Separation and Isolation of plant constituents Carbohydrates Glycosides Tannins Volatile Oil Resins & Resin combinations ALKALOIDS Lipids Tumor inhibitors from plants

1. PHARMACOGNOSY
3rd Professional
3000-M
SHAHARYAR KHAN
3RD PROF MORNING

2. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
1
Separation
and Isolation
of plant
constituents
An introduction to chromatography and chromatographic techniques
e.g. Adsorption chromatography and Partition chromatography.

3. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
2
Chromatography
Need and importance of chromatography:
Most chemical operation includes chemical analysis which involves separation of mixture into individual
components. Familiar examples are filtration and extraction, distillation & electrolysis. Likewise
purification & separation procedures are needed for many pharmaceutical processes.
It is very easy to separate mixture of powder sulphur and iron. As individual components of a mixture gets
more & more similar in physical and chemical properties. It became increasingly difficult to separate them.
For example; Acetone (60 O
C B.P.) and water (100 O
C B.P.) can be separated easily by fractional distillation.
On the other hand it is very difficult to separate the components of liquid air by fractional distillation
because the liquid O2 has B.P. -183 O
C and liquid Nitrogen has B.P. -196 ºC.
In pharmaceutical analysis and/or pharmaceutical research/operations it is necessary to separate, isolate,
purify and identify the components of much more complex mixtures as mentioned above. For example
when a protein is treated with dilute mineral acid, it is hydrolyzed to give complex mixture of amino acids.
The individual components of which resembles one and other very closely in physical or chemical
properties. It would be almost impossible task for fractional distillation or fractional crystallization. It is
however easy to achieve such separation by chromatography.
Chromatography:
Definition: chromatography can be defined as “that technique for the separation of mixture component
in which separation is brought about by the differential movements of individual components through a
porous medium under the influence of moving solvent.
Or
A separation process based upon differential distribution of mixture between two phases one of which
percolates through other. One of the phases is termed as stationary phase and other as mobile phase.
Stationary phase may be a porous solid or finely divided solid or a liquid that has been bound to some
inert supporting material. The stationary phase exert more or less selective force on the migrant
components which counter act the driving force of mobile phase (in order to produce a differential
migration from a narrow zone, a driving forces is needed). In chromatography the driving force (mobile
phase) is Liquid or gas.
Stationary phase tend to retard the migration of individual components of sample mixture by resistive
forces. These resistive forces may sometime difficult to define. Usually these resistive forces are
designated by a vague term SORPTION. During chromatography migrant solute molecules repeatedly
undergo sorption which selectively retard them and DESORPTION which allow them to be carried out
along with the mobile phase. This continuous distribution process forms the basis of chromatography,
thus chromatography can defined as the relationship between the sorptive and desorptive forces of a
mixture component.

4. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
3
Solid stationary phase retard the migration of sample components by adsorption, absorption and various
other processes, the liquid stationary phase sops them mainly by acting as solvent. If the stationary phase
is solid the process is call adsorption chromatography, while if the stationary phase is liquid then process
is called partition chromatography. The difference between these lies in the nature of forces that
determine the distribution of the migrant components of the mixture between two phases.
In adsorption chromatography the mobile phase passes over the solid stationary phase carrying the
dissolved components in it. The rate at which the component move or separate depends upon various
degrees of affinities that the migrant components has for the stationary phase.
In partition chromatography a porous matric such as cellulose or silica gel immobilizes a layer of solvent
which there become the stationary phase. The mobile phase passes through this matrix and the relative
solubility of the component (partition coefficient) in the two liquid phases is the controlling factor in the
separation process.
Chromatography classification:
The classification of chromatography is discussed below;
A. The Chromatography is classified according to the nature of stationary phase (solid or liquid)
i. Adsorption chromatography (solid stationary phase)
ii. Partition chromatography (Liquid stationary phase)
B. The Chromatography is classified according to the nature of mobile phase (liquid or gas)
i. Adsorption chromatography
a. Liquid-solid chromatography (LSC)
b. Gas-solid chromatography (GSC)
ii. Partition chromatography
a. Liquid-Liquid chromatography (LLC)
b. Gas -Liquid chromatography (GLC)
C. Liquid solid chromatography (adsorption chromatography) is classified according to the
process/method of development.
i. Frontal analysis
ii. Displacement development
iii. Elution development
Chromatography is probably the most versatile of all the separation methods. It is applied to all mixtures
including volatile mixtures. The choice of method depends upon the nature and the amount of sample,
the objectives of the separation and the limitation of available time, equipment and expertise.

5. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
4
A. Adsorption chromatography
When the stationary phase is solid the chromatography is called Adsorption chromatography. In
adsorption chromatography small differences in adsorption and desorption behavior of the substances
between a moving solvent (mobile phase which may be a liquid or gas) at stationary phase are utilized to
achieve the separation. Adsorption is a surface phenomenon denoting a higher concentration at an
interface than is present in the surrounding medium.
Liquid-Solid chromatography
Most of the solids which are used in thin layer and column chromatographic separations involving
adsorption are metallic oxides, hydrated oxides and salts. The most popular are silica gel and alumina.
Other adsorbents such as charcoal, polyamide powder have specialized uses. The adsorptive or active
sites in materials such as silica gel and alumina result mainly from the defects (that is cracks and edges)
where the electrostatic forces which held crystal lattice together are partially directed outwards.
It is the interaction between these forces and electrical forces within the mixture molecule that bring
about the separation of the mixture.
Role/effect/importance of solvent Polarity in chromatography
Polarity: it is the capacity of producing ions
Example: CH4
CH3-Cl
Dielectric constant scale for measuring polarity
a. Hexane 0 db
b. Benzene
c. Toluene
d. Pet. Ether
e. Chloroform 4 db
f. Dichloromethane 9 db
g. Acetone 11 db
h. Ethyl acetate 12 db
i. Ethanol 30 db
j. Methanol 32 db
k. Water 80 db
l. Acids
m. Bases
n. Salts
o. Steroids and waxes are non-polar.

6. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
5
Role of polarity
The general rule in chromatography is to match the polarity if the solvent with that of sample and in most
cases to use the most powerful solvent for more polar substances and less polar solvent for the non- polar
substances . For example if we use a polar solvent for a mixture of non-polar substance. The solvent
molecule will pass through the system rapidly without separation being achieved. If on the other hand a
non-polar solvent is used for polar mixture, the mixture will remain at the origin and there will be no
separation.
Basically polarity refers to the separation of charges with in the molecule.
Solids tends to dissolve only in liquids of similar polarities that is polar solid dissolve in polar solvents such
as water while non-polar solid dissolve in non-polar solvents such as hexane and substances of medium
polarity will dissolve in medium polarity solvent.
Solvents in order of increasing polarity (increasing eluting power)
Hexane ˂ Pet. Ether ˂ Cyclohexane ˂ Carbon tetra chloride ˂ Benzene ˂ Toluene ˂ Chloroform ˂
Dichloromethane ˂ Diethyl ether ˂ Ethyl acetate ˂ Acetone ˂ Ethanol ˂ Methanol ˂ Water ˂ Acids ˂ Bases
˂ Salts
Adsorbents in order of increasing polarity (adsorptive power)
Sugar ˂ starch ˂ Talc ˂ Na2CO3 ˂ pot carbonate ˂ Magnesia ˂ alumina ˂ activated Silica gel (100% free of
water)
Polarity of the solvents is directly involved in the separation of mixtures as like dissolve like.
In any chromatographic system there are 3 variables;
a) Stationary phase (adsorbent)
b) Mobile phase (solvent)
c) Substance being chromatographed
Separation on adsorbent depend upon that the equilibrium is set up between the molecule adsorbed on
the stationary phase and those free in the moving solvent, individual molecules moving between the two
phases. If the molecules of particular component have the high affinity for the adsorbent that component
will move very slowly while another component having less affinity will move rapidly.
Any liquid can be used as mobile phase (solvent) in liquid solid chromatography and a mixture of 2 or 3 or
more solvents or solvent of different polarity can combined.
In practice only two adsorbent silica gel and alumina are commonly used. The most active form of
adsorbent is produced by removing all water molecule and any organic contaminants by heating strongly.
The lesser activity grade can be produced by adding known amount of water.

7. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
6
Activity grade
Weight of water in %age Grade
0% I
3% II
6% III
10% IV
15% V
B. Partition chromatography
Liquid-Liquid Chromatography
Partition chromatography is a technique which involves the separation of mixtures by means of partition
between a moving solvent and a stationary liquid which is held on a suitable solid support. This may be a
liquid (liquid liquid chromatography) or it may be a gas (gas liquid chromatography).
Liquid-Liquid Chromatography (LLC)
The most popular technique of Liquid-Liquid Chromatography (LLC) is carried out on cellulose or on moist
silica which may be in the form of a sheet, thin layer or packed into column. The medium in each case acts
as a support for water. The separation of mixture component on a sheet of filter paper can be taken as a
typical example.
Filter paper is made up of cellulose fibers which naturally contain certain amount of water. Individual
parts of each fiber together with their associated water constitute minute cells. Liquid-Liquid
Chromatography (LLC) is the partitioning of mixture components between water and the moving mobile
phase (solvent) which brings the separation of mixture components. Water remains the stationary as the
mobile phase (solvent) moves over it.
In partition chromatography the only factor which influences the movement of a component is the relative
solubility of that compound in the stationary and moving phases. Components which will be soluble in
the mobile phase will travel the same distance as that of solvent front while other components which will
be soluble in water will remain on the origin. It is most important to remember that the partitioning of a
component between two immiscible solvents is unaffected by the presence of other substances.

8. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
7
C. Methods of development:
The methods of development are discussed below;
i. Frontal analysis:
In this development method the sample or solution of mixture is continuously added to the column unless
it is saturated.
The component with least affinity for stationary
phase. Whereas, a strongly attracted or adhered
partition components built on the stationary
phase at the beginning of the column. However,
the strongly attracted exceeded the limit of
stationary phase. Then, it also migrates along
the column first component eluted from column
initially in pure form.
Such type of development method is used for
the preparative purpose. Frontal analysis is also
employed for the estimation of trace impurity in
nearly a pure substance.
ii. Displacement analysis:
The basic condition of this development method is that the solvent has greater affinity for the stationary
phase than sample component.
The components of the mixture are separated due
to their varying distribution ratio K and partition
or adsorption properties i.e. their relative
attraction for stationary phase with respect to
mobile phase. The component with least affinity
with stationary phase will be displaced first.
The method doesn’t produce bands completely
separated by elusion. While, for preparative work
(to obtain pure samples) only the central part of
the bands are collected.

9. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
8
iii. Elution analysis:
The basic condition for this development method is that the components have the same affinity for the
stationary phase.
It is important that the mobile phase chosen
shall be unaffected by the stationary phase or
at most only interact weekly with it.
In elution method the flow of mobile phase
(eluent) is continued until the mixture is
completely separated into its components. The
mobile phase is selected in the order of
increasing polarity. The amount of eluent
required to elute the given substance is known
as the ‘Retention volume,’ of that substance
and the time taken is, ‘Retention time.’
Elution analysis is further divided into three types;
a. Simple elution
b. Stepwise elution
c. Gradient elution
a. Simple elution:
It is also called as isocratic system. In this type of elution the sample mixture is eluted with same type of
mobile phase during the whole analysis.
b. Stepwise elution:
This type of elution is carried by changing eluent after a predetermined period of time. Several eluting
agents are used in succession, arranged such that each is more effective than the one preceding; that is,
able to elute a given component of the column more readily.
Mobile phase is always selected in the order of their increasing polarity. Increase in polarity means
decreasing the adhering of sample to the stationary phase value of K decreases after each step.
c. Gradient elution:
In this type of elution the mobile phase composition is changed continuously over a period of time. It is
used to achieve the separation of components of widely varying affinities for stationary phase. The value
of distribution ratio K decreases for each component.

10. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
9
Choice of methods:
Except when the technique is used to be obvious the choice of the method must be largely empirical
because there is as yet no way of predicting the best procedure for a given separation, except in a few
simple cases.
It is usual to try the simpler techniques such as Planer h=chromatography (paper or TLC) first they can
often provide the useful guide to the type of a system that will ultimately prove successful if they
themselves do not provide the answer directly. The more sophisticated teachniques can be applied as
necessary;
The list that fallows is a rough guide;
1. Substances of similar chemical types; Partition chromatography
2. Substances of different chemical types; Adsorption chromatography
3. Gases and Volatile substances; Gas chromatography
4. Ionic and inorganic substances; Ion exchange, column, Paper or TLC.
5. Ions from non0ionic substances; Ion exchange or gel chromatography
6. Biological materials and compounds
of high relative molecular weight; Gel chromatography; electrophoresis
In the event of difficult separations, when the simpler methods prove inadequate, HPLC may provide the
answer.

11. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
10
Gas Liquid Chromatography
In this technique separation depends upon partition of mixture components between a liquid supported
on a suitable solid and a gas flowing through the system. The aim of this technique is to provide the thin
liquid film with as large as interface as possible to facilitate partition between this liquid and the moving
gas. The moist popular support is celite or Kieselguhr (a diatomaceous earth composed of silica containing
bodies of millions of microscopic creatures).
Gas chromatography
The techniques which are so for considered are suitable for the separation of solid and non-volatile liquid
mixtures.
Gas chromatography is particularly suitable for the separation of gases and volatile liquids or solids in the
gaseous state.
In gas chromatography a small amount of mixture is injected into the stream of an inert gas (like nitrogen,
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, argon or helium) which carries it into column containing suitable medium
capable of retarding the flow by varying degrees of the individual components of the mixture as they flow
through the column. The separating components of the mixture then emerge from the column at discrete
intervals and pass through some form of detector. Differences of adsorption or partition of the material
in the column is again the factor which makes separation possible.
As a general rule, gas analysis are carried out on adsorption columns (gas-solid chromatography) while
liquid and volatile solids are separated by partition columns (gas-liquid chromatography).
Instrumentation of Gas chromatography
1. Carrier gas
2. Flow control
3. Sample inlet system
4. Column
5. Detectors

12. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
11
1. Carrier gas
The purpose if the carrier gas is to carry the sample through the column. The gas should be inert and
should not react with the sample or stationary phase. The choice of the carrier gas depends upon the
nature of the sample and type of detector being employed. Hydrogen and helium are commonly used
with thermal conductivity detectors. The flame ionization detector (FID) is operated with helium and
nitrogen. It is important that the carrying gas should be highly polar in nature.
2. Flow control
Accurate control of carrying gas flow is essential both for high column affinity and also for qualitative and
quantitative analysis. For qualitative analysis it is important to have reproducible flow rate. So that
retention time can accurately be compared. The comparison of retention time or related parameters of
unknown compounds and standard compound is the quickest and easiest method for compound
identification. It should be noted that two or more compounds may have the same retention time. The
confirmation of the peak identity may not be possible by gas chromatography only. It requires the use of
auxiliary analysis such as mass spectroscopy, IR and NMR etc.
3. Sample inlet system
The actual amount produced will be dependent upon the nature and concentration of the component,
the size of the column, type and sensitivity of the detecting system. Generally only small samples are used
for analytical gas chromatography. Gases and liquids are introduced in to the carrying gas from a micro
syringe or similar device via a soft sealing rubber cap. Solids and viscous liquids are introduced by weighing
a small amount in thin walled gas ampule, placing then in carrying gas stream and then crushed it.
Alternately these can be dissolved in suitable solvent and introduced in the way as liquid samples.
4. Columns
Gas chromatographic separation is usually carried out at elevated temperatures so that some form of
heating and thermostatic control of column is required. This is made much easier if the columns are coiled
or bended for use.
In gas chromatography two types of columns are used;
i. Capillary or open tubular column
These are characterized by the fact that the tube is open and thereby have large permeability. The
importance of these columns especially made up of fused silica is growing rapidly. There are two types
of the tubular columns are available,
a) Wall coated open tubular column
In this type if column, liquid phase is separated as a thin film on the tubular wall.
b) Porous layer open tubular column (PLOTC)
These have the stationary liquid phase coated onto a relatively thick supporting material,
usually porous in nature such as diatomaceous earth (celite)

13. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
12
ii. Packed columns
These columns are more or less densely packed with solid particles. These are of two types,
a) Classical packed columns
Columns of this type are micropacked columns having inside diameter about 1mm or less.
b) Less densely Packed columns
Columns having a packing density substantially less than the classical packed columns.
There are two ways of attaining high efficiency for packed columns. One approach is the reduction of
particle size of solid support and other is the increase in the length of column size with large particle
size. In both cases relatively large pressure drops are necessary for operating these columns.
5. Detectors
It is very important in Gas chromatography. Compounds can be detected by various ways, hydrogen is
when used as carrier gas, can be ignited at the end of the column. Some compounds can be recognized
by the color they will impart to the flame on emergence from the column. By measuring flame intensity
at regular intervals with a photoelectric device, a graph can be plotted from which a quantitative
estimation of the individual component of mixture can be made. One of the simplest detectors is “JANAK
NITROMETER”. Pure CO2 is used as a carrier gas and after emergence from the column it pass through a
strong solution of KOH in which it is rapidly absorbed. Gases substances in the carrier gas stream which
do not dissolve in KOH are collected in a calibrated gas burette and the volume of each component is
measured at atmospheric pressure. The nitrometer is an example of an integral type of the detectors and
a graph of volume measured against the time after injection is typical of such detectors.
Most of the common detectors are of differential type. They are arranged so that they give no response
when pure carrier gas is flowing through them. But as any component from the column passes through
they give a response which is directly proportional to either the quantity or concentration of the
component. When component has passed the detector again give zero response until a new component
emerges. One of the important differential detectors is Katharometer.

14. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
13
It is also called thermal conductivity detector. In this instrument two identical cells made up of brass are
used, ach one containing a fine platinum or tungsten wire. The effluent flows through one cell and
carefully balanced reference stream of the pure carrier gas through the other. Each of the wire is heated
by an electric current. The temperature attained by the wires and hence their resistance depends upon
the property of gas flowing over them so that a change of composition of gas flowing through the
analytical cell will cause a heat loss and therefore change in resistance. The wires are arranged to form
part of a balanced wheat stone bridge circuit. So a component leaving the column unbalancing the bridge
and gave rise deflection on a galvanometer. In most of the instruments the signal is amplified and causes
a pen to move up and down on a strip moving on graph paper, thus automatically marking a record of
separation.
Identification: the information from the gas chromatographic separation is recorded in the form of gas
chromatogram. There is no chemical identification on most cases. The substances are identified by time
they take to emerge from the column or more strictly by the distance on the chromatogram from the start
of the separation to the peak given by that particular substance under constant conditions for a particular
column. It is reproducible and characteristic feature. In some cases the volume of the gas emerges from
the column before the given component emerges, the retention volume is used to identify the compound.
The retention volume is the product of the retention time and gas flow rate. Components can be chapped
out as they emerge from the column and can be identified by any of the analytical procedures. In some
sophisticated machines part of the effluent from the column is analyzed directly by Mass spectroscopy to
give both the identification and a check on the purity of the component.

15. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
14
Carbohydrates
Introduction to carbohydrates
(a) Sucrose and Sucrose containing drugs:
Sucrose, Dextrose, Liquid glucose, Fructose, Lactose, Xylose, Caramel,
Honey, Starch, Inulin, Dextrins etc.
(b) Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives:
Purified cotton, Powdered Cellulose, Microcrystalline cellulose, Methyl
cellulose, Sodium Carboxy-methyl Cellulose.
(c) Gums and Mucilages:
Tragacanth, Acacia, Sodium Alginate, Agar, Pectin.

16. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
15
Introduction of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are aldehyde or ketone alcohols containing C, H, and O2 and in which H and O2 are generally
in the same ratio as in water.
It is the 1st
product of photosynthesis. In the form of starch is the reserved product in plants while in
animals its glycogen. They are source of energy and provide structural and skeletal support. They acts as
precursor for proteins and fats and many of 2ndry metabolites like alkaloids, glycosides etc.
They are classified into two main classes;
 Sugars /Saccharides
 Polysaccharides
 Sugars:
These are further classified into
 Monosaccharide
 Disaccharide
 Trisaccharide
 Polysaccharide
Monosacchrides:
The structure of sugar was established by Killiani in 1886 as a straight chain pentahydroxy aldehyde.
Chemically sugar is an aldehyde or a ketone substitution product of a polyhydroxy alcohol. It is a crystalline
solid, soluble in water, and sweet in taste.
 Aldoses (e.g. glucose) have an aldehyde at one end.
 Ketoses (e.g. fructose) have a keto group, usually at Carbon number 2.

17. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
16
Monosaccharaides are classified on the bases of numbers of carbon atoms in them;
 The simplest of these is a diose HO-CH2-CHO (hydroxyacetaldehyde), which does not occur free
in nature.
 An aldehydic or ketonic triose do exist (glyceraldehydes and dihydroxyacetone) usually in the
form of phosphate esters.
 Tetroses also not found free in state.
 Pentoses occur commonly in nature, usually as a product of hydrolysis of hemicelluloses, gums
and mucilage.
 Hexoses are the most important monosaccharides found in the plants. They are first detectable
sugars synthesized and form the units from which the most of the polysaccharides are
constructed.
There are 16 possible aldohexoses and 8 ketohexoses and if we consider both alpha and beta forms it will
gives 48 isomers.
Among all of those only two occur free in state i.e. D-fructose (levulose) and D-glucose (dextrose). Both
are found in sweet fruits, honey and invert sugars.
 Fructose is a furanose in its natural form. Optically active, aliphatic polyhydroxy compounds.
 Glucose can be obtained by hydrolysis of starch, while inulin yields fructose.

18. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
17
Disaccharide:
On hydrolysis yield two monosaccharide in case of disaccharide, three monosaccharide in case of
trisaccharide and four monosaccharide in case of tetrasaccharide with the elimination of one or two and
three molecules of water respectively. Monosaccharide may be same or different monosaccharides.
For example; sucrose, lactose and maltose.
 Sucrose is the only disaccharide that occurs abundantly in the Free State in plants. It is present
in fruit juices, sugar cane, and sugar beet, in the sap of certain maples and in many other plants.
Upon hydrolysis sucrose yields invert sugar, which consists of equimolecular quantities of glucose
and fructose. Sucrose is non-reducing sugar.
 Maltose is a disaccharide present in the cell sap. It is produced in large scale by hydrolysis of
starch during fermentation process of barley and other grains. It is a reducing sugar. On hydrolysis
yield 2 molecules of glucose.
Trisaccharide:
On hydrolysis they yield three monosaccharaides with the elimination of two molecules of water
respectively.
Example:
Raffinose (beans, cabbage) Glucose + Fructose + Galactose
Gentianose (Gentiana lutea, Gentiana.purpurea) Glucose + Glucose + Fructose
Tetrasaccharide:
On hydrolysis they yield four monosaccharaides with the elimination of three molecules of water
respectively.
Stachyose or manneotetrose (green beans and other plant beans) Galactose+ Galactose+ Glucose
+ fructose
Glucose, fructose, sucrose and maltose are the most common sugars in vegetable drugs

19. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
18
 Polysaccharides:
These are derived from monosaccharaides by condensation involving sugar phosphate and sugar
nucleotide in an exact similar manner to the formation of di, tri, and tetra saccharides. Polysaccharides
on hydrolysis give an indefinite number of monosaccharide, depending upon the type of product of
hydrolysis.
Example:
Glucosans Starch yielding glucose on hydrolysis.
Hexosans cellulose, starchyielding hexoses
Fructosans Inulin yielding fructose.
Cellulose is a plant fundamental unit and is composed of glucose units joined by β-1, 4 linkages. Whereas,
starch contains α-1, 4 and α-1, 6 units.
Polyuronoids (uronic acid), gums and mucilage are pharmaceutically important polysaccharides.

20. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
19
Tests for carbohydrates
Carbohydrates can be identified by the following tests;
 Molisch’s Test:
It is the general group test for the identification of carbohydrates in the sample.
Experiment: Take the carbohydrate sample in the test tube. To the Carbohydrate sample add 2 drops of
alpha naphthol into it. Now add sulfuric acid and observe.
Observation: A beautiful reddish brown ring is formed in the test tube indicates the presence of
carbohydrates.
 Fehling’s solution test:
The test is performed to check the presence of reducing sugars.
Experiment: Take the carbohydrate sample in the test tube. To the Carbohydrate sample add Fehling A
solution then add Fehling B solution. Now heat it on flame for 2 minutes and observe.
Observation: Brick red precipitates are formed in the test tube.
 Osazone test:
Experiment: Take the carbohydrate sample in the test tube. To the Carbohydrate sample add phenyl
hydrazine hydrochloride. Now add anhydrous sodium acetate and one drop of glacial acetic acid. Now
heat the resulting mixture in the water bath for 30 minutes and cool to observe.
Observations: Yellow crystals of osazone are formed inside the test tube which are soluble in hot or
boiled water.
 Selivanoff’s test:
The test is principally performed to distinguish between of aldoses and ketoses.
Experiment: Take the carbohydrate sample in the test tube. To the Carbohydrate sample add Selivanoff’s
reagent into it. Now heat it for 30 minutes on the flame. After heating allow it to cool and stand and then
observe.
Observation: Color changes to cherry red in the test tube indicates the presence of fructose.

21. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
20
 Keller-Kiliani test for deoxysugars:
Experiment: The carbohydrate sample is dissolved in acetic acid containing a trace of ferric chloride and
transferred to the surface of concentrated sulfuric acid.
Observation: At the junction of the liquids a reddish brown color is formed which turns blue after
standing.
 Furfual test:
Experiment: Take the carbohydrate sample in the test tube with the drop of syrup phosphoric to convert
it into furfural. A disk of filter paper moistened with a drop of 10% solution of aniline in 10% acetic acid is
placed over the mouth of the test tube. The bottom of the test tube is heated for 30-60 seconds.
Observation: A pink or red stain appear on the reagent paper.

22. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
21
Sucrose and Sucrose containing drugs
1. Sucrose:
Sucrose is also known as sacchrum or sugar and is widely distributed in plants. It is a non-reducing
disaccharide and is the chief form of transport and temporary storage of energy and plants. It accumulates
in certain fleshy roots. It occurs in high concentration in the cell sap of plants.
On hydrolysis with acid or with the enzymes invertase it yield one molecule of each of d-glucose and d-
fructose.
Properties:
Sucrose is a dextro rotatory, but upon hydrolysis this solution becomes levo rotatory .This is due to the
formation of D-fructose which is levo rotatory.
Sucrose D-glucose + D-fructose
This is known as inverting sugar.
Sources:
Sucrose is obtained from three sources;
1. Sugar beet
2. Sugar cane
3. Sugar maple
Minor commercial sugar crops includes date palm, sorghum and the sugar maple.

23. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
22
i. Sugar beet:
Botanical Origin: Beta vulgaris
Family: Chenopodiaceae
Part used: Rhizome and roots
Constituents:
Concentration of sucrose is about 16-17%, and 77% water is present.
Production of sucrose from sugar beet:
The beets are dug, washed and sliced into small lime silvers known as “cossettes” v-shaped. Sucrose and
other soluble constituents are extracted from plant material with hot water. The crude sugar containing
solution is then subjected to the purification process.
ii. Sugar cane
Botanical origin: Saccharum officinarum
Family: Gramineae
Part used: stem
Constituents:
Concentration of sucrose is about 15-20%
Production of sucrose from sugar cane:
The juice is obtained from sugar cane by crushing the stems between a
series of heavy rollers. It is boiled with lime to neutralize the plant acids (which would otherwise change
the sucrose to invert sugar and to coagulate albumin). The later rise to the top as scum and are removed.
The juice is filtered sometimes decolourized with sulfur dioxide concentrated and crystallized. Excess lime
is eliminated with carbon dioxide. The juice is evaporated under vaccum and the sugar is allowed to
crystallize. The mother liquor molasses constitutes an important and inexpensive source of carbohydrate.

24. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
23
iii. Sugar Maple
Botanical origin: Acer saccharum
Family: Aceraceae
Part used: Twigs
Uses of Sucrose:
- Sucrose is the chief form of transport and temperory storage of
energy in plants.
- It is a single non reducing disaccharide which is industrially important
- It is used as demulcent and flavoring agent.
- In sufficient concentration in aqueous solution sugar is bacteriostatic and preservative.
- Sugar masks the tastes in torches and tablets and retard oxidation in certain preprations.

25. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
24
2. Dextrose:
Dextrose, α-D (+)-glucopyranose or D-glucose is a sugar usually obtained by the hydrolysis of starch.
Source:
Dextrose occurs naturally in grapes and other fruits and may be obtained either from these sources or by
hydrolysis of certain natural glycosides.
Main source: fruits e.g. Grapes.
Botanical origin: Vitis vinifera
Preparation:
Dextrose is usually prepare in a manner similar to that of liquid glucose. The conversion takes place after
heating at 45 pounds pressure for about 35 minutes. The sugar is crystallized, washed and dried to yield
a dextrose of 99.5-100% purity.
Uses:
- It is used as an ingredient in dextrose injection and in dextrose and sodium chloride injection.
- Also present in anti-coagulant citrate dextrose solution.
- Dextrose in the form of liquid glucose is used in the manufacturing of candy, ice cream,
carbonated beverages, and bakery products and in the canning industry.
Structures:

26. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
25
3. Liquid glucose:
Common name: corn syrup, starch syrup.
Source: It is purified concentrated aqueous solution of nutritive saccharides.
The degree of hydrolysis of starch is measured as dextrose equivalent which is percent of dextrose
calculated on dry basis.
Description:
It is highly viscous transparent yellow colored non-crystallizing liquid with slightly characteristic smell and
sweet taste. It is less sweet than sucrose. The viscosity of liquid glucose depends upon density,
temperature and its dextrose equivalent. It is soluble in water, glycerine and slightly soluble in alcohol.
Additional characteristics:
 Moisture content 13-18%
 Total solids 82-87%
 Sulphated ash maximum 0.5%
 pH (50% solution) 4.5 – 5.5
 Sulphur dioxide 70 – 400ppm
 Arsenic and copper 1.0ppm each
 Dextrose equivalent 4.5 – 5.5
Chemical constituents:
Liquid glucose mainly contains; 40% D (+) glucose (dextrose), Maltose, dextrin and about 20% water.
Uses:
- Its hygroscopic and non-crystallizing property is very important tool to improve the quality of
liquid preparations in pharmaceutical industry.
- Liquid glucose should not be used instead of glucose for parenteral purpose.
- It is also used as sweetening agent.
- Its high dextrose equivalent exhibits moderate osmotic pressure and also inhibits microbial
spoilage.
- Industrially, it is used in jams, jellies, cream, ice-creams, and bakery, tobacco and confectionary
products.

27. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
26
i. Calcium gluconate:
It is calcium salt of gluconic acid.
Preparation:
It is obtained by the oxidation of dextrose either with chlorine or electrically in the presence of a bromide
by fermentation.
Uses:
- It is soluble in cold water and less irritating for parenteral use than is use calcium chloride (an
electrolyte replenisher).
Dose: 1g orally 3 or more times a day or by IV at intervals of 1-3 days.
ii. Calcium glucoheptonate and calcium levulinate:
These are calcium salts of 7-and 5 carbon acids.
Preparation:
It is prepared semisynthetically from readily available carbohydrate.
 Glucoheptonic acid is prepared from glucose via a cyanohydrin intermediate.
 The levulinic acid can be prepared from starch or cane sugar by boiling with HCl.
Uses:
- The salts are calcemic and are used parentally to obtain the therapeutic effects of calcium.
iii. Ferrous gluconate:
It is ferrous salt of gluconic acid.
Uses:
- It is classed as a hematinic and is employed in iron deficiency anemic.
Dose: 300mg/TDS
- It causes less gastric distress than do inorganic ferrous salts.

28. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
27
4. Lactose:
Botanical origin: Bos Taurus
Common name: Milk sugar
Family: Bovidae
Source: Obtained from milk of most mammals.
Plant source is Withania coagulum.
Properties:
 It is an opaque liquid that is an emulsion of minute fat globules suspended in a solution of casein,
albumin, lactose and inorganic salts.
 It is odorless and has a faintly sweet taste.
 It is stable in air but readily absorbs odors.
 Upon hydrolysis lactose yield D-glucose and D-galactose. Lactose is hydrolyzed by the specific
enzyme, lactase.
 It differs markedly from the other sugars because it is easily undergoes lactic and butyric acid
fermentation.
 Its Specific gravity is 1.029 – 1.034
Composition:
Contains 80-90% of water in which 3% of casein, 5% of lactose, 0.1-1% of mineral salts.
Milk 2.5-5% of fat (butter) and is rich in vitamins.
Collection:
 When milk is allowed to stand, the fat globules (cream) come to the top and are surrounded by
albuminous layer.
 The fat is removed in the form of butter from milk by vigorous shaking/churning, the remaining
milk is known as butter milk or skimmed milk.
 This milk after treating with rennin enzyme forms coagulum.
 Liquid separated from coagulum is called whey called contains lactose and inorganic salts.
 Condensed milk prepared by evaporation of milk in a vacuum and consequently and consequent
sterilization in hermetically sealed containers by autoclaving.
 Malted milk is prepared by evaporating milk with an extract of malt. Low heat and vacuum are
used to prevent the destruction of enzymes.
 From whey, 5% lactose is crystallized. These impure crystals are re dissolved in water, decolorized
with charcoal and recrystallized.

29. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
28
Uses:
- Milk is a nutrient.
- Source of lactose, yogurt and kumyss (fermented lactose).
- Casein and sodium caseinate are employed in culture media.
Structure:
i. Lactulose:
It is a semisynthetic sugar prepared by alkaline epimerization of lactose.
It yields fructose and galactose upon hydrolysis.
Properties:
It is poorly absorbed; most orally ingested lactulose reaches the colon unchanged.
Uses:
- Bacteria in the colon metabolized the disaccharide to acetic and lactic acids, and sufficient
accumulation of these irritating acids causes a laxative.
Dose: 10-20g of lactulose (in chronic constipation), the most significant therapeutic use of this
sugar is to decrease the blood ammonia concentration in portal systemic encephalopathy.
- The acidified stools trap ammonia as the ammonium ion; reabsorption is thus prevented and
blood ammonia levels may be decreased by 20-50%.
Dose: The dose is 20-30g of lactulose as a syrup 3-4 times a day.

30. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
29
5. Xylose, D-xylose or wood sugar:
Common name: wood sugar
Botanical origin: Zea mays
Preparation:
It is a pentose and is obtained by boiling corn cobs, bran, straw or
similar material with dilute acid to hydrolyze the xylans present.
Properties:
 It is colorless.
 It is odorless.
 It is crystalizable into needles.
 It has a sweet taste
Uses:
- It is very difficult to ferment; it is used for detection or identification of certain bacteria which
ferment it.
Structure:

31. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
30
6. Caramel, burnt sugar:
Common name: Burnt sugar coloring
Origin:
Caramel is concentrated aqueous solution prepared by heating
sucrose or glucose until the sweet taste is destroyed and uniform
dark brown viscous liquid, by adding small quantities of sodium
carbonate or mineral acid or small quantities of alkali during
heating.
Properties:
 Caramel is a thick dark brown liquid or dark brown
deliquescent powder.
 It possess characteristic odor of burnt sugar.
 It is of pleasant bitter taste.
 It is soluble in water and in dilute alcohol, insoluble in organic solvent
 When incinerated it swells and form charcoal. When spread in thin layer on glass slide appears
homogenous reddish brown and transparent charcoal.
Standards:
Certain standards are made to check the quality of caramel. These as fallows;
 The ash should not be more than 8%.
 Specific gravity should not be less than 1.30
 Color: one part dissolve in 1000 parts of water gives a clear, distinct yellowish orange color and
not changed or precipitated by exposing to sunlight for six hours.
5% aqueous solution gives no precipitates with 0.5% of phosphoric acid
Uses:
- Caramel is used as colorant for food, confectionery, vinegar, liquors, and malt beverages.
- Caramel is used for tobacco flavoring.
- Caramel is used in elixirs, syrups and other oral liquid products in medicine.

32. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
31
i. Mannitol
It is a hexahydric alcohol also known as D-mannitol.
Botanical origin: Fraxinus ornus
Family: Oleaceae
Part used: Dried saccharine exudate
Preparation:
It is obtained by reduction of mannose or by isolation from manna.
Properties:
It is a white, crystalline powder that is odorless and sweet tasting.
It crystallizes in odorless and sweet tasting. It crystallizes in orthorhombic prisms or in aggregates of fine
needles and is freely souble in water and boiling alcohol but almost insoluble in cold water.
Uses:
- It is used as saline purgative.
- It is absorbed from GIT. It is not metabolized when given parenterally and is eliminated readily
by glomerular filtration.
- It is used as a diagnostic aid and as an osmotic diuretic.
The usual diuretic dose is 50-100g daily in 5-20% solution by intravenous infusion at the rate
adjusted to maintain the urine flow at least 30-50ml per hour.

33. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
32
ii. Sorbitol
Sorbitol is a hexitol (hexa hydroxy alcohol) also called as D-glucitol.
Botanical origin: Sorbus aucuparia
Family: Rosaceae
Part used: Ripe berries of mountain ash.
Preparation:
It occurs in many fruits but is generally prepared from glucose by hydrogenation or by electrolytic
reduction.
Properties:
 It is present in both crystalline and soluble form.
 It is readily soluble and compatible with syrup, alcohol and other polyols.
 It is half sweet as sucrose.
 It is not absorbed orally and not metabolized readily.
Uses:
- It is used as an ingredient in toothpastes, chewing gums and various dietetic products.
- It should be given in combination with saccharine or some other non-caloric sweeteners in
dietetic beverages b/c it acts as osmotic laxative (large amounts).
- Solutions of this hexitol are also used for urologic irrigation.

34. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
33
7. Starch:
Botanical Source Common Names Family
Zea mays Maize Gramineae
Triticum aestivum Wheat Gramineae
Oryza sativa Rice Gramineae
Solanum tuberosum Potato Solanaceae
Geographical Sources:
 Maize: U.S.A, India and other tropical and sub-tropical countries.
 Wheat: Many temperate countries of the world
 Rice: India, China, Japan and other tropical and subtropical countries.
 Potato: Many countries of the world.
Chemistry of Starch:
Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides. One is AMYLOSE and other is AMYLOPECTIN.
 Amylose:
Amylose is a linear molecule composed of 250 – 300 D-glucopyranose units. These units are linked by
alpha 1, 4-glucosidic linkage.
Starch contain 25% amylose. On hydrolysis by alpha amylase which is present in saliva and pancreatic
juice, amylose yield glucose and maltose.
Amylose is water soluble and gives instant bright blue color with iodine solution (0.1 N)
 Amylopectin:
Amylopectin is branched molecule composed of 1000 or more glucose units. These units are linked by
alpha 1, 4-glucosidic links but at branch point alpha 1, 6-glucosidic link is present.
Starch contain 75% amylopectin. On hydrolysis by alpha amylase it yield branched or unbranched
oligosaccharides (3-9 monosaccharide).
Amylopectin is insoluble in water. It gives violet or bluish red color with iodine (0.1N)

35. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
34
Preparation:
 Maize starch
Maize fruits are collected and washed thoroughly to remove dirt and adhering material. Then they are
macerated with water containing 1% sulphurous acid for 2-4 days at 40-60 degree. Fruits become soft.
These fruits crushed in rollers to separate the embryo containing fixed oil. Germ are skimmed off by the
addition of water into it. The milky liquid resulting after the
Separation of germ is filtered to separate the cells tissues and gluten. Now milky liquid contain starch
along with proteins.
Now subjected to the process of tabling operation. In this process liquid is poured slowly over shallow
tables of about 40m long, 20-30cm deep and 30-60cm broad. Starch being heavier get deposited in the
tables while protein falls on side. Traces of proteins which are present along with starch are removed
either by repeating the process of tabling operation or by treating it with dilute alkali, but centrifugation
is most commonly used.
 Rice starch
It is prepared from broken pieces of rice which are left after the polishing of rice. Broken pieces of rice are
macerated with 0.5% caustic soda solution to dissolve the glutens. Rice pieces are separated and milky
starch liquid kept aside for the setting down of the starch or they are separated by centrifugation. Starch
is washed, dried and powdered.
 Wheat starch:
Wheat flour is taken and made into dough by adding water and kept for one hour. It cause swelling of
gluten. Lumps or balls of the dough are made and put into grooved rollers moving to and fro and water
is poured over it simultaneously. Milk liquid falling down contain starch. Starch is separated by
centrifugation. It is washed and dried.
 Potato starch:
Potato is washed and cut into small pieces. Pulp is prepared by crushing it. Water is added and solution
is filtered to separate the cellulose tissues. Milky starchy liquid is purified by centrifugation. Then it is
washed and dried.

36. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
35
Medicinal Uses:
- It is used as Nutritive.
- It is used as Demulcent.
- It is used as Protective.
- It is used as Absorbent.
- It is used as antidote in iodine poisoning.
- It is used as binder, filers and disintegrating agent.
- It is used as suppositories bases.
- It is used as precursor for manufacturing glucose, dextrose and dextrin.
- Commonly starch is used as paper sizing, cloth sizing and laundry starch.
Structure:
The structure of amylose and amylopectin is shown in the diagrams;
Amylose
Amylopectin

37. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
36
i. Pregelatinized starch:
Starch which is chemically and mechanically processed to ruptured all or part of granules in the presence
of water. It is subsequently dried. This material may by modified further to enhance compressibility and
flow characteristics.
Properties:
It is slightly soluble in cold water.
Uses:
- It is used as tablet excipient.
ii. Sodium starch glycolate:
It is a semisynthetic material.
It is the sodium salt of a carboxymethyl ether of starch.
Uses:
- It is used as tablet disintegrating agent.
iii. Hetastarch:
It is a semisynthetic material.
It is prepared in such a manner that it contain 90% amlylopectin and 7 or 8 hydroxyethyl substituents are
present for each 10 glucose units.
Properties:
This polymer is degraded and molecules of molecular weight of less 50,000 are eliminated rapidly by renal
excretion.
Uses:
- Its 6% solution is used as plasma expander.
- As adjunctive therapy in the treatment of shock caused by hemorrhage, burns, surgery, sepsis or
other trauma.

38. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
37
iv. Dextran:
It is a 1, 6-linked polyglycan that is formed from sucrose by the action of a transglucosylase enzyme system
(Dextran sucrase) which is present in Leuconostoc mesenteroids.
n sucrose + (Glucose)x (Glucose)x+n+ n fructose
Dextran of the desired size is prepared by controlled depolymerization (acid hydrolysis, fungal dextranase,
or ultrasonic vibration) of native dextrans or by controlled fermentation including the use of a cell-free
enzyme system.
Uses:
Dextrans of clinical importance have molecular weight of 40,000, 70,000 and 75,000.
- Dextran in 6% solution are used as a plasma expander in case of shock, or pending shock caused
by hemorrhage, trauma or severe burns.
These preparations are well-suited for their intended uses because their osmolarity and viscosity
resemble those of plasma, they are serologically indifferent and relatively non-toxic and their
effectiveness is prolonged by the slow metabolic cleavage of the 1, 6-glucosidic linkage.
- The low molecular weight dextran cross extravascular space and is excreted readily but 10%
solution can be used as an adjunctive therapy in the treatment of shock.
- It is also used to reduce the blood viscosity and to improve microcirculation at low flow states.
- It may interfere with some laboratory test and can increase clotting time.
Iron dextran injection:
It is a sterile, colloidal solution of ferric hydroxide in complex with partially hydrolyzed dextran of low
molecular weight in water for injection.
Uses:
- It is hematinic preparation that is administered by IM or IV.
- Iron dextran injection is particularly useful when oral iron preparations are not well tolerated.

39. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
38
8. Inulin/ hydrous inulin
It is a D-fructo furanose polymer whose residues are linked in linear
fashion by B-2, 1 bonds. Echinacea purpurea Echinacea purpurea
Sources:
It is particularly abundant in;
 Taraxacum officinale (dandelion)
 Inula helenium (elecampane)
 Arctium lappa (burdock root)
 Echinacea purpurea (cone flower)
 Chicory intybus (blue dandelion root)
Family:
It is obtained from subterranean organs of members of family
Compositae.
Part uses: Root and rhizome
Preparation:
It occurs in cell sap and by immersing the fresh rhizome and root in alcohol for some time it usually
crystallizes in sphaerite aggregates.
Oligofructose is a subgroup of inulin, consisting of polymers with a degree of polymerization (DP) ≤10.
Inulin and oligofructose are not digested in the upper gastrointestinal tract; therefore, they have a
reduced caloric value.
Dose:
10g/100ml NaCl injection By IV infusion.
Uses:
- They stimulate the growth of intestinal bifidobacteria.
- They do not lead to a rise in serum glucose or stimulate insulin secretion.
- It is used in culture media as fermentative identifying agent for certain bacteria and in special
laboratory methods for the evaluation of renal function.
- It is filtered only by glomeruli and is neither excreted nor reabsorbed by the tubules.

40. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
39
9. Honey
Honey is a viscid and sweet secretion stored in the honey comb
by various species of bees.
Common name: Madh, Mel, Madhu
Botanical origin: Apis dorsota, Apis florea, Apis indica, Apis
mellifica
Family: Apideae
Geographical Source:
Honey is available in abundance in Africa, India, Jamaica,
Australia, California, Chili, Great Britain and New Zealand.
Preparation and Collection:
Generally, honey bees are matched with social insects that reside in colonies and produce honey and bee
wax. Every colony essentially has one "queen" or "mother bee" under whose command a large no of
"employees" exist which could be sterile females and in certain season’s male bees. The employees are
entrusted to collect nectar from sweet smelling flowers from far and near that mostly contains aqueous
soln. of sucrose (i.e. approximately 25% sucrose and 75% water) and pollens. Invertase, an enzyme
present in the saliva converts the nectar into the sugar, which is partly consumed by the bee for its survival
and the balance is carefully stored into the honeycomb. With the passage of time the water gets
evaporated thereby producing honey (i.e. approximately 80% invert sugar and 20% water).As soon as the
cell is filled up completely, the bees seal it with the wax to preserve it for off season utility.
The honey is collected by removing the wax wax-seal by the help of a sterilized sharp knife. The pure
honey is obtained by centrifugation and filtering through a moistened cheese cloth. Invariably, the
professional honey, and warm the separated combs to recover the bees wax.
Chemical Constituents:
The average composition of honey ranges as follows;
 Moisture 14-24%
 Dextrose 23-36%
 Levulose (fructose) 30-47%
 Sucrose 0.4-6%
 Dextrin and gums 0-7%
 Ssh 0.1-0.8%.
Besides, it is found to contain small amounts of essential oils, bees wax, pollen grains, formic acid, acetic
acid, succinic acid, maltose, dextrin, coloring pigments, vitamins and an admixture of enzymes e.g.
diastase, invertase and inulase.

41. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
40
Interestingly, the sugar contents in honey varies widely from one country to another as it is exclusively
governed by the source of nectar.
Substituents and Adulterants:
Due to relatively high price of pure honey, it is invariably adulterated either with artificial invert sugar or
simply with cane sugar syrup.
These adulterants or cheaper substituents not only alter the optical property of honey but also its natural
aroma and fragrance.
Uses:
 It is used as sweetening agent in confectionaries.
 Being a demulcent, it helps to relieve dryness and is, therefore recommended for coughs, colds,
sore throats and constipation.
 Because of its natural content of easily assimiable simple sugars, it is globally employed as a good
source of nutrient for infants, elderly persons and convalescing patients
Diagrams:

42. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
41
10. Dextrin:
Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight carbohydrates produced by the hydrolysis of starch or
glycogen. Dextrins are mixtures of polymers of D glucose units linked by α-(1→4) or α-(1→6) glycosidic
bonds.
Source: Dextrin is usually made from potato or maize starch;
 Corn
Botanical origin: Zea mays
Family: Graminae
Part used: stigmas and styles
 Potato
Botanical origin: Solanum tuberosum
Family: Solanaceae
Part used: Edible tubers
Family: Dextrin are a family of polysaccharides that are obtained as an intermediate byproduct of the
breakdown of starches.
Common name: British gum, starch gum, pyrodextrin, yellow dextrin and white dextrin
Production:
Dextrins can be produced from starch using enzymes like amylases, as during digestion in the human body
and during malting and mashing, or by applying dry heat under acidic conditions (pyrolysis or roasting).
The latter process is used industrially, and also occurs on the surface of bread during the baking process,
contributing to flavor, color, and crispness. Dextrins produced by heat are also known as pyrodextrins.
During roasting under acid condition the starch hydrolyses and short chained starch parts partially
rebranch with α-(1, 6) bonds to the degraded starch molecule
Varieties of dextrins:
Two common commercial forms are;
 Yellow dextrin (completely soluble in water)
 White dextrin (partially soluble in cold water)

43. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
42
Characteristics:
 White, yellow, or brown powders
 Partially or fully water-soluble.
 Yield optically active solutions of low viscosity.
 Most can be detected with iodine solution, giving a red coloration; one distinguishes
erythrodextrin (dextrin that colors red) and achrodextrin (giving no color).
 White and yellow dextrins from starch roasted with little or no acid is called British gum.
Chemical composition:
Dextrin is a type of soluble fiber formed by the process of dextrinization of corn or wheat starch at high
temperature, followed by the enzymatic (amylase) treatment to form a resistant dextrin.
The resistant dextrin has additional linear or branched glucosidic linkages that are not digestible by
endogenous enzymes.
These non-digestible linkages lead to incomplete hydrolysation, so that only a small percentage of dextrin
is absorbed in the small intestine, and the rest is slowly fermented in the large intestine.
Medicinal uses:
 Reduces cholesterol and fat cell levels.
 Excludes toxins from the body.
 Keeps defecation regular.
 Increases satisfied appetite.
 Reduces blood sugar levels, and regulates insulin response.
 Reduces risk of coronary heart disease and related disease.
 Helps fight colon diseases.
Side effects of dextrin:
 Bolting
 Dehydration
 Hypoglycemia
Chemical structure of dextrin:

44. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
43
Cellulose & Cellulose Derivatives
Cellulose is a polysaccharides and abundantly found in the plants as the basic component of their cell wall.
It is a polymer of β-D-glucose with 1, 4 and 1, 6 glucosidic linkages in the structure.
1. Purified cotton/Absorbent cotton:
It is the cotton which is freed from adhering impurities, deprived of fatty matter, bleached and sterilized
in its container.
Biological origin: Gossypium hirsutum
Family: Malvaceae
Part used: Hair of seed
Habit: Annual herb (maximum height is 4 feet)
Habitat: It is cultivated in Southern US.
Habitat: it is found in South Carolina and Georgia.
The name Gossypium is taken from arabic word ‘gos’ meaning “soft silky substance” and word Hirsutum
is a latin word meaning “rough or hairy.” Other variety is Gossypium barbadensis (commercial cotton).
Collection: Capsules are collected that contain white hairs (Cotton fibers) along with brownish seeds.
It is then ginned (removal of seeds) and cotton is obtained.
Absorbent cotton:
Collected cotton is combed (for removal of impurities and short hairs and Washed with weak alkali
solution (Fatty material removal). It is then bleached with chlorinated soda (removal of colored
impurities). Then washing is carried out with weak acid followed by washing with water. It is then carefully
dried and recarded into flat sheets for packing and finally undergo sterilization.
Description:
It is white, soft, fine, filament like hairs that appear under Light microscope as hollow flattened and
twisted bands that are striate and slightly thickened at the edges. The hairs are unicellular and non-
glandular. It is odorless and tasteless.
It should be freed from; Alkali, Acid, Fatty material, Dyes and Water soluble substances.
Uses:
- As surgical dressing; to absorb blood, mucus or pus and as antiseptic.
- Commercially employed in textile as a source of pure cellulose in the manufacturing of explosives,
cellulose acetate and other material.

45. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
44
2.Powdered cellulose:
It is purified, mechanically disintegrated cellulose prepared by processing alpha cellulose obtained as a
pulp from fibrous plant materials.
It occur in various grades and in various degrees of fineness;
 Free flowing dense powder
 Coarse
 Fluffy
 Non-flowing material
Uses:
- It is used as a self-binding tablet diluent.
- It is used as disintegrating agent.
3. Methylcellulose:
In a methyl ether of cellulose continuing not less than 27.5% and not more than 31.5% of methoxy
groups.
Preparations: It is obtained by the reaction of cellulose with caustic soda and methyl chloride.
Physical properties;
It consist of a white, fibrous powder or granules. In water methyl cellulose swells to produce a clear to
opalescent, viscous, colloidal suspension.
Uses:
- It is a bulk laxative. The usual cathartic dose is 1 to 1.5 g with water 4 to 5 times a day.
- It is used as suspending agent.
- Ophthalmic solutions of methylcellulose are used as topical protectants. These solutions are
marketteed as ‘artificial tears’ or solutions for contact lenses.
4. Purified rayon:
Fibrous form of bleached regenerated cellulose.
Uses:
- It is used as a surgical aid.

46. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
45
5. Sodium carboxymethylcellulose:
It is the sodium salt of the poly carboxymethyl ether of the cellulose. It is a hygroscopic powder.
Carboxymethylcellulose and its sodium salt, both are used as bulking agents.
Usually combined with other drugs substances in products intended for appetite suppression.
Uses:
- In varying proportions of with microcrystalline cellulose, it is used as suspending agent.
- It is used as thickening agent.
- It is used as tablet excipient.
- It is used as bulk laxative. The usual cathartic dose is 1.5 g with water 3 times a day.
Structure:
6. Microcrytalline cellulose:
Purified, partially depolarized cellulose prepared by treating alpha celloluse obtained as a plup from
fibrous plant material with mineral acids.
Uses:
- It is used as a diluent in tablets.

47. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
46
Gums and Mucilages
Gums:
Gums are natural plant hydrocolloids that may be classified as anionic or nonionic polysaccharides or
salts of polysaccahrides.
Physical characteristics: These are amorphous, translucent substances that are frequently produced in
higher plants as protective after injury (pathological product).
Composition:
Gums are typically heterogeneous in composition. Upon hydrolysis mannose, glucose, galactose, xylose
and various uronic acids are observed components.
The uronic acid may form salts with Calcium, Magnesium and other cations. Methyl ether and sulfate
ester may modify the hydrophilic properties of some natural polysaccahrides.
Sources:
 Shrub gums; Acacia, Karaya, Tragacanth.
 Marine gums; Agar, Alagin, Carrageenan.
 Seed gums; Auar, locust bean, Plant extract pectin
 Starch and cellulose derivative; hetastarch
 Microbial gums; Dextrose, xanthan
Applications in pharmacy:
Gums find diverse applications in pharmacy;
 Gums are ingredients in dental and other adhesive and in bulk laxative.
 Gums are used as Tablet binder.
 Gums are used as Emulsifier.
 Gums are used as Gelating agent.
 Gums are used as Suspending agent.
 Gums are used as stabilizing agent and thickeners.
When problems are encountered in the utilization of hydrocolloids, some alteration in the hydration of
the polymer is usually involved. For example; gums are precipitated from solution by alcohol and by lead
acetate solution.
Plant exudates have been the traditional gums for the pharmaceutical purposes and they still find
significant application. However, preparations of gums in labor intensive and carries a premium price
and there use will probably continue to decline. Marine gums like agar is widely used as utility gums at
the present time and their competitive position appears to be stable.

48. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
47
Mucilage:
Mucilage is a thick gluey substance produced by nearly all plants and some microorganisms. It’s a polar
glycoprotein and an exo-polysaccharide. Mucilage’s is naturally occurring high molecular weight (200,000
or up) organic plant’s product. Mucilage term is loosely used often interchangeably with the term Gum.
Composition: Mucilage’s upon hydrolyses yield proteins, polysaccharides and uronic acid.
Sources:
 Aloe vera
 Cactus
 Chinese yame
 Sundews
 Flack seeds
 Liquorice roots
 Mallow
Applications in Pharmacy:
Mucilages find diverse applications in pharmacy;
 Mucilage’s are used as Emollient.
 Mucilage’s are used as Demulcent.
 Mucilaginous remedies are also used in the urinary and in the respiratory system.
 Mucilage’s are used as stabilizer and thickening agent in food processing by virtue of their water
holding and viscous properties.
Difference between Gums and Mucilages
The difference are as fallows;
Gums Mucilages
Gums dissolve in water. Mucilage’s don’t dissolve in water.
Gums swell in water to form sticky colloidal
dispersion.
They form aqueous colloidal dispersion.
Gums are pathologic products. Mucilage’s are physiologic products.
Gums are abnormal products. Mucilage’s are normal product of metabolism.
Gums are found on surfaces as exudates as result
of bacterial or fungal action after mechanical
injury.
Mucilage’s form within the plant by mucilage
secreting hair, sacks and canals.

49. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
48
1. Tragacanth
Botanical origin: Astragalus gummifer
Family: Leguminosae
Parts used: Dried gummy exudate
Habit: Thorny branching Shrub of 1 meter in height.
Habitat: It is found in Iran, Syria, the Soviet Union and Greece.
The name tragacanth is from Greek tragos means ‘goat’ and akantha
means ‘horn,’ it probablyu refers to the curve shape of the plant. In the
botanical origin word Astragalus means ‘milkbone’ and gummifer means ‘gum bearing.’
Collection:
When plant parts are injured the cell walls of the pith and then off the medullary rays are transformed
into gum. The gum absorbs water and creates internal pressure in the stem. Thus, forcing it to the surface
through the incision that caused the injury. When the gum strikes the air it hardens due to evaporation.
The nature of the incisions determines the shape of final product;
 Vermiform tragacanth: The gum through natural injuries is more or less wormlike and is twisted
into coils. It is almost colorless (white).
 Tragacanth sorts: it is shaped like irregular tears of yellowish or brown color.
 Ribbon gum: Gum with longitudinal striations. Obtained by transverse incisions in the main stem
and older branches.
Constituents:
It contain 60 to 90% of bassorin, a complex of polyhydroxylated acids which swells in water and forms a
viscous solution.
Tragacanthin, which is probably demethoxylated bassorin, composes about 30% of the gum and it is more
water soluble.
Uses:
- It is used as suspending agent.
- It is used as emulsifying agents for oils and resins.
- It is used as adhesive.
- It is used as demulcent and emollient in cosmetics.
- It is also used in cloth printing, confectionary and other processes.

50. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
49
2. Acacia
Botanical origin: Acacia senegal
Family: Leguminosae
Parts used: Dried gummy exudate from stem and branches
Habit: Thorny Trees of about 6 meter in height
Habitat: It is found in Sudan and Senegal.
It is commonly known as Gum Arabic. The name Acacia is from
Greek ake means ‘pointed’ and referring to the thorny nature of
the plant, and senegal refers to the habitat.
Collection:
The trees are tapped by making transverse incisions in the bark
and peeling it both above and below the cut. Thus, exposing an area of cambium 2 to 3 feet in length and
2 to 3 inches in breath. In 2 to 3 weeks tears of gum formed on the exposed surface are collected.
The average annual yield of gum per tree is 900 to 2000 g. the formation of gum may be caused by the
bacterial action or by the action of a ferment. The gum is exposed to or bleached by the sun to make is
semiopaque in appearance.
Constituents:
Acacia mainly consist of Arabin, which is a complex mixture of Calcium, Magnesium and Potassium salts
of Arabic acid.
Arabic acid is a branched polysaccharides and yield L-arabinose, D-galactose, L-rhamnose and D-
glucuronic acid on hydrolysis.
Acacia also contain 12 to 15% of water and several occluded enzymes (oxidase, peroxidase and
pectinase.)
Uses:
- It is used as suspending agent.
- It is used as emulsifying agents for oils and resins.
- It is used as adhesive and binder in tablet granulation.
- It is used as demulcent and emollient in cosmetics.

51. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
50
3. Agar
Biological source: Gelidium cartilagineum
Family: Gelidiaceae
Parts used: Dried colloidal extract
Habit: Seaweed
Habitat: It is referred to as Japanese isinglass. These algae grow along
the Eastern coast of Asia and the coast of North America and Europe.
Most of the commercial supply comes from Japan, Spain, Morocco and Portugal. South Africa, U.S and
New Zealand are also significant producers.
Preparation:
The fresh seaweed is washed for 24 hours in running water, extracted in steam heated digesters with
dilute acid solution and then with water for a total period of about 30 hours. The hot aqueous extract is
cooled then congealed in ice machines. The water from the agar is completely separates as ice.
The 300 lb agar ice block is crushed, melted and filtered through a rotatory vacuum filter. The moist agar
flakes are dried by currents of dry air in tall cylinders. The fully dried product can be reduced to a fine
powder.
Properties:
Agar is a dried hydrophilic colloidal substance obtained by extraction. It may be yellowish orange to
yellowish grey to pale yellow. It is tough when damp, brittle when dry, odorless or slightly odorous and
has a mucilaginous taste. It is insoluble in cold water.
Constituents:
Agar is the calcium salt of strongly ionized polysaccharides. It can be resolve into 2 major fractions; agarose
and agaropectin.
Uses:
- It is used as bulk forming purgative.
- It is used as suspending agent.
- It is used as emulsifier.
- It is used as gelating agent for surgical lubricants and suppositories.
- It is used as tablet excipient and disintegrant.
- It is extensively used as a gel in bacteriologic culture media.
- It is used as an aid in food and other industrial processes.

52. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
51
4. Sodium alginate or Algin
Botanical origin: Macrocystis pyrifera
Family: Lessoniaceae
Parts used: Purified extract
Habit: Seaweed
Habitat:
It is obtained for the temperate zones of the Pacific Ocean.; the area
off Southern California is a major producing site.
Physical properties:
It occurs nearly an odorless and tasteless coarse or fine powder and is yellowish white in color. It is
readily soluble in water forming a viscous colloidal solution and it is insoluble in alcohol, ether and
strong acids.
Collection:
It is the purified carbohydrate product extracted from brown seaweeds by the use of dilute alkali.
Constituents:
Algin mainly consist of sodium salt of alginic acid, a linear polymer of L-guluronic acid and D-mannuronic
acid.
Mannuronic acid is the major component but there is variation in algal source.
Uses:
- It is used as suspending agent.
- It is used in food industry like ice creams salad dressings, chocolate milk etc.
- Kit is used as sizing for other industrial purposes.
- It is used as thickening agent and tablet binder.
- The propylene glycol ester of align has been prepared and is especially useful in formulations that
require greater acid stability.

53. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
52
5. Pectin
Pectin is from Greek word means curdled or congealed. It is a purified carbohydrate product obtained
from the dilute acidic extract of the inner portion of the rind of citrus fruits or from apple pomace.
Citrus peel is a rich source of pectin, the amount varying with the seasons and verity. Approx. half of the
pectin is made in the U.S in derived from Lemon peel.
Preparation:
Pectin in fruit is found in an insoluble form known as protopectin; it is converted to soluble form by
heating the fruit with dilute acids. The solution of pectin can be precipitated by alcohol or by ‘salting
out.’ It is then washed and dried.
Physical properties:
It is a coarse or fine powder, yellowish white in color, almost odorless and has mucilaginous taste. It is
completely soluble in 20 parts of water and the solution is viscous, opalescent, colloidal and acidic to
litmus paper. One part of pectin heated in nine parts of water makes a stiff gel. The molecular weight of
pectin ranges from 10,000 to 250,000.
Constituents:
It is hydrophilic colloid consisting chiefly or partially methoxylated polygalacturonic acids. Pectin yields
not less than 6.7% methoxyl groups and not less than 74% of galacturonic acid.
The gelling power and viscosity of solutions depends upon the no. of galacturonic acid units in the
molecule.
Uses:
Pharmaceutical pectin is different from commercial pectin as it contains no sugars or organic acids. It
has following uses;
- It is used as suspending agent.
- It is used as protectant.
- It is used in many antidiarrheal formulations.
- It has the property of conjugating toxins and enhancing the physiologic functions of the digestive
tract through its physical and chemical properties.

54. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
53
Glycosides
Introduction, Classification, Chemistry and medicinal uses of:
1. Cardioactive glycosides: Digitalis, Strophanthus, White squill
2. Anthraquinone glycosides: Senna, Aloe, Rhubarb, Cascara,
Cochineal
3. Saponins glycosides: Dioscorea, Sarsaparilla, Glycyrrhiza
4. Cyanophore glycosides: Wild cherry
5. Isothiocyanate glycosides: Black musterd
6. Lactone glycosides: Cantharides
7. Aldehyde glycosides: Vanilla
8. Miscellaneous isoprenoid glycosides: Gentian, Quassia

55. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
54
Glycosides
Glycosides are compounds which on hydrolysis yield sugar and non-sugar(s) moieties or aglycon (genin).
The therapeutic activity of a glycoside is due to aglycon part.
The usual linkage between sugar and non-sugar is an oxygen linkage between reducing group of sugar and
alcoholic or phenolic hydroxyl group of the aglycon. Chemically the glycosides are regarded as sugar
ethers.
Classification of glycosides:
They are classified on the basis of;
1. Glycon or Sugar part
2. Aglycon or non-sugar part
3. The linkage between glycon & aglycon
1. On the basis of glycon:
Glycosides are classified on the basis of their sugars as well. They are named on the sugar present in them.
Example:
 Glucoside, in which glucose is present.
 Ramnoside, in which ramnose is present.
2. On the basis of aglycon:
Glycosides are classified on the basis of their non-sugar part. They are names on the specific aglycon
present in them.
Example:
 Cyanophore glycosides, in which cyanides are present.
 Anthraquinone glycosides, in which anthracine ring derivative aglycons are present.
3. On the bases of linkage:
The glycosides are classified on the bases of the linkage present between them. The usual linkages are;
 If the linkage in glycoside is through oxygen such glycosides are called O-glycosides.
 If the linkage is through sulphur then they are called S-glycosides.
 If the linkage is through Nitrogen then they are called N-glycosides.
 If the linkage is through Carbon then they are called C-glycosides.

56. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
55
Role of glycon: When these glycosides are administered into the body the sugar carry the aglycon to the
site of a particular organ or a tissue where the physiological or pharmacological action is required so, sugar
act as a transporter.
Example:
Common name: Willow bark
Botanical origin: Salix alba
Family: Salicaceae
Part used: Dried bark
Constituents:
Salicin, an O-glycoside. It was isolated in 1828 later on its derivative
salicylic acid in 1838 and finally acetyl salicylic acid (aspirin) in 1897 was
prepared.
Uses:
- It is used to treat rheumatism.

57. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
56
Classification of Glycosides
They are classified on the nature of chemical nature of aglycon;
1. Cardioactive glycosides e.g. Digitalis, Strophanthus, White squill
2. Anthraquinone glycosides e.g. Senna, Aloe, Rhubarb, Cascara, Cochineal
3. Saponins glycosides e.g. Dioscorea, Sarsaparilla, Glycyrrhiza
4. Cyanophore glycosides e.g. Wild cherry
5. Isothiocyanate glycosides e.g. Black musterd
6. Lactone glycosides e.g. Cantharides
7. Aldehyde glycosides e.g. Vanilla
8. Miscellaneous isoprenoid glycosides e.g. Gentian, Quassia
1.Cardioactive Glycosides:
They are also known as cardio tonics and cardiac glycosides. These are therapeutically used to strengthen
a weaker heart thus allow it to function more efficiently when these are administered into the body they
increase the force of systolic contraction and strengthening the length of systole thus giving the heart
more time to rest between contraction.
Role of sugar: the sugars render the compound more soluble and increases the power of fixation of the
glycosides to heart muscles. The aglycon is of steroidal structure. It is either bufanolide (white squill) or
cardinolide (digitalis & strophanthus).

58. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
57
(i) Digitalis
Botanical origin: Digitalis lanata, Digitalis purpurea
Common Name: Foxglove
Family: Previously Scrophulariaceae, now, according to new APG (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group) placed
in Plantaginaceae.
Part used: Dried leaves
Habit: Biennial or Perennial herb
Habitat: It is cultivated in Australia, Canada, USA, Belgium, France and England.
Collection: The height of the plant is about 1 to 1.5 meter. The leaves are collected from 2nd year
growth of plants and they are immediately (leaves) dried promptly at 60o
C. The dried leaves should not
contain more than 5% moisture. The color of the leaves is grayish green and the taste is bitter.
Pharmacognostic features:
Some main differential features are mentioned below;
Characters Digitalis Purpurea Digitalis lanata
Leaf shape Ovate or oblong Linear, lanceolate
Margin Dentated margin Straight or entire margin
Petiole Winged Sessile (No stalk)
Size 35cm length
11cm width
30cm length
4cm width
Diagram

59. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
58
Chemical Constituents:
There are four types of derivatives which are found in digitalis species. They are mentioned below;
 Derivatives of Digitoxigenin
 Derivatives of Gitoxigenin
 Derivatives of Gitaloxigenin
 Derivatives of Digoxigenin
There are two type of sugars is present with aglycon. Digitoxose (Methyl aldopentose) and glucose.
 

60. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
59
 Derivatives of Digitoxigenin:
Digitalis purpurea: Digitoxin (3 digitoxose) and glucodigitoxin (3 digitoxose, 1 glucose) is present.
Digitalis lanata: Digitoxin, acetyl digitoxin (3 digitoxose, 1 COCH3), lanatoside A (3 digitoxose, 1 glucose,
1, 1 COCH3) is present.
 Derivatives of Gitoxigenin:
A Hydroxyl group (-OH) is present on carbon 16 in cardinolide structure.
Digitalis purpurea: Gitoxin (3 digitoxose) is present.
Digitalis lanata: Lanatoside B (3 digitoxose, 1 glucose, 1, 1 COCH3) is present.

61. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
60
 Derivatives of Gitaloxigenin:
A “–OCHO” group is present on Carbon 16 in cardinolide structure.
Digitalis purpurea: Gitaloxin (3 digitoxose) is present.
Digitalis lanata: Lanatoside E (3 digitoxose, 1 glucose, 1, 1 COCH3) is present.
 Derivatives of digoxigenin:
Its derivatives are only present in Digitalis lanata. A Hydroxyl group (-OH) is present on carbon 12 of
cardinolide structure.
- Digoxin (3 digitoxose)
- Acetyl digoxin (3 digitoxose, 1 COCH3 )
- Lanatoside C (3 digitoxose, 1 glucose, 1 COCH3)
- Deslanoside or GlucoDigoxin (3 digitoxose, 1 glucose)

62. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
61
Only digitoxin, digoxin and deslanoside is used therapeutically the rest are poorly absorbed from GIT so
they are useless.
 Digitoxin: It is the principal constituent of Digitalis purpurea. 1mg of digitoxin is therapeutically
equivalent to 1g of digitalis leaves. It is completely absorbed from GIT therefore, an equivalent
oral or IV administration produce essentially same therapeutic effect and the drug has almost
similar onset of action by either root. Onset of action occur at half to 2 hours. Following IV
administration with maximum effect occurring at 8 to 9 hours later. Following oral administration
onset occur at 2 to 4 hours with maximum effect occurring at 12 to 24 hours later.
 Digoxin: It has more rapid onset of action compare to the digitoxin. Following IV injection onset
occur at 5 to 30 minutes at somewhat longer. Following oral administration maximum effect
occurring at 2 to 5 hours depending upon the route through drug is administered.
 Deslanoside: In deslanoside onset occur at 10 to 30 minutes with maximum effects occurring at
1 to 2 hours later. It is therapeutically used in the left side heart failure.
Medicinal uses:
All digitalis glycosides possess some qualitative effect or action on heart, peripheral vascular system, CNS
and GIT, but they vary in their potency, onset of action, rate of absorption and speed of elimination.
Excessive doses of glycosides produce nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, marked confusion, respiratory
depression, visual disturbances and disturbances in cardiac rhythm i.e. premature contraction of
ventricles.

63. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
62
(ii) Strophanthus
Botanical origin: Strophanthus kombe, Strophanthus hispidus
Family: Apocynaceae
Part used: Dried ripened seeds, seeds are coved with silky hairs of
same color.
Habit: Plants are woody Perennial climbers.
Habitat:
Strophanthus kombe naturally grows in the region of Eastern Africa it is commercially called green
strophanthus. While, Strophanthus hispidus grows naturally in the region of Western Africa. It is
commercially called brown strophanthus.
Pharmacognostic features:
Plant is bitter in taste and have unpleasant odor. Strophanthus kombe has lanceolate shape leafs. While
Strophanthus hispidus has spindle shape leafs.
Constituents:
It contains Stophanthin, 30% fixed oils, two nitrogenous bases (choline, trigonelline), Resin and mucilage.
Sthrophanthin is present in the endosperm tissue of the seeds. When the section of the seed is treated
with 1 drop of 60% sulphuric acid the cell of endosperm containing strophanthin will assume bright color.
Strophanthus gratus, Sthrophathus emini, Strophanthus nicholsoni, Strphanthus courmontii, all are used
as adulterant to standard drugs. They give Red, red to violet, red and brownish color respectively when
treated with 60% sulphuric acid.
Strphanthin on hydrolysis broken down into strophanthidin and β-D glucose, α-D glucose, Cymarose.
Medicinal Uses:
- It is used as cardio
tonic.
- It is used as diuretic.
Structure:

64. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
63
(iii) White squill
Botanical origin: Urginea maritima OR Drimia maritima
Family: Previously Liliaceae, now, according to new APG
(Angiosperm Phylogeny Group) placed in Asparagaceae.
Part used: Dried fleshy scales of the bulb.
Habit: Plants are Perennial herbs.
Habitat:
It is cultivated in Spain, Italy, Greece, Algeria and Morocco.
Pharmacognostic features:
It is of about 15 to 30 cm diameter. Its taste is bitter and it has slight odor. It has pear shape bulb. The
stem is reduced and it is of disc shape.
Constituents:
It contain Scillaren which upon hydrolysis gives Scillarenin or Scillaridin and sugar 1 Rhamnose and 1
glucose. It also contain glucoscillaren.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as expectorant
because the constituents are
poorly absorbed by GIT.
- It is used as diuretic.
- It is used as emetic.
- It is used as Cardio tonic.

65. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
64
2.Anthraquinone glycosides:
Anthraquinone glycosides are stimulant purgatives and cathartics and they exert their action by increasing
the tone of smooth muscles in the wall of large intestine.
There are two chemical tests for Anthraquinone glycosides, written as fallows;
- The test is applied to powdered form or section of the crude drug. Take powdered drug, to the
powder add alkali and observe. Red color is produced. In cascara bark the medullary rays assumes
the red color so it indicates that the anthraquinone glycosides are located in it.
- Borntrager test: the test is applied to the powdered form of drug. Ether is mixed with the
powdered drug. Than it is filtered. To the filterate add aqueous ammonia or castic soda and
observe. Red color or violet color is produced.
(i) Aloe
Botanical origin: Aloe vera, Aloe ferox, Aloe perryi
Family: Previously Liliaceae, now, according to new APG (Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group) placed in Asphodelaceae.
Part used: Dried juice of leaves.
Habit: Xerophyte herb or shrub.
Habitat: There are 150 species of Aloe, mostly indigenous to Africa. Now they are naturalized to Europe
and West Indies.
Pharmacognostic features:
The leaves are thick and fleshy and they are strongly cutecularaized and they are prickly at the margin.
The juice obtained is either brown or brownish black in color with a bitter taste and characteristic odor.
Constituents:
It contain barbaloin (aloe emodin anthrone + glucose), isobarbaloin, β-barbaloin, chrysophenic acid,
volatile oils and resinous matter.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as laxative and purgative.
- It is an ingredient of Benzoin tincture & sun creams.
- Fresh mucilage juice of leaf is used in skin burn & eczema.
- It used as cosmetic, emollient, wound healer, moisturizer & shampoos.
- As a fork medicine it is used in the treatment of rheumatism.

66. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
65
(ii) Rhubarb
Botanical origin: Rheum webbianum, Rheum
officinale, Rheum emodi, Rheum palmatum
Family: Polygonaceae
Part used: Dried rhizomes of roots.
Habit: Perennial herbs
Habitat:
Indian rhubarb (Rheum webbianum, and Rheum officinale) is found in India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
Chinese rhubarb (Rheum emodi, and Rheum palmatum) is found in Tibet and China.
Collection:
Roots and rhizomes are excised from 6 to 10 years old plants and dried in pieces and dried by sun light or
by artificial dryers, which is mainly by oven.
Pharmacognostic features:
The plants grows at high altitude at 900 ft. or 3000 meter. The drug has firm texture known shrunken
appearance. It is bright yellow in color it is aromatic due to presence of volatile oils and taste is bitter and
astringent.
Constituents:
It contain mainly Rhein anthrone C-10 glucoside (Rhein anthrone + glucose). Among the tannins it contains
Rheotannic acid, Catechin, Gallic acid, Glucogallin. It also contain 40% rosettes of Calcium oxalate crystals.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as laxative.
- It is used as purgative.
Due to its astringent action on GIT lining, it is less frequently used to relieve constipation.
Structure:

67. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
66
(iii) Senna
Botanical origin: Cassia angustifolia, Cassia acutifolia
Family: Previously Leguminosae, now, according to new APG (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group) placed in
Feabaceae.
Part used: Dried leaflets
Habit: Perennial shrub
Habitat:
Alexandria senna (Cassia acutefolia) is found in Egypt, Nubia, and Sudan.
Indian or Tinnevelly senna (Cassia angustifolia) is found in Pakistan, India, Saudi Arabia, and Somalia.
Pharmacognostic features:
The leaflets are paripinnate in nature (even no. of leaves). The height of the shrub is about 1 to 1.5 meter.
Characters Cassia acutifolia Cassia angustifolia
Shape of leaves Narrow leaves with Asymmetric base Broader with less asymmetric base
Color of leaves Grayish green Yellowish green
Trichomes Epidermal trichomes are more
numerous. The average distance
between them is 3 epidermal cells.
Epidermal trichomes are less
numerous. The average distance
between them is 6 epidermal cells.
Test:
Ether extract of the
hydrolyzed acid
solution of drug gives
with Methanolic
magnesium acetate
solution.
Pink color day light.
In Filtered UV light Pale brownish color.
Orange color day light.
In Filtered UV light yellowish green
color.
Diagram

68. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
67
Constituents:
It contains dimeric glycosides. It mainly contain Sennoside A and B (rhein dianthrone + glucose) and
Sennocide C & D (rhein anthrone + aloe amodin + glucose).
Sennosides A & B are very effective in contrast to Sennoside C & D. They are insoluble in water therefore
they are converted into their Calcium salts. Sennoside A & B are isomers. A is dextro isomer while B is
meso isomer. Similarly, Sennoside C & D are isomers. C is dextro isomer while D is meso isomer.
Medicinal uses:
1. It is used as purgative.
2. It is used as laxative.
3. It is used as stimulant.
4. Commercially is it is also used in the preparation of soaps and mouth washes.
5. Its elixirs and tablets are available, it is basically used to treat habitual constipation.

69. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
68
(iv) Cascara
Botanical origin: Cascara sagrada or Rhamnus purshiana
Family: Rhamnaceae
Part used: Dried bark
Habit: Evergreen Tree
Habitat:
Indigenous to pacific coast of North America. Cultivated throughout USA and Canada.
Collection:
Bark is collected in mid-April and August and dried in shade to retain the color of bark. Bark occurs in two
forms;
- Bark which is collected from young branches after drying curled up forming cylinders called quills.
- Bark which is collected from main stem and are called flat pieces.
Pharmacognostic features:
It is a tree of about 15m height. Bark is yellow in color originally, after drying it turns into purplish yellow.
Odor is slight but characteristic and taste is bitter.
Constituents:
Cascara contain two Aloins (barbaloin & chrysaloin) and are bitter in taste. Primary glycosides cascarosides
A and B (related to barbaloin) and cascarosides C and D (related to chrysaloin). Both O and C glycosidic
linkage is present. Similarly aloe emodin (1, 8 –dihydroxy-3-hydroxy methyl anthraquinone) and emodin
(1, 3, 8-trihydroxy-6-methyl anthraquinone) also present.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used for the correction of habitual constipation.
Structures:

70. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
69

71. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
70
(v) Cochineal
Zoological origin:
 Old name: Coccus cacti
 New name: Dactylopius coccus
Family: Coccidae (old), Dactylopiidae (new)
Part used: Dried female insect containing eggs and larvae.
Host of Insect: Nopal plant (Opuntia coccinellifera) belongs to
family, Cactaceae.
Habitat: They are found in Mexico, Spain and Peru.
Collection: These insects are collected from nopal plant. They are killed by the steam or hot water
treatment or may be killed by fumes of burning sulpher. Finally they are dried in an oven when they lose
about 30% of original weight.
Constituents:
Red berried of the Nopal plant are consumed by the insects therefore the color is formed after the
processing inside the abdomen of the insects. They are the source of carmine red or carminic acid.
Uses:
- It is used as coloring dye for cosmetics and fabrics.
- It is used in oil paints and water colors.
- In US it is used in dairy products and soft drinks (beverages)
- In pharmacy it is used to color the pills and ointments. Contrary to other dyes it is not toxic or
carcinogenic.
Diagram & Structure:

72. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
71
3.Saponins Glycosides:
The word is originated from Latin word ‘’Sapo’’ means ‘Soap.’ Plant material containing saponin glycosides
have long been used in various parts of the world for their detergent properties.
Example:
1. Roots of Saponaria officinalis contain saponin glycosides and it is found in Europe.
2. Bark of Quillaia saponaria contain saponin glycosides, and it is found in South America.
The aglycone of the saponin glycosides are called ‘Sapogenin.’ On the basis of chemical nature of aglycone
that is sapogenin, two types of saponins have been classified;
 Steroidal saponin (e.g. Dioscorea, Sarsaparilla)
 Triterpenoid saponin (e.g. glycyrrhiza)
Characteristics:
1. They form colloidal solution solution in water which foam upon shaking.
2. They are mostly bitter in taste but glycyrrhiza is sweet.
3. The drugs are sternutatory (sneez causing) in action.
4. Some of the saponin glycosides are toxic in nature. For example Sapindus trifoliatus, a hepatotoxic
agent and it also destroy RBC’s by hemolysis.
5. They are toxic to especially cold blooded animals. Many have been used as fish poisons.

73. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
72
(i) Glycyrrhiza
Botanical origin: Glycyrrhiza glabra
Family: Feabaceae
Part used: Dried roots and rhizomes
Habit: Perennial Herb
Habitat:
In Pakistan, it is found in Azad Kashmir & Quetta. It has three main verities;
 Typica: It also known as Spanish liquorice. It is grown in European countries like Spain, France,
Italy, Germany and Europe.
 Glandulifera: It is also known as Russian liquorice, and is grown in Russia.
 Violacea: The color of its flowers are violet therefore it is called violacea. Commercially it is also
called Persian liquorice, and it is grown in Iran and Iraq.
Collection:
The parts are collected in 3 to 5 year age of plant in autumn season. After collection they are air dried, it
takes 6 to 7 months.
Pharmacognostic features:
It is a yellow color plant. The plant have imparipinnate leaves. It has characteristic fracture. The fracture
is fibrous in the bark and splintery in wood region. The odor is slight but characteristic and taste is sweet.
Constituents:
The major constituent is Glycyrrhizic acid. It is composed of Glycyrrhetic acid (aglycone) and 2 molecules
of glucuronic acid (glycone).
Among the other constituents it contain Liquiritin and isoliquiritin. Tthey are flavonoid glycosides and have
antimicrobial & anti-ulcerogenic activity. It also contain glucose, manitol and 20% starch.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used for peptic ulcer treatment.
- It is used as expectorant.
- It is used as laxative.
- It is used as demulcent.
- It is used as flavoring agent. Commercially, it is added into chewing gums, candies and tobacco
mixtures.
- It is used to mask the bitter taste of the drug e.g. aloe, ammonium chloride and quinine etc.
- It is used against the inflammation of liver, kidney & lung as folk medicine.

74. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
73
Glycyrrhizic Acid Glycyrrhretic Acid + 2 Glucuronic Acid

75. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
74
(ii) Sarsaparilla
Botanical origin: Smilax febrifuga, Smilax regelii
Family: Smilacaceae
Part used: Dried roots
Habit: Perennial woody climbers
Habitat:
It is indigenous to Central America.
Collection:
Roots are collected in autumn season, 2 to 3 years of plant age. They are sun dried. The color is dark
reddish brown. It is odorless plant with bitter taste.
Constituents:
It contains some volatile oils and resins. The main constituent is Sarsaponin. It is composed of
sarsapogenin, three molecule of glucose and one molecules of rhamnose.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used to treat chronic skin diseases.
- It is used to treat rheumatism.
Structure:
Sarsaponin Sarsapogenin + 3 Glucose + 1 Rhamnose

76. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
75
(iii) Dioscorea
Botanical origin: Dioscorea deltoidea, Dioscorea composita,
Dioscorea bulbifera
Family: Dioscoreaceae
Part used: Dried roots and rhizomes
Habit: Perennial climbing shrubs
Habitat: They are found in India, Nepal, China, Japan, North America,
and Mexico.
Collection:
The roots and rhizomes are collected in autumn season, 3 to 5 years of plant age. They are air dried. The
color is light brown. It is odorless. The taste of the plant is bitter and starchy because it contain 75% non-
edible starch.
Constituents:
It contains starch. The main constituent is Dioscin, on hydrolysis it yield one molecule of glucose and 2
molecules of rhamnose.
Medicinal uses:
- The aglycon is used as a precursor for the synthesis of cortisones, sex hormones and other
steroidal drugs.
- It is used as oral contraceptive. Aglycon possess antifertility process and it is mainly used in the
health and family planning programs in developed countries.
Structure:
Dioscin Diosgenin + 1 Glucose + 2 Rhamnose

77. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
76
4.Cyanophore Glycosides:
They are also known as cyanogenic glycosides or cyanogenetic glycosides.
Hydrolysis of Amygdalin:
Botanical origin: Prunus amygdalus
Sweet almond and bitter almond, both are chemical races of same species.
Bitter almond contain amygdalin almond with enzyme emulsin. The emulsin enzyme is made up of two
components i.e. prunase and amygdalase.
Steps:
Hydrolysis of amygdalin includes the following steps;
1. In the first step hydrolysis of amygdalin takes place in the presence of enzyme amygdalase, and
prunasin (mendilonitril glucoside) and glucose molecule is obtained.
2. The prunasin produced again undergo hydrolysis in the presence of enzyme prunase, and a
glucose molecule and mendilonitrile cyanohydrin is obtained.
3. This mendilonitrile cyanohydrin, dissociate into benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid.

78. Shaharyar Khan
3rd Prof. Morning
77
(i) Wild cherry
Botanical origin: Prunus serotina
Family: Rosaceae
Part used: Dried stem bark
Habit: Tree
Habitat:It is found in eastern United States and Canada.
Collection:
The tree is about 30 meter tall of height. The bark is collected
in autumn when it is more active. It is air dried. Outer color of
the bark is greenish brown and the inner color is reddish
brown. Fracture is short and granular.
The drug is almost odorless but after moistening with water it evolve strong odor of lmond i.e. odor of
benzaldehyde. Taste is astringent and bitter.
Constituents:
It contain prunasin, produced by partial hydrolysis of amygdalin. It contain tannins (trimethyl gallic acid),
benzoic acid, traces of volatile oils and enzymes. It also contain rosettes and prism aggregates of of Ca-
oxalate crystals.
Medicinal uses:
- It possess astringent, sedative, and antitussive properties.
- It is used as flavoring agent in cough syrups.
Experiment:
Test:
1g powdered wild cherry bark in
test tube + Add 1ml of water +
add sod-picrate paper.
Result:
HCN will evolve over a period of time of 30 min will change the yellow
color into Na-iso perpurate which is brick red color.
If we add 2-3 drops of sulphuric acid and warm gently then the
reaction will be faster in 5 to 10 mins.
Structure: