to complete them. It is
important to note that at the time when the survey was performed the
economic conditions in both Poland and the CR were poor. As a result
any attempt to obtain sponsorship of the survey by the employer may
have caused concern from employees that the survey was an attempt to
find candidates for redundancy and so therefore making participation
voluntary was clearly preferable.
RO2 was commenced only after analysis of the results of the surveys of
RO1 was completed. Semi-structured interviews (“interviews”) were
conducted with 2 people from each country (a) who described themselves
as UK nationals and (b) who had worked in the position of manager in one
of the countries for at least two years.
The sampling approach for the interviews was to contact various business
contacts that meet the above criteria. This is because it was impractical to
determine the sampling frame. The British Embassy maintains a list of UK
nationals registered in each country, however only a small percentage of
nationals ever bother to register with their Embassy. The sample size (as
mentioned above) for this objective would be 2 from each country. Using
personal contacts it was relatively straightforward to reach the people who
met the criteria.

48. - 42 -
3.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The questionnaire for RO1 was obtained from the Institute for Research
on Intercultural Co-operation (“IRIC”). IRIC is an independent research
institute co-founded by Geert Hofstede in 1980. The use of a standard
format questionnaire ensures that comparison of results with other
research is likely to be more straightforward. It also ensures no errors in
the translation of questions were made as they had been previously
translated and tested. It allowed for more research time to be devoted to
analysis of the data collected and conducting semi-structured interviews.
The questionnaires are reasonably well known in the academic world and
have not been reproduced. A copy was obtained from IRIC for use in one
survey, and it is unclear if this copyright would cover reproduction in this
research. Hofstede warns that those who wish to understand the
justification and validation of his research and message must read the full
version of his book (Culture’s Consequences). The purpose of this
research is not to validate his work, but to apply his dimensions to Poland
and the CR, therefore understanding and applying VSM94, has been a
key issue.
Questionnaires “work best with standardised questions that you can be
confident will be interpreted the same way by all respondents” (Robson
2002 cited in Saunders et al. 2003, p.281). VSM94 has been used by
numerous well-respected researchers and academics (Hofstede, Spector,
and Kolman to name but a few), which supports the position that these
questions have been tried and tested several times. As additional
confirmation native Polish and Czech speakers, who also spoke English
well, read both the Polish and Czech translations to confirm that they are
not materially different. No issues or problems arose as a result of this.
However section 4.2.1 highlights a problem that was reported by
respondents relating to two questions concerning statistical data.

49. - 43 -
The questionnaires were sent by fax to the agreed primary contact points
in Poland and the UK. Instructions in the local language were also issued
to the primary contact points and a covering memo was issued with the
questionnaire to each participant. The questionnaires in respect of the CR
were distributed by hand following a meeting with the potential
respondents.
The semi-structured interviews were chosen to allow flexibility not offered
by structured interviews.
3.5 COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA
The sample size for each country was 50 people based on the views of
Hofstede in the guidance notes to VSM94, as being sufficient to provide a
representative sample (Hofstede 1994).
3.6 ETHICS AND MANAGEMENT APPROVAL
The self-administered questionnaires did not contain the names or
addresses of the participants and whilst attributes were collected as part
of the survey care has been taken to ensure that this will not lead to the
identification of any one individual.
Permission to implement the survey was requested and granted by the
Human Resources Director in the case of the Polish and Czech firms and
by the Managing Director in the case of the UK firm.
The interviews were focused on culture and not the individuals in
themselves. The results have been referred to in the dissertation but
mainly collectively.

50. - 44 -
3.7 PILOT STUDY
Given the decision to use the VSM94, the need for a pilot survey was not
considered necessary due to the extensive testing that has already
occurred. The previous use of VSM94 and its predecessors adequately
covers the warning given by Bell “however pressed for time you are, do
your best to give the questionnaire a trial run” (Bell 1999, cited in
Saunders et al. 2003, p.308).
3.8 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
The interviews were conducted with 4 UK nationals who are managers or
directors of companies in Poland and the CR (2 managers per country).
The questions that were asked have been reproduced in appendix B. The
questions were designed after the results of RO1 were known. The aim of
the questions was to draw out from the managers their views on managing
companies in Poland and the CR. It was not the intention to get them to
comment on the results in terms of the Hofstede dimensions, although the
questions were designed to link back to the Hofstede dimensions.
3.9 CREDIBILITY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
“For international or cross-cultural research it is important to have an
understanding of the countries or cultures in which you are undertaking
the research” (Saunders et al. 2003, p.286). This is an important issue as
it can impact on the reliability of the findings. To sit in one-country and
post questionnaires on culture to a sample frame in another country is
firstly likely to result in a poor response rate and secondly there is little
control over who would fill in the questionnaires.
The researcher has lived and worked in Poland for 3.5 years and the CR
for 2 years; prior to this period he lived and worked in the UK. The
researcher is a UK national.

51. - 45 -
In order to enhance credibility the sample frames were matched as far as
possible:
(a) All participants either worked and/or lived in or near the area
surrounding a Capital City: London, Warsaw, or Prague.
(b) Participants where possible were employees of the three firms chosen
as the sampling frame.
(c) The firms used to provide the samples were all SME’s and the core
activities are professional services (accounting, auditing, payroll
management, and business consulting).
(d) The participants are all professionals; most will have a high standard of
education and often hold professional business qualifications.
(e) The age range should be primarily from 20 to 40 years.
The use of VSM94 removed the risk that had the author designed them
they may have contained his own cultural bias, and turned the strength he
was using to undertake this research into a weakness. The opposite
applies to the semi-structured interviews; these by their nature are
designed to be more flexible to allow lines of thought to develop and to
draw out views and ideas. A summary of each interview was sent by
email to the interviewee, to review and confirm their agreement. This is
both ethical and provides some comfort that bias of the author did not
distort the results.
3.10 DATA ANALYSIS
The data analysis to calculate the VSM94 scores were performed using an
excel spreadsheet. A qualified accountant who had read the VSM94
instructions of how to calculate scores checked the validity of the formulas
and calculations.

52. - 46 -
3.11 SECONDARY DATA
The main sources of data were the virtual academic library at Oxford
Brooks University and related electronic databases of professional
journals.
Some research was initially undertaken using business and economic
magazines e.g. The Economist; quality daily press e.g. The Financial
Times, and general web search engines. The results tended to be of
general articles, which whilst interesting contained little academic content,
some interesting data was found such as the background data on the
three countries shown in appendix A.
3.12 LIMITATIONS OF THIS RESEARCH
The objectives of this research have been set out in section 3.2. This
research aims to identify the national cultures of the three countries and
how they interact, when UK managers are sent to manage operations in
either Poland or the CR. This research does not aim to determine or
comment on other types of culture such as corporate culture. Nor does it
deal with the reverse situation were a Czech or Polish manager was sent
to manage operations in other countries.
The models used to determine national culture have been reviewed,
however this research does not attempt to disprove them, only to provide
sufficient information to justify their use.
3.13 DEVELOPMENTS FOR THE FUTURE
This research has endeavoured to provide a valuable insight in the
national culture of both countries. Given the history of both countries and
the region, similar research on a larger scale is required. With hindsight it
may have been appropriate to concentrate on one country rather than two.

53. - 47 -
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a summary of the findings from the research
undertaken. This is presented in a summarised form to ensure that none
of the respondents could be individually identified.
4.2 RO1: SELF ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRES
4.2.1 Response Rate and Statistical Data
The number of replies from Poland quickly exceeded the required 50; all
replies came from employees of the same firm. In the CR the size of the
firm is approximately 30, therefore it was necessary to look for additional
respondents. Members of the firm were asked to pass copies to their
colleagues and friends in other professional firms. One client of the firm
with staff of a similar age and in a related industry was also surveyed.
The UK questionnaires were collected during a visit to the UK. The
response was very poor, only 13 being completed. This total was
supplemented by asking a number of colleagues in other firms in similar
industries to complete questionnaires.
With the exception of one questionnaire from the UK, which was, only half
completed the majority of respondents from all countries were able to
complete all questions. However a number of the respondents had
problems interpreting the appropriate answers to two of the statistical
questions. The two questions were question 23 (the number of years of
formal education) and question 24 (the type of job held). Respondents
from all three countries raised issues related to these two questions.
Therefore poor translation of the question is unlikely to be the cause of the
confusion. In the UK the question was, if university education should be
counted, many may not have counted it, believing university is not a
school, this might have resulted in formal education being understated.

54. - 48 -
A detailed analysis of the data collected for statistical purposes is
presented in appendix C.
In the case of each country over 50% of respondents were female,
although this ranged from 52% in the UK to 85% in Poland. 48% of
respondents in UK were aged between 25 and 34, compared to 57% in
CR and 73% in Poland. In the case of each country the largest single
category of employees was, generally trained office workers or
secretaries, 56% in Poland, 33% in CR and 35% in the UK.
Whilst not perfectly matched the above indicates a reasonable degree of
matching, sufficient to make comparisons.
4.2.2 Hofstede’s Five Dimensions
The first stage of the calculation was to calculate the un-calibrated results;
these are of little value, until they have been calibrated. The un-calibrated
results are shown in appendix D.
The mean calculations were made to two decimal places “more accuracy
is unrealistic (survey data are imprecise measures) and less accuracy
loses valid information” (Hofstede, 1994).
The calculation of LTO is based on a revision to the formula in 1999,
following the first larger-scale application of the LTO in 15 countries.
The next stage was to compare the results of the UK with those in the
original study by Hofstede of IBM. The differences between the two
studies provide the calibration adjustment for the Poland and the CR. The
calculation of the calibration adjustment and calibrated figures for both
countries are shown in appendix E. The calibration adjustments for PD
and IND were both very low (under 10), the calibration adjustments for UA
and LTO were larger both in the low 20’s. The calibration adjustment for

55. - 49 -
MAS was 62, whilst not necessarily a cause for concern it is worthy of
note. It is possible that people working in the UK professional service
industry see the jobs as interchangeable between the sexes.
Poland: The scores for Poland were PD 53, IND 62, MAS 66, UA 53 and
LTO 17.
Czech Republic: The scores for the CR were PD 47, IND 64, MAS 76,
UA 69 and LTO 25.
Without comparison and interpretation these results are meaningless, an
analysis of these results is given in Chapter 5.
4.3 RO2: SEMI-STRUCTURE INTERVIEWS (“INTERVIEWS”)
The following introduction was given at the start of each interview: ‘Please
read the following questions and then think about the answers in relation
to Czechs/Poles as a group, try to avoid letting your views be coloured by
one individual. However during the discussion I would be pleased to hear
of individual examples that provide insight into your views.’
In each case notes were made during the interview, these were typed up
after the meeting and sent to the participant by email, firstly thanking them
again for their time and for providing their views and secondly asking them
to review the notes and advise if any comments had been misinterpreted
or omitted. This ensured that their views had been accurately recorded
and that bias of the researcher and the researcher’s own views had not
become part of the comments. In each case the participant replied
confirming their comments and in 75% of cases requesting minor changes
to the comments made.

56. - 50 -
4.3.1 Poland
Summaries of the key points and issues mentioned during the interviews
have been included below; the full notes of the interviews have not been
included in order to ensure confidentiality. Respondents are referred to as
Respondent 1 (“R1”) and Respondent 2 (“R2”).
Both respondents felt that Poles attached great importance to the use of
titles, on business cards and stamps used to authorise documents, this
was of particular importance in older Polish companies where status was
given in place of monetary rewards. In companies with Western
ownership titles were not so important as reward was given in monetary
terms.
The respondents differed over the issue of whether Poles respected their
(the foreigner managers) authority. R2 felt that they did generally respect
foreigners, especially if the foreign manager had a trade; R1 felt that Poles
often saw foreigner managers as ‘stupid’, but that they could be convinced
of the manager’s authority, over time if their decisions lead to successful
outcomes. The second respondent appears to be suggesting that Poles
viewed authority as having to be earned (as with respect).
There was a consensus that detailed instructions are normally much more
successful, R2 stating, “If you give general instructions you will live to
regret it”. One concern was that general instructions were subject to
interpretation, which often meant something different to that expected
occurred. R2 stated that they were not good at individual thinking and
preferred “to be given instructions and to follow rules”. The same
respondent (R2) felt they worked better in groups, R1 stating that they
preferred to work as individuals; with a group “you are never sure who it is
in charge”. The view of R1 may actually reflect their own approach to
management and not the preference of the Poles.

