Ensuring public services during disasters

U N I T E D N A T I O N S N A T I O N S U N I E S
Safeguarding the delivery of
public services in times of
disaster
Seema Hafeez
Senior Governance and Public Administration Officer
Department of Economic & Social Affairs
United Nations headquarters
New York
2017

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Table of Contents
I. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................... 3
II. Key challenges for public service delivery and DRM................................................................................ 4
2.1 Lack of a systemic approach to disaster risk management .............................................................. 8
2.2 Inadequate governance mechanisms........................................................................................................11
2.3 Under-development of ICT and information systems....................................................................132
2.4 Challenges in partnerships for disaster reduction..........................................................................154
III. Framework of innovative approaches to DRM.........................................................................................154
3.1 Building an integrated institutional approach .................................................................................165
3.2 Including governance mechanisms in DRM strategy ........................................................................18
3.3 Data and technology is essential for mainstreaming DRM ..........................................................220
3.4 Strengthening implementation through partnerships ..................................................................243
IV. Lessons learned .......................................................................................................................................................... 27

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I. Introduction
The economic legacy of disaster is associated with the destruction of assets and a
corresponding reduction in economic production. Post-disaster situations are generally
associated with the non-existent and ineffective delivery of public services and expose
millions of people to insecurity, loss of opportunity and poverty. In the aftermath of a
disaster, public service provision is most affected for the poor and the vulnerable,
especially women, children and the elderly. According to one estimate, losses from
disasters amounted to US$ 3.5 trillion between 1980 and 2011, with one-third occurring in
low- and middle-income countries.1
Disasters also affect the global poor disproportionately. High income countries account for
39 percent of the exposure to tropical cyclones but only 1 percent of the mortality
associated with these natural disasters; low income countries represent 13 percent of the
exposure but account for 81 percent of mortality.2 In many cases, widespread disaster
losses and their impact on health, education, structural poverty and displacement go
unaccounted for with serious consequences for sustainable development. Insufficient
attention to managing risk and badly planned and managed urbanization, environmental
degradation and poverty likely increase vulnerability.
Many parts of the world are witnessing an increase in extreme climates, such as greater
extremes of temperature, heavier rainfall or higher maximum storm wind speeds, which
can increase the likelihood of disaster. According to some estimates, up to 118 million
extremely poor people in Sub-Saharan Africa will be exposed to drought, flood and extreme
heat hazards in 2030.3 Small Island and Developing States (SIDS) are particularly vulnerable to
weather-related disasters with SIDS accounting for two thirds of the countries with highest
relative annual disaster losses4
.
Safeguarding the delivery of public services in times of disaster is thus a critical issue.
Awareness of this issue is now growing, not least because of changing climatic patterns
over the medium-term accompanied by more extreme seasonal weather fluctuations, but
much remains to be done.
1 The World Bank. Preparing for the unexpected: An integrated approach to disaster risk management in the
Philippines and Colombia. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTNWDR2013/Resources/8258024-
1352909193861/8936935-1356011448215/8986901-1380046989056/01a--Spotlight_1.pdf
2 UNISDR, Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction (2009) p.7. Available from
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/report/documents/GAR_Chapter_1_2009_eng.pdf
3 Shepherd, Andrew et al, The geography of poverty, disasters and climate extremes in 2030 (October 2013)
p.ix. https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/8633.pdf
4 Forge, 2014. Building Resilience to Natural Hazards Experience at GFDRR and the World Bank. Pg. 3. UNCTAD.
http://unctad.org/meetings/en/Presentation/cimem7_2014_P13_FORGE.pdf

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Although the 2030 Global Agenda for Sustainable Development is built upon the three
pillars of social, economic and environmental development, each one of them can be
undermined by disasters. The 2030 Agenda outlines a framework to ensure that disaster
risk is significantly manged, especially for those most vulnerable. Goal 13.1 of the 2030
Agenda proposes strengthening resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards
and natural disasters.
This Report puts forward a sector specific focus on disaster risk management (DRM) for
policy makers to be mindful of its importance for public service delivery. Disaster risk
management is considered to include disaster risk reduction (DRR) approaches even
though the chapter, at times, uses the terminology interchangeably.
Public institutions need to ensure the resilience and continuity of public services before,
during and after a disaster both to assist affected people and communities as well as to
progress towards sustainable development. A concerted DRR and DRM effort through a
multi-sectoral approach is required. Systemic mainstreaming of the drivers of risk into
development management, emergency preparation and insurance, as well as information,
education and training are key as are informed governance institutions and strengthened
accountability. Experiences and innovations at the local and national level can be useful to
promote examples of good practice.
II. Key challenges for public service delivery and DRM
A disaster is generally characterized by disturbances in political, economic and social
systems. Since a disaster shifts attention and resources from production to destruction, it
follows that processes and mechanisms by which a society produces public, private and
social goods and services are disturbed. For instance, in the aftermath of the earthquake in
Haiti in 2010, GDP per capita plunged by 8 percent.

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Figure 4.1 Impact of 2010 earthquake on the economy of Haiti
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators. Available from
http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicators# (accessed 17 February 2016)
A breakdown in the delivery of essential public services in disaster situations leads to
deterioration in the people’s standards of living in many ways. Figure 4.2 shows a
breakdown of the damage to the main economic sectors in Nigeria due to flooding in 2012.
Nigeria’s post-disaster needs assessment report shows that the disaster affected mostly the
social sector, including education and health services, with its effects continuing over many
years.
1440
1460
1480
1500
1520
1540
1560
1580
1600
1620
1640
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
GDPPerCapita,PPP(Constant2011International)
Year

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Figure 4.2 Breakdown of damage in Nigeria in 2012
Declines in basic health, education and infrastructure services, including the availability of
telephones, cell phones, roads and bridges, directly affect day-to-day life as well as security
and the rule of law. This seriously endangers local populations, especially in prolonged
post-disaster conditions. The table below relates some of the implications of disaster on
essential services.
Table 4.1 Interlinkages between disaster and public service delivery
SDGs Main DRR linkages Examples
Health and
education SDGs 3
and 4
 42 million human life years lost
in internationally reported
disasters each year and tens of
thousands of people injured,5
burdening healthcare systems
worldwide and causing long term
physical and mental health
problems
 Disasters destroy and disrupt
 In Niger children aged two or
under who were born during
and affected by a drought year
are 72% more likely to be
stunted. In Ethiopia, children
aged five or less are 36% more
likely to be malnourished and
41% more likely to be stunted if
they are born during a drought;
5 EM-DAT The International Disaster Database (accessed 13 June 2016).
http://emdat.be/advanced_search/index.html
Social
51%
Productive
45%
Infrastructure
2%
Environment
2%
Social
Productive
Infrastructure
Environment
Source: Data from Nigeria Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) Report ,
2013. Accssessed 12 March, 2016.
http://www.gfdrr.org/sites/gfdrr/files/NIGERIA_PDNA_PRINT_05_29_2013_

7
service in health and education
facilities
 Outbreaks of communicable
disease are often linked to the
displacement of people in post-
disaster situations6 and can
further hamper disaster relief
 Poverty forces low income
households to occupy areas of
low land value that may be
exposed to floods, landslides and
other hazards
that translated into some 2
million additional malnourished
children in 2005,7 with possible
long term effects on their
education and future economic
opportunities.
 In 2005 in the Gulf states of the
United States, Hurricane Katrina
and subsequent flooding
destroyed 56 schools and
damaged an additional 1,162;
700 schools were closed and
372,000 children displaced.8
Water and
sanitation SDG 6
 Floods, droughts and windstorms
are the most frequently occurring
natural disaster events and
account for almost 90% of the
1,000 most disastrous events
since 19909
 Lack of basic services and
sanitation combined with
disasters can also create new
risks by turning a heavy rain into
a disastrous flood with the
spread of disease
 Disasters, particularly localized,
small scale events, hinder
progress in achieving universal
access to water and sanitation by
damaging sewerage and water
supply infrastructure
 In Tanzania, the lack of clean
water and sanitation can lead to
widespread outbreaks of
waterborne diseases and
malaria during flood episodes in
informal settlements.10
 Around 70% of Dar es Salaam’s
population lives in low quality
housing at risk of regular
flooding, and in Sao Paulo, more
than 85% of at risk households
live in informal settlements,
with more than half of these
lacking access to appropriate
sanitation.11
 According to data from 65
countries between 1990 and
2013 over 90% of losses in
water supply and sewerage
were caused by extensive12
risk.13
6 Watson, John T. et al “Epidemics after Natural Disasters” Vol.13, No.1, January 2007 pp. 1-2. Available from
http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/13/1/06-0779_article#suggestedcitation
7 UNDP, Human Development Report 2007/2008, p. 89. Available from
http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/268/hdr_20072008_en_complete.pdf
8 UNISDR, Assessing School Safety from Disasters A Global baseline Report ISDR Thematic Platform for
Knowledge and Education 2012. p.10. Available from
http://www.unisdr.org/files/35274_2012schoolsafetyglobalbaseline.pdf
9 Water and Disaster Risk: A contribution by the United Nations to the consultation leading to the Third UN
World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, p. 2 Available from
http://www.preventionweb.net/files/38763_water.pdf
10 World Bank, Dar Es Salaam Case Study Overview: Climate Change, Disaster Risk and the Urban Poor: Cities
Building Resilience for a Changing World, p. 9. Available from
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANDEVELOPMENT/Resources/336387-
1306291319853/CS_Dar_Es_Salaam.pdf (accessed 13 June 2016).
11 Kahn, Matthew E., “Sustainable and Smart Cities” Policy Research Working Paper 6878, The WB Sustainable
Development Network, Urban and Disaster Risk Management Department (May 2014), p. 15 Available from
http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6878
12 Extensive risk refers to the risk layer of high-frequency losses.

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Gender equality
and women’s
empowerment
SDG 5
 Due to existing socio-economic
conditions, cultural beliefs and
traditional practices, women and
men are affected differently by
disasters
 Productive resources tend to be
owned by men, and losses in the
informal sector and subsistence
farming, dominated by women
are not often recorded at all14
 Despite being disadvantaged by
economic, social and cultural
factors, women can serve as
agents of change and their role in
disaster preparedness and relief
both at the family and community
levels is well documented15
 Women represented an
estimated 61% of fatalities in
Myanmar after Cyclone Nargis in
2008, and 70% after the 2004
Indian Ocean Tsunami in Banda
Aceh.16
 The 1991 cyclone Gorky in
Bangladesh killed 140,000
people. Within the age group 20-
44, the female death rate was 71
per 1,000, compared to 15 per
1,000 for men.17
Governance and
peaceful societies
SDG 16
 Governance arrangements
adopted by many countries,
relying heavily on specialized
emergency management
organizations are not always
appropriate to address disaster
risk18
 Disaster risk governance (DRG)
often mirrors the challenges,
restrictions, blockages and
obstacles that exist within the
overall governance
arrangements,19 but DRG can also
support good governance
 Conflict and fragility can increase
 In India, following the
earthquakes in Maharashtra
(1993) and Gujarat (2001),
housing records were digitized
and land titles that were
traditionally only recorded
under the name of the male
head of household for the first
time also included the female
head of household. This practice
was institutionalized and
transformed the general
practice of social housing in
these states.21
 According to one assessment the
13 UNISDR, Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, Making Development Sustainable: The
Future of Disaster Risk Management (2015) p. 93. Available from
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2015/en/gar-pdf/GAR2015_EN.pdf
14 Gender Responsive Disaster Risk Reduction: A contribution by the UN to the consultation leading to the
Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction Version 2 (18 November 2014) p. 2. Available from
http://www.preventionweb.net/files/40425_gender.pdf
15 Enarson, Elaine, Women Confronting Natural Disaster – From Vulnerability to Resilience (Lyenne Rienner
Publishers, Boulder, 2012).
16 World Bank, Operationalizing the World Development Report 2012 on Gender Equality: Making Women’s
Voices Count: Integrating Gender Issues in Disaster Risk Management: Overview and Resources, p. 2
Available from http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/F_R_450.pdf
17 Gender Responsive Disaster Risk Reduction: A contribution by the UN to the consultation leading to the
Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction Version 2 (18 November 2014) p. 2. Available from
http://www.preventionweb.net/files/40425_gender.pdf
18 UNISDR, Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, Making Development Sustainable: The
Future of Disaster Risk Management (2015) p.93 p. 128. Available from
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2015/en/gar-pdf/GAR2015_EN.pdf
19 UNDP Aysan, Yasemin and Lavell, Allan. UNDP Thematic Review “Disaster Risk Governance during the HFA
Implementation Period” Background Paper Prepared for the 2015 Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk
Reduction, p.9. Available from
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2015/en/bgdocs/UNDP,%202014a.pdf

9
the impact of disasters and
disasters can exacerbate
conflicts20
2007-2010 drought contributed
to the conflict in Syria, causing
widespread crop failure and a
mass migration of farming
families to urban centres.22
Source: UN Global Sustainable Development Report 2015 Edition, Advance Unedited version, pp. 70-72. Available from
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1758GSDR%202015%20Advance%20Unedited%20Versio
n.pdf
2.1 Lack of a systemic approach to disaster risk management
Many countries do not have a systemic approach to DRM, so that when a disaster strikes
roles and responsibilities get entangled in the emergent response. Disaster management is
the overall responsibility of the state. Although clearly defined and internationally
recognized, the question of who drives disaster risk reduction-related decision-making is
not always easily answered. In post-disaster scenarios, when the coping capacity of a state
is overwhelmed and it requests external assistance, a new group of actors arrive. These
actors, in the form of other states, donors, and international non-governmental
organizations are accountable to their own public or funding bodies and have objectives,
processes and procedures, and certain conditions they deem necessary to provide the
assistance they offer.
Whether before, during or after a disaster strikes, the placement of ownership and
responsibility for planning and action is often a critical challenge. Case studies and
evaluations of disaster response and DRR repeatedly identify tensions, lack of awareness
and lack of communication between local and national governments and international
actors, as well as other agencies, regarding the ownership of disaster management efforts.
For instance, DRR policies in the Czech Republic remain bottlenecked because ministerial
responsibilities are not clear and the capacity of the government to coordinate and unify
such activities is weak.23
In 2009, several countries reported progress on being able to implement disaster risk
assessments, but challenges remained in conducting such assessments in a comprehensive,
multi-hazard way that could inform DRM policies, such as early warning with preparedness
and response, and the use of information to plan action at the local level. This trend was
21 Planitz, Angelika, “ Disaster Risk Governance and the Principles of Good Governance”, in: Davis, Georgieva,
Yanagisawa (eds), Disaster Risk reduction for Economic Growth and Livelihood: Investing in Resilience and
Development (UNDP Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery).
20 Harris, Katie et al, When disasters and conflicts collide: Improving links between disaster resilience and
conflict prevention. (February 2013: Overseas Development Institute UK) p. viii. Available from
https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/8228.pdf
22 Kelley, Colin P. et al Climate change in the Fertile Crescent and implications of the recent Syrian drought”,
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA (PNAS) vol. 112, no. 11 ( 17 March 2015) p. 3241.
Available from http://www.pnas.org/content/112/11/3241.full.pdf
23 UNSIDR, Progress and Challenges in Disaster Risk Reduction 2014 pg. 4-6. Available from
http://www.unisdr.org/files/40967_40967progressandchallengesindisaste.pdf

10
confirmed in data submitted for the Global Assessment Report 2009-2011 reporting cycle,
where only 46 out of 83 countries recorded having multi-hazard risk assessments that
could inform planning and development decisions.24
As Figure 4.3 below indicates, a little more than half of the countries had instituted
regulations or investments in planning for DRR. Information and guidance in national
educational curriculum and contingency planning for continued basic service delivery was
systematized across only in some 40 percent of the countries while only 25 percent of the
countries mainstreamed DRR into sub-national government budgets.
Figure 4.3 DRR in development planning
Source: Data from Prevention Web. http://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/qbnhfa/step1 (accessed 8 June 2016).
In the aftermath of a disaster various players may rush in to fill the vacuum in delivery of
assistance. Lessons of experience indicate that various stakeholders setting up parallel
structures and systems, often with little coordination among and between them, adversely
affects service delivery outcomes. Though this approach may provide urgently needed
basic services to far flung populations in the short term, fragmented approaches to post-
disaster relief are not likely to be sustainable and often lead to wasteful inefficiencies in the
long run.
With the absence of a disaster response coordination plan, delivery of aid and public
services can be extremely inefficient. This was exemplified by the inadequate partner
coordination that occurred in the wake of Hurricane Mitch in Honduras. A policy of “all aid
24 Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 Mid-term Review 2010-2011: International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction, p. 23, Available from: https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/18197
45
43
40
39
23
55
57
60
61
77
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
DRR in public investment&planning decisions
DRR legislative and/or regulatory provision
Risk management/contingency plans for
continued basic service delivery
DRR included in national educational curriculum
Regular budget allocations for DRR to local
government
Percentage of countries
No
yes

11
is welcome” was adopted, resulting in a supply-driven response rather than a demand-
driven process. The recovery phase was not based on a Honduran assessment of what was
needed and a clear plan of what should be done. No distinct criteria existed to determine
who was eligible for what state or international assistance. Without such a foundation, a
coherent, national strategy could not be established and donors resorted to directly
implementing construction projects themselves.25 Similarly, after the 2004 tsunami in the
Maldives, the lack of clarity on delineation of responsibilities between the national and
local level authorities led to confusion among local administrations and NGOs responsible
for the provision of basic services.26
Putting in place coordination between various donors, the state and local authorities
should be the cornerstone of any service delivery. Effective mechanisms of coordination
are closely intertwined with both access and inclusion on the one hand and the opportunity
to build better and newer approaches for post-disaster relief on the other.
DRM mainstreaming across public administrations is not only important at the country
level, but at the sub-national and regional levels as well. While local governments may lack
the capacity, their potential contributions to long-term sustainable DRR and increased
disaster resilience are significant. The Maldives case study draws attention to the essential
role that local governments play in planning for and executing policies and programmes to
safeguard public service in times of disaster. Governments need to pay closer attention to
building capacities, especially at the local level. In the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami, the district government of Aceh, Indonesia was quickly overwhelmed due to poor
planning, low capacities and incidences of corruption. Assessments indicated that district
governments in both Aceh and Nias did not even possess the capacity to maintain and
rebuild meso-level infrastructure (e.g. district-level roads, dykes, sewerage and water-
supply), which was normally the preserve of local governments. 27 Service delivery was
particularly poor in rural areas, where there were gaps in the legislative framework, and
the region-centre relationship was unclear. 28
Although there has been some progress in the implementation of DRR strategies, countries
have had difficulty in reducing the associated underlying risks.29 The difficulties have
stemmed from risks related to changing social, economic and environmental conditions
and land use, and the impact of hazards associated with geological events, weather, water,
climate variability and climate change. Increasing risks are often associated with
25IRP, UNISDR and UNDP-India, Guidance Note on Recovery Governance, 2010, p. 6. Available from
http://www.unisdr.org/files/16774_16774guidancenoteonrecoverygovernan.pdf
26 UNDP, Local Governance in Tsunami Disaster risk reduction: Lessons Learned and Emerging Principles
(2006), p. 9. Retrieved from:
http://www.recoveryplatform.org/assets/recoverycases_reports/Local_Gov_Tsunami_Recovery_2006.pdf
27 World Bank, Rebuilding A Better Aceh and Nias (2005), p. xvii. Available from
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/226271-1113558711510/986166-
1119884224676/aceh_6months.pdf
28 BAPPENAS, Indonesia: Preliminary Damage and Loss Assessment, The December 26, 2004 Natural Disaster (2005), p.
16. Available from http://www.unep.org/tsunami/reports/damage_assessment.pdf
29 UNISDR, Global Assessment Report 2015: Making Development Sustainable: The Future of Disaster Risk
Management (2015), p. 114. Available from
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2015/en/home/GAR_2015/GAR_2015_26.html

12
developmental activities such as increased economic and urban development and can
contribute to relentless risk accumulation. In Vietnam, local level projects for shrimp farms
have involved the destruction of mangrove stands which would otherwise protect coasts
from tidal storm surges.30 Challenges have also arisen in factoring DRR into public
investment, land-use planning, infrastructure projects, environmental management and
social policies related to the reduction