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Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes: Female Workers under State-socialism
1. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:
Female Workers under State-socialism
Pamela Campa Michel Seraļ¬nelli
University of Calgary University of Toronto
TRANSITION AFTER 25 YEARS
SITE, Stockholm, December 5 2016
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
3. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Our focus
1 Female attitudes toward work
2 Gender role attitudes (of males and females)
These attitudes differ signiļ¬cantly across space and over time (Giavazzi, Schiantarelli and
Seraļ¬nelli, 2013)
They have also been shown to have quantitatively important effects on labor market
outcomes (Fernandez, Fogli, and Olivetti, 2004; Fortin, 2008; Fernandez and Fogli, 2009;
Bertrand, Kamenica and Pan, 2015)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
4. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
What we do
We study the extent to which these attitudes are endogenous to politico-economic regimes
that promote womenās economic inclusion
Ideal setting would be random assignment of political regimes
Exploit two (related) historical events:
1 Advent of state socialism in Central and Eastern European countries (CEECs)
2 Separation of Germany
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
5. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Why state socialism in East-Germany and CEECs?
1. State-Socialist (St-So) experience in East-Germany and CEECs as a quasi-experimental
setting
New regime was imposed
East and West-Germany part of the same country before separation.
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
6. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Why state socialism in East-Germany and CEECs? (cont.)
2 St-So governments made efforts to promote womenās economic inclusion during late
1945s-mid 1960s (Wolchik, 1981; Fodor, 2003; De Haan, 2012)
Ideological and instrumental reasons
Principle of equal pay for equal work adopted in new constitutions, education and
training policies, new family laws supporting the independence of women, abortion
legalized
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
7. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
East vs. West Germany
East Germany - 1960s: policies that favored female qualiļ¬ed employment; early 1970s:
public provision of extensive childcare (East Germany)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
8. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
East vs. West Germany
East Germany - 1960s: policies that favored female qualiļ¬ed employment; early 1970s:
public provision of extensive childcare (East Germany)
West-German system deterred women from full-time employment (lack of public child
care; income splitting)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
9. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
East vs. West Germany
East Germany - 1960s: policies that favored female qualiļ¬ed employment; early 1970s:
public provision of extensive childcare (East Germany)
West-German system deterred women from full-time employment (lack of public child
care; income splitting)
āIt is probably correct to say that in no other area of womenās struggles for equal rights
are the differences between West and East Germany as enormous as in the area of
education - especially in the ļ¬eld of higher educationā (Shaffer 1981)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
10. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
East vs. West Germany
East Germany - 1960s: policies that favored female qualiļ¬ed employment; early 1970s:
public provision of extensive childcare (East Germany)
West-German system deterred women from full-time employment (lack of public child
care; income splitting)
āIt is probably correct to say that in no other area of womenās struggles for equal rights
are the differences between West and East Germany as enormous as in the area of
education - especially in the ļ¬eld of higher educationā (Shaffer 1981)
Christian Petzoldās Barbara
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
11. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
East vs. West Germany
East Germany - 1960s: policies that favored female qualiļ¬ed employment; early 1970s:
public provision of extensive childcare (East Germany)
West-German system deterred women from full-time employment (lack of public child
care; income splitting)
āIt is probably correct to say that in no other area of womenās struggles for equal rights
are the differences between West and East Germany as enormous as in the area of
education - especially in the ļ¬eld of higher educationā (Shaffer 1981)
Christian Petzoldās Barbara
in the West: East German mothers RabenmĀØutter āRaven Mothersā [reference to legends
claiming the black bird pushes its chicks out of the nest]
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
12. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
East vs. West Germany
East Germany - 1960s: policies that favored female qualiļ¬ed employment; early 1970s:
public provision of extensive childcare (East Germany)
West-German system deterred women from full-time employment (lack of public child
care; income splitting)
āIt is probably correct to say that in no other area of womenās struggles for equal rights
are the differences between West and East Germany as enormous as in the area of
education - especially in the ļ¬eld of higher educationā (Shaffer 1981)
Christian Petzoldās Barbara
in the West: East German mothers RabenmĀØutter āRaven Mothersā [reference to legends
claiming the black bird pushes its chicks out of the nest]
In this paper we try to analyze the role of the regime in a detailed manner
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
13. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Preview of Results
Germany: women have more positive attitudes towards work in the East
Increased female access to higher education and fulltime employment, (arguably two of
the very few positive aspects of living under state-socialism) may have served as channels
for regime inļ¬uence.
Suggestive evidence of signiļ¬cant change in gender-role attitudes in CEECs: less
ātraditionalā after the advent of St-So regime
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
14. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
2 Germany
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
3 CEECs
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
4 Conclusions
5 Appendix
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
15. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Chronology and Survey
German Democratic Republic: 1949ā1990
Nov 9, 1989: Fall of the Berlin Wall; Jun 30, 1990: Monetary Union; Oct 3, 1990: Full
Uniļ¬cation
1990: German Socio Economic Panel (GSOEP) interviews 7,036 German native
individuals in West Germany (around March), and 4,453 in East Germany (around June)
Question: āWhere did you live in 1989: East or West?ā ā Generated variable: East = 1 if
East
County of residence at time of interview (restricted access) ā Geocoded, lat and long of
county centroid
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
16. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Survey
Question about what matters in life:
West: āHow important are the following things to you today? SUCCEED IN ONEāS
OCCUPATIONā
East: āWhich of the following things are very important, important, not so important, or unimportant
to your sense of well-being and personal satisfaction? YOUR CAREER SUCCESSā
ā Generated variable: Job success important= 0: Unimportant, Not Very Important; 1:
Important, Very Important
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
17. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Spatial RD
Simple comparison of attitudes between East and West may be biased by unobserved
heterogeneity ā Spatial RD (Black, 1999; Lalive, 2008; Dell, 2010; Schumann, 2014)
Compare women close to the East-West border, on the assumption that attitudes of those
who lived in these areas had been similar before separation
Collapse two-dimensional running variable into one-dimensional one: distance from
border (Imbens and Zajonc, 2011).
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
19. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Regression Equation
Yicb = Ī²0 + Ī²1Eastc + Ī²2Distancec + Ī²3Distancec ā Eastc + Ļb + Īµicb
Local linear RD polynomial (Gelman and Imbens, 2014)
Sample of women
Observations weighted using triangular kernel:
pw = max (0, bandwdith ā abs(Distancei))
For comparison we report estimates `a la Dell (2010)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
20. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Success at work important
Sample of women
.5.6.7.8.9
Jobsuccessimportant
-200 -100 0 100 200
Distance from border, Km
Figure: Bin-averages (30 bins on each side of threshold, left side is West Germany) and 2nd order
polynomial ļ¬t, bandwidth chosen with KI criterion.
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
21. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Spatial RD Estimates
Table: Female attitudes towards work: Successful at work important.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
<= 200 km <= 150 km <= 100 km <= 50 km
Panel A: Local linear polynomial in distance from border
East 0.072 0.083 0.105 0.165
(0.035)** (0.041)** (0.052)** (0.077)**
(0.041)* (0.048)* (0.061)* (0.089)*
Adjusted R-squared 0.017 0.013 0.009 0.009
Panel B: Third order polynomial in distance from border
East 0.152 0.168 0.301 0.341
(0.082)* (0.099)* (0.136)** (0.248)
(0.071)** (0.086)* (0.119)** (0.270)
Adjusted R-squared 0.025 0.018 0.011 0.007
Panel C: Third order polynomial in lat. and long.
East 0.096 0.093 0.140 0.165
(0.041)** (0.045)** (0.051)*** (0.062)***
(0.035)*** (0.040)** (0.047)*** (0.061)***
Adjusted R-squared 0.026 0.018 0.009 0.008
Counties 252 180 118 64
Observations 3,853 2,870 1,915 978
Mean y 0.704 0.707 0.703 0.694
Border segment F.E.s YES YES YES YES
Robust standard errors in parentheses (below: clustered, allowing for arbitrary correlations within counties)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
22. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Selective migration in divided years
Table: Successful at work important: accounting for East to West movers.
(1) (2) (3)
Women in East in 1949 All women in 1990
Original East-West migrants
Sample coded as East-Germans
Moved E to W 49-56 -0.314
(0.085)***
(0.085)***
Moved E to W 57-89 -0.164
(0.093)*
(0.093)*
East 0.143 0.131
(0.015)*** (0.015)***
(0.017)*** (0.017)***
Observations 1,878 3,853 3,853
Adjusted R-squared 0.011 0.024 0.020
N movers 49-56 35
N movers 57-89 29
Mean y 0.763 0.695 0.695
Robust standard errors in parentheses (below: clustered, allowing for arbitrary
correlations within counties).
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
23. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Potential Channels
Why is womenās likelihood of reporting that career success is important higher in the
East?
1 Increased female access to education
2 Increased female full-time employment
3 Propaganda?
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
25. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
We also estimate:
Yi = Ī³0 + Ī³1Completed College + Ī³2Xi + Īµi (1)
and
Yi = Ī“0 + Ī“1Full Time Employment + Ī“2Xi + ui (2)
where the dep. variable is Job Success Important, Completed College is a dummy for having
completed college education, Full Time Employment is a dummy for being in full-time
employment in 1989, and Xi includes a rich set of demographic characteristics
Estimates for Ī³1 and Ī“1 positive
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
26. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Potential Channels
Why is womenās likelihood of reporting that career success is important higher in the
East?
1 Increased female access to education
2 Increased female full-time employment
3 Propaganda?
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
28. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Propaganda
Dep. var: Successful at work important
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Dist. from
Inner Border > 100
Party Support -0.002
(0.058)
(0.055)
Satisfaction with Democracy -0.013
(0.011)
(0.013)
No West Germany TV 0.049 0.010 0.020
(0.023)** (0.027) (0.025)
(0.024)** (0.022) (0.023)
Distance from Inner Border 0.000
(0.000)***
(0.000)***
Observations 1,488 1,749 1,752 1,752 655
Adjusted R-squared 0.318 0.369 0.371 0.373 0.444
Controls YES YES YES YES YES
Ideology is measured in Column 1 with the variable Party Support and in Column 2 with the dummy variable
Satisfaction with Democracy. The variable Satisfaction with Democracy takes a higher value, the larger is oneās
reported satisfaction with democracy; the dummy variable Party Support takes on value 1 if the respondent ex-
presses support for the PDS (Party of Democratic Socialism), which was the successor of the SED (Socialist Unity
Party of Germany), and ruled the GDR. The variable No West Germany TV is a dummy for lack of reception
of West German TV. Robust standard errors in parentheses (below: clustered, allowing for arbitrary correlations
within counties). Signiļ¬cance levels: 1% ***, 5% ** and 10% *.
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
29. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
TV consumption
Idea: more exposed to East propaganda if not reached by West TV
Figure: Source: Bursztyn and Cantoni, 2015
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
30. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Propaganda
Dep. var: Successful at work important
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Dist. from
Inner Border > 100
Party Support -0.002
(0.058)
(0.055)
Satisfaction with Democracy -0.013
(0.011)
(0.013)
No West Germany TV 0.049 0.010 0.020
(0.023)** (0.027) (0.025)
(0.024)** (0.022) (0.023)
Distance from Inner Border 0.000
(0.000)***
(0.000)***
Observations 1,488 1,749 1,752 1,752 655
Adjusted R-squared 0.318 0.369 0.371 0.373 0.444
Controls YES YES YES YES YES
Controls for Satisfaction with HH Income, Catholic, Protestant, Other Christian and Live in Urban Area are
included in all the regressions. For demographic and socioeconomic factors, only coefļ¬cients that are possibly
statistically signiļ¬cant are shown. Standard errors clustered by county (results unaffected when robust standard
errors are estimated).
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
31. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Estimates For 1992
Table: Successful at work important. 1992
(1) (2) (3) (4)
<= 200 km <= 150 km <= 100 km <= 50 km
East 0.104 0.104 0.147 0.168
(0.038)** (0.044)** (0.057)** (0.084)**
(0.044)** (0.051)** (0.063)** (0.095)*
Observations 3,405 2,510 1,654 838
Adjusted R-squared 0.024 0.021 0.019 0.023
Robust standard errors in parentheses (below: clustered, allowing for arbitrary
correlations within counties).
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
32. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Success at work important: Men
.6.7.8.91
Jobsuccessimportant
-200 -100 0 100 200
Distance from border, Km
Figure: Bin-averages (30 bins on each side of threshold, left side is West Germany) and 2nd order
polynomial ļ¬t, bandwidth chosen with KI criterion.
Note: mean in main estimation sample = 0.83, sd = 0.37; women: 0.695, 0.46.
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
33. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
Success at work important: Women
.5.6.7.8.9
Jobsuccessimportant
-200 -100 0 100 200
Distance from border, Km
Figure: Bin-averages (30 bins on each side of threshold, left side is West Germany) and 2nd order
polynomial ļ¬t, bandwidth chosen with KI criterion.
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
35. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
2 Germany
Context and Data
Empirical Strategy
Evidence
3 CEECs
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
4 Conclusions
5 Appendix
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
36. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
CEECs: Diff-in-Diff Analysis
Goal: estimate the impact of the politico-economic regime change
A general trend in gender attitudes might have been in place, due for instance to WWII
(Fernandez, Fogli, and Olivetti, 2004)
We compare the evolution of attitudes in countries that experienced state-socialism versus
WECs
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
37. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
How we measure gender-role attitudes
Need a measure for attitudes with inter-temporal variation
There is no long-time series of gender-role attitudes
Our strategy: employ gender-role attitudes of US immigrants and their offsprings (ā)
Recent work noted relation between the behavior of immigrants and that of residents in
the country of origin (Giuliano, 2007)
Cold War and Iron Curtain signiļ¬cantly reduced East-West migration, but did not bring it
to a complete halt (ā)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
38. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
Statement
General Social Survey (GSS 1972-2014)
It is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the
woman takes care of home and family
1: Strongly Agree, 2: Agree, 2.5: Donāt Know, 3: Disagree, 4: Strongly Disagree
the higher its value, the less traditional is the individualās attitude (i.e. the higher is
disagreement with the above statement)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
39. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
Table: GSS Sample: Source Countries of U.S. Immigrants
Country of family
origin Freq. Percent
Austria 156 0.950
Belgium 59 0.360
Czechoslovakia 398 2.420
Denmark 236 1.430
Finland 145 0.880
France 662 4.020
Greece 123 0.750
Hungary 162 0.980
Ireland 4,124 25.07
Italy 1,788 10.87
Lithuania 91 0.550
Netherlands 510 3.100
Norway 595 3.620
Poland 896 5.450
Portugal 94 0.570
Romania 37 0.220
Spain 263 1.600
Sweden 560 3.400
UK 5,550 33.74
Total 16,449 100
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
40. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
Framework and Identifying assumptions
Yigrcp = Ī²0 + Ī²1CEECc + Ī²2Post1945p + Ī²DiDCEEC Ā· Post1945c,p+ (3)
Ī²4Xicrp + Ļg + Ī·r + igrcp
g: generation, c: country of origin, r: US region, p: period (1. before 1945; 2. 1945-1990)
1 Absent the St-So regime, evolution of gender attitudes in CEECs countries would have
followed a path that cannot, on average, be distinguished from that in WECs
2 The selection of immigrants in terms of unobservables does not change differentially after
the advent of state-socialism in CEECs VS. WECs in a way that may affect gender-roles
attitudes
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
41. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
Selection of immigrants on observables
xigrcp = Ī²0 + Ī²1Post1945p + Ī²DiDCEEC Ā· Post1945c,p + Ļg + Ī·r + igrcp (4)
The incentives for immigrating from Eastern European countries were likely to be
different before and after WWII
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
42. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
Table: Selection of immigrants on observables: difference in changes between state-socialist
and non state-socialist group. Within estimates.
Male Age Education Married Household Satisļ¬ed with Employed Children
(Cat.) Income (Cat.) ļ¬nancial situation
CEEC x post-1945 0.066 1.639 0.320 0.070 -0.029 -0.137** 0.022 -0.095
(0.040) (2.366) (0.401) (0.072) (0.261) (0.059) (0.057) (0.224)
Observations 16,516 16,516 16,504 16,514 15,091 15,632 16,515 16,487
Adjusted R-squared 0.003 0.177 0.046 0.005 0.018 0.011 0.041 0.038
Mean y 0.447 48.24 13.53 0.563 10.61 2.094 0.611 1.859
Motherās Fatherās Catholic Protestant Jew Orthodox Other Politically
Education Education Religion Conservative
CEEC x post-1945 0.982 0.344 -0.017 -0.029 0.053 -0.009 -0.002 -0.302**
(0.595) (0.766) (0.056) (0.052) (0.054) (0.007) (0.015) (0.147)
Observations 14,726 13,122 16,474 16,474 16,474 16,474 16,476 15,278
Adjusted R-squared 0.147 0.095 0.284 0.263 0.091 0.088 0.027 0.020
Mean y 11.43 11.33 0.283 0.565 0.0117 0.00170 0.0291 4.181
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
43. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
Diff-in-Diff estimates
Disagreement with Better for Man to work: women tend home
Post-1945: 1945-1990 Post-1945: 1945-1967
(1) (2) (3) (4)
CEEC 0.121*** 0.083*** 0.122*** 0.080***
(0.024) (0.026) (0.024) (0.027)
Post-1945 0.461*** -0.086* 0.489*** -0.071*
(0.053) (0.046) (0.052) (0.039)
CEEC x Post-1945 0.193* 0.323** 0.237* 0.357**
(0.112) (0.124) (0.119) (0.148)
Male -0.156*** -0.220*** -0.157*** -0.221***
(0.014) (0.018) (0.014) (0.018)
Observations 8,846 6,083 8,707 6,002
Adjusted R-squared 0.048 0.229 0.049 0.230
Regional Dummies YES YES YES YES
Generation Dummies YES YES YES YES
Additional Controls NO YES NO YES
Number of Countries 19 19 19 19
Mean y 2.699 2.762 2.700 2.763
SD y 0.839 0.828 0.840 0.828
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
44. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Empirical Strategy
Data and Validity Checks
Evidence
Placebo
Disagreement with Better for Man to work: women tend home
(1) (2)
CEEC -0.107 0.163
(0.186) (0.150)
Post-1900 0.656*** 0.204***
(0.026) (0.058)
CEEC x Post-1900 0.164 -0.082
(0.204) (0.161)
Male -0.183*** -0.229***
(0.016) (0.019)
Observations 7,230 4,967
Adjusted R-squared 0.151 0.241
Regional Dummies YES YES
Generation Dummies YES YES
Additional Controls NO YES
Number of Countries 19 19
Mean y 2.697 2.759
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
45. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
What have we learned?
Germany: likelihood of reporting that career success is important is around 11 p.p. higher
for women in East. This compares to a mean likelihood of reporting that career success is
important of around 70%
We also ļ¬nd evidence that increased female access to higher education and fulltime
employment may have served as channels for regime inļ¬uence.
Suggestive evidence of a signiļ¬cant change in gender-role attitudes in CEECs: 1/3 of a
SD less ātraditionalā after the advent of St-So regime
Next: historical county-level data: 1840-1940 non-marital fertility (KlĀØusener and
Goldstein, 2014), 1834-1905 childcare coverage (Bauernschuster and Falck, 2015), we
recently obtained 1925 female employment (Wyrwich, 2015). Diff-in-Diff: post-2014
GSS survey.
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
47. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Relation to Previous Literature
1 Institutional changes and attitudes
a. Historical empires (Peisakhin, 2010; Becker et al. , 2014; Grosfeld and
Zhuravskaya, 2015; Wysokinska, 2015; Lowes et al., 2015)
b. State-socialism (Germany: Alesina and Fuchs-Schundeln, 2007; Beblo and
Goerges, 2016; Lippmann, Georgieff, and Senik 2016; Bauernschuster and Rainer,
2011; Korea: Kim et al., 2016)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
48. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
ā Alesina and Fuchs-Schundeln (2007): preferences for redistribution in 1997 and 2002
higher among people who lived in East vs West-Germany. How we extend their approach:
Female attitudes toward work and gender-role attitudes - which have been shown to have
signiļ¬cant effects on labor market outcomes
Exploit imposition of state-socialism across the whole Central and Eastern European
region
Germany:
i. Account directly for East-West migration (observe historical place of residence)
ii. Attitudes measured in June 1990: isolate effect of exposure to state-socialism vs
post-socialism
iii. Guard against possibility of bias from local unobervables (Bauernschuster and Falck,
2015; KlĀØusener and Goldstein, 2014). Restricted-access info on place of residence and
spatial RD
iv. Substantial attention to investigation of mechanisms
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
49. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
*Relation to Previous Literature (cont.)
2 Determinants of cultural attitudes and their transmission
a. Attitudes have a component which is quite persistent (Alesina et al., 2013;
VoigtlĀØander and Voth 2012; Durante, 2009; Bisin and Verdier, 2001; Tabellini, 2008;
FarrĀ“e and Vella, 2013; Fernandez, 2007; Guiso et al., 2006)
b. Yet, this does not imply that attitudes are absolutely invariant (Algan and Cahuc,
2011; Giavazzi et al., 2014; Di Tella et al., 2007; Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2009;
Bau, 2016)
c. Our study blends these different views: an element of attitudes can be transmitted
within families, but attitudes can also change as a reaction to large shocks in
institutions
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
50. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Inner border
At Tehran conference inner border deļ¬ned based on boundaries of state of Mecklenburg
in the north, Prussian province of Saxony in the centre, and state of Thuringa in the south
General delimitation using historical boundaries was straightened in many places for
practical reasons soon after the war (Hanns Bucholz, The Inner German Border, in
EURASIA, World Boundaries (1994))
The borders between states had lost signiļ¬cance during the long process of uniļ¬cation
into the German Empire started in 1870
āThe geography of trade costs suggests that by the end of the Weimar Republic in 1933,
Germany was an economically integrated areaā (Wolf, 2009)
We are looking for geocoded data of historical state borders to run placebo regressions
Additional test using data for female employment in 1925
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
**Summary Stats
Variable Mean (Std. Dev.) Min. Max. N
Job Success Important 0.695 (0.46) 0 1 3853
East 0.471 (0.499) 0 1 3853
Distance from Border 100.194 (58.106) 2.475 199.241 3853
Age 43.798 (17.547) 16 95 3853
Education (yrs) 11.202 (2.14) 7 18 3833
Log yearly household income 10.21 (0.659) 0 12.388 3737
Satisfaction with HH Income 6.152 (2.408) 0 10 3810
Married 0.635 (0.482) 0 1 3852
Full Time Empl. 1989 0.399 (0.49) 0 1 3853
Children in HH 0.614 (0.907) 0 5 3853
Catholic 0.209 (0.407) 0 1 3853
Protestant 0.456 (0.498) 0 1 3852
Other Christian 0.015 (0.122) 0 1 3852
Other Religion 0.001 (0.023) 0 1 3853
Live in Urban Area 0.496 (0.403) 0 1 3853
Satisfaction with Democracy 2.35 (0.696) 1 4 1811
Party Support 0.027 (0.163) 0 1 1540
No West Germany TV 0.102 (0.303) 0 1 1815
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
*Donut (Barreca et al., 2011) Spatial RD Estimates
Table: Successful at work important. No counties with centroid within 10 km from border
(1) (2) (3) (4)
<= 200 km <= 150 km <= 100 km <= 50 km
East 0.075 0.088 0.118 0.210
(0.037)** (0.044)** (0.059)** (0.097)**
(0.044)* (0.052)* (0.070)* (0.127)
Observations 3,735 2,752 1,797 860
Adj R-squared 0.019 0.015 0.012 0.018
Mean y 0.703 0.705 0.701 0.687
Robust standard errors in parentheses (below: clustered, allowing for arbitrary correlations
within counties).
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Table: Women as a Percentage of Students in German Institutions of Higher Learning:
1949-1978
Year West Germany East Germany
1949 17.7 18.6
1960 22.4 25.2
1965 22.9 26.1
1970 30.2 35.4
1972 29.0 40.7
1975 33.4 48.2
1976 33.8 47.7
1977 34.4 47.5
1978 35.3 47.6
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
**
Table: Trends in part-time and full-time employment in East and West Germany: 1950-1989/90
West Germany East Germany
Activity
rate of
women
aged
16-60
(%)
Part-time work-
ers (% of em-
ployees)
Female
full-
time
work-
ers
(%)
Activity
rate of
women
aged
16-60
(%)
Part-time work-
ers (% of em-
ployees)
Female
full-
time
work-
ers
(%)
M F Total M F Total
1950 45 1 6 3 45
1960 49 2 9 4 32 62
1965/67 2 16 7 30 3 29 16 42
1970 50 2 24 9 28 66 3 33 18 43
1975 2 29 12 29 71 3 33 19 44
1980 53 1 29 12 30 73 3 29 17 46
1985 2 31 13 30 76 2 27 16 46
1990/89 60 2 33 14 33 78 2 27 15 45
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Table: Women as a Percentage of the Labor Force
Central and Eastern Europe
Year Chzecosl. GDR Hungary Poland Romania
1950 38.4 38.4 33c
1960 42.8 44.3 32.5 32.8 27.1
1970 46.7 47.7 40.6 40 30.1
1974 47.8 49.4 42.6 42.1 34.0
1978 45.3 50.1 43.8 36.2
Western Europe
Year Aust Belg Den Finl W.Ger Italy Norway Spain Sweden UK
1950 31.7 22.5a 27.4c 32.5 28.6 23.1 24.1 14.2 26.7 30.8b
1960 34.9d 25.3 29.3 34.1 31.6d 23.4 21.1 16.7 29.5 35.4
1970 35.8e 28.4 33.8 39.7 32.3 26.1 26.2 18.8 36.7 37.0
1974 37.2 32.4 38.3 45.6f 34.3 25.6 35.0g 40.8
1978 38.7 34.7 40.5 42.8h 35.7 30.3 38.9 26.0 44.0
Source: Table 3 p.452 in Wolchik (1981)
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
**Estimates For Men
Table: Successful at work important. Men
(1) (2) (3) (4)
<= 200 km <= 150 km <= 100 km <= 50 km
East 0.022 0.030 0.040 0.048
(0.028) (0.033) (0.041) (0.058)
(0.033) (0.039) (0.048) (0.068)
Observations 3,689 2,732 1,840 956
Adjusted R-squared 0.004 0.002 -0.000 0.005
Mean y 0.832 0.832 0.830 0.833
Robust standard errors in parentheses (below: clustered, allowing for arbitrary
correlations within counties).
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
59. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Berlin
Table: Successful at work important. East vs West Berlin
East Berlin 0.113**
(0.058)
Observations 246
Adj R-squared 0.016
Mean y 0.724
Robust standard error in parentheses.
Note: important issue of selection
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
61. Introduction
Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Measure of Attitudes
Attitudes pre-1945: 1st gen Americans who migrated in before 1945; 2nd gen Americans
born in before 1945; 3rd gen Americans born before before 1965; 4th gen Americans born
before before 1985
We assume that parents on average give birth when they are 20
Attitudes 1945-1990: 1st gen Americans who migrated in between 1945 and 1990; 2nd
gen. US residents born before 1990 and after 1945, 3rd gen. US residents born after 1955,
and 4th gen. US residents born after 1995
(ā)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
European east-west migration
Fassmann and Munz (1994)
Cold War and Iron Curtain signiļ¬cantly reduced East-West migration, but did not bring it
to a complete halt.
distinct āwavesā of migration directly linked to political events or even to political
bargaining between the countries involved.
Between 1950 and 1992, the documented number of European East-West migrants was
about 14 million people.
The overall number must have been higher because cumulated data are only available for
regular āemigrants.ā
(ā)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Typology of Migration
75+ % of migrants of the period 1950-1993: ethnic migrants. But it is clear that this
classiļ¬cation is not always precise. Many of the āethnicā migrants were taking the
opportunity to leave their home country for economic or political reasons.
10% political refugees and asylum-seekers
Less than 15%: (regular or irregular) labor migrants or as dependent family members of
labor migrants
(ā)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Migration to US
1970 Census: 1.6+ million people living in the US as 1st generation immigrants declared
a birth place in Eastern Europe (including the former USSR).
Many of them had come to the US before 1950.
1990: number of 1st generation immigrants with a birth place in Eastern Europe
(including the former USSR) had dropped to just over 1 million
In contrast to the ļ¬rst half of 20th century, not all immigrants from Eastern Europe came
directly to the US.
Many ļ¬rst emigrated to Israel or another 3rd country.
Between 1950 and 1992, however, the US admitted about 700,000 East Europeans,
including persons categorized as political refugees but also āregularā immigrants from
this area (i.e., 5% of all European East-West migrants)
(ā)
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
How we measure gender-role attitudes
Gender-role attitudes of descendants of US immigrants
Parentsā attitudes are a good predictor of the attitudes of children (Putnam 2000; Guiso,
Sapienza, and Zingales 2006)
FarrĀ“e and Vella (2013): a motherās gender-role attitudes have a signiļ¬cant effect on those
of her children
We use attitudes that US descendants inherited from their forebears who immigrated from
different countries at different dates to detect changes in attitudes formed in the countries
of origin (Algan and Cahuc, 2010)
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
**How we measure gender-role attitudes (conāt)
Gender-role attitudes of descendants of US immigrants
For instance, by comparing US residents with Hungarian and Italian origin whose
forebears migrated between 1945 and 1990, we can detect differences in attitudes formed
in these two source countries between 1945 and 1990
We can get time varying measures of attitudes formed in these two countries by running
the same exercise for forebears who immigrated in other periods, for instance between
1900 and 1945.
Once we have obtained time varying measures of attitudes, we can estimate the impact of
the politico-economic regime change
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism
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Germany
CEECs
Conclusions
Appendix
Survey
General Social Survey (GSS 1972-2014)
Information about contemporaneous attitudes of US residents and the wave of
immigration of themselves or their forebears (we always include generation dummies)
We perform several tests to investigate the validity of our measure of attitudes
Campa, Seraļ¬nelli Politico-economic Regimes and Attitudes:Female Workers under State-socialism