57. - 51 -
Both respondents felt that Poles have clear ideas of the roles of men and
women (indicating a high masculinity score). Within the business
community and those with higher education it is weaker, but still present
although often being hidden. R1 suggested that there is conflict in this
area, answering, “men think they do, women disagree” to question 5. This
indicates that we may expect to see a fall in the MAS dimension as
women push for a more equal share in roles. It is possible that this could
lead to some areas of conflict as seen in Western Europe during the 1960
and 1970’s.
Both felt that at present (in the current uncertain economic climate) Poles
were happy to have jobs. R2 felt that you could separate long-term career
progression (“LTCP”) from stability in an immature market such as Poland.
R2 expressed the view that LTCP was important but stability had not
been, comparing Poland in the middle to late 1990’s as similar to London
in the early 1980’s (fast progression, high status and frequent job
changes). “LTCP was seen as jumping from job to job”. R1 felt that they
were focused neither on the long nor short term.
Both respondents felt that Poles consider home life and leisure time as
more important than work. R1 described Poles as lazy who tried to avoid
responsibility. R2 felt that their aim was to ‘try and be comfortable’ in
other words that they have a good standard of home life but not to such a
level that work commitments (i.e. the need for a large salary) overly impact
on the home life. Both also felt that Poles were generally late, used little
body language, but did show some emotion (the senior representative
only).
Both had experienced situations where Poles had failed to follow
instructions, the reasons being either that the Poles did not want to do the
job, because ‘it was beneath them’ (R2), or that the instructions had been
verbal and vague allowing for interpretation.

58. - 52 -
4.3.2 Czech Republic
Summaries of the key points and issues mentioned during the interviews
have been included below; the full notes of the interviews have not been
included in order to ensure confidentiality. Respondents are referred to a
Respondent 3 (“R3”) and Respondent 4 (“R4”).
Both respondents felt that the use of titles was important; R3 felt that it
was “hugely important, like Germany” and caused problems for Czechs in
the sense that they become hung up on titles. R3 felt that Czechs did
respect foreign managers who were a Jednatel (Jednatel is the Czech
word for director and is widely used even by foreign managers here) but
not really people below that level. R4 felt that as a foreign manager,
generally the Czechs do respect them.
Both respondents felt that detailed written instructions were vital. One
stating ‘It is imperative to give specific (written if possible) and detailed
instructions. If they are not written then they can be subject to later
interpretation’. The other respondent felt that detailed instructions were
better as ‘Czechs have a lack of initiative’ which is the result of the historic
situation where they ‘learnt by rote and worked in a structured way’.
Working as individuals was the most successful in the view of both
respondents. R4 felt that working with individuals was simpler than
working in groups and so the preferred option. R3 felt that once you have
explained a task to individuals, they could then be merged into groups.
The word ‘patriarchal’ was one of the first words used by both respondents
when asked if Czechs have a clear idea of the roles of men and women.
This indicates a high score on the MAS dimension.
R3 felt that most Czechs were more interested in the short term i.e. ‘ Jam
today’, R4 felt that Czechs were ‘astute’ at balancing short and long term
goals.

59. - 53 -
Both felt that offering rewards (the carrot) was more effective than threats
(the stick). One emphasised that it is important to lead by example, from
the front in order to achieve the best results, citing the example of an MD
sweeping up mess of other workers in the office. This helped to break
down artificial barriers.
With regard to the balance between home/leisure and work life, both felt
historically home life was more important, although both felt this was
changing. Interestingly both referred to the ‘rat race’ culture of the UK and
USA and one felt it would occur in the CR in time.
4.4 CONCLUSIONS
The scores calculated using the Hofstede dimensions on their own add
little if any value, the comments from the interviews do provide some
insight but again lack context. The next chapter aims to bring together the
results of this research and to compare and contrast them with the results
of other research on these countries and to consider the results of the
surveys with in light of the information obtained from the interviews.

60. - 54 -
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter aims to draw together, in respect of each country;
(a) the results of the self administered questionnaires,
(b) the work of others, referred to in the literature review and
(c) the results of the semi structured interviews
with the aim being to build a picture of the national culture of each country
and to determine what challenges this creates for UK managers operating
in both countries.
5.2 A WORD OF WARNING
Only in Poland was the sample size of 50 respondents achieved, despite
efforts to achieve the same sample size in the CR and UK. The totals for
both the CR and UK include respondents not employed by the same firm,
and so reduce the possibility of achieving a directly comparable sample.
5.3. POLAND
Table VII provides a summary of the results of the work of the authors
reviewed in Chapter 2 and of this research; each dimension has been
addressed in turn.

61. - 55 -
TABLE VII
POLAND: A COMPARISON OF RESEARCH
Dimension Todeva
Kolman et.
al.
Nasierowski
and Mikula
Lynn
PD Medium 62 72 53
IND High 55 56 62
MAS Medium 87 62 66
UA Low 85 106 53
LTO No result 45 Not studied 17
5.3.1 Power Distance
This research indicates that PD appears to be falling but is higher than the
UK, which scores 35 (appendix E). As indicated in chapter 2 this may
have been high as a result of the feudal system, although the feudal and
class system was very strong in the UK. However the UK is a more
developed free market economy and so has had longer to shake of its
past. This fall could result from the fact that the sampling frame, is a
Western European owned and operated professional services company,
which operates a flat management structure. Those with a low PD are
attracted to this type of company. In terms of the wider context, the Polish
economy is currently weak and unemployment is rising as many ‘old’
companies are de-layering in order to survive and compete. Many of the
state owned enterprises referred to by Nasierowski and Mikula (1998,
p.501) have since been sold off by the government to private investors
(mainly to foreign multinationals). The old companies that facilitated high
PD are becoming less significant to the economy and as people adjust
observe see a fall in PD.
61% of respondents were aged between 25 to 29, it is plausible that those
who had good education are no longer prepared to accept the unequal
distribution of power in the same way as their parents did.

62. - 56 -
The impact of monetary rewards (for example salary) and non-monetary
rewards (for example status and the provision of cars) may also have an
impact in this area. Both respondents to the interviews mentioned the
issue of titles and other status symbols. “People make an effort to look
powerful, which can be reflected in the high status of things. Thus, it
should not come as a surprise that very many Poles own cars whose price
exceed their yearly salary” (Nasierowski and Mikula 1998, p.501). It is
possible that titles and status, supporting high PD were given in place of
monetary rewards. PD is now falling as Poles focus on earning monetary
rewards rather than status.
There is some evidence that Poles do not automatically accept the
authority of foreign managers although superficially they may appear to
accept it. This view is supported by the comments of Kolman et al.,
Naserowski and Mikula referred to in chapter 2 that the Poles have a dual
approach to authority.
PD has important implications for UK managers. Firstly an autocratic
approach is unlikely to be successful, Poles will want a more equal
distribution of power. If they do not achieve this it is likely to have a
negative impact on business operations and results, given the Poles’ low
work ethic (both survey respondents felt Poles considered home life and
leisure time to be more important than work life). This is supported by the
findings of Skarzynksa (1991) cited in Nasierowski and Mikula (1998).
During Communism, they had a saying along the lines of ‘you pretend to
pay us and we’ll pretend to work’. Secondly Poles may be paying ‘lip
service’ to a foreign manager’s authority; effective authority like respect
may have to be earned.

63. - 57 -
5.3.2 Individualism
It appears that Poles are becoming more individualistic rather than
collective, scoring between 55 and 62 in the surveys mentioned above.
Compared with 89 in the UK and 91 in the US. The largest Polish
community outside Warsaw (the capital) is in Chicago (U.S.A.), Poland
has been a keen supporter of the war in Iraq (to remove Saddam Hussein)
having been publicly criticized by France for doing so. All of this supports
the view that Poland tends to look to America as much as it does to
Western Europe. Lewis (1999) listed Poland as a subculture of America
(p.25, table 1). Individualism is high in America and it is therefore
reasonable for this to affect Poles, given greater contact with America
generally due to the major investment many US multinationals have in
Poland and that many Poles have relatives in America. This would
support the apparent rise in individualism.
The communist (collectivism) past has largely been rejected (although
both the current President and Prime Minister are ex-communists) which
contrasts with the CR as referred to above in section 1.2 (p.3). The
interviews gave conflicting views, perhaps indicating that Poles are still
trying to determine which approach to adopt.
The work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (p.16 and p.27) indicates
that Poland is more collective in part due to the influence of the Catholic
Church. This views in disputed by Todeva (p.34) who’s sample in group
discussions held the view that the Catholic Church made them more
individualistic.
The UK manager would be well advised to take this dimension into
account when setting up internal structures; the Poles generally do not
take instantly to team-working (Nasierowski and Mikula 1998), and often
prefer to work on their own for material gain. The casual use of teams
may result in a situation, where everybody is responsible but in reality
nobody takes responsibility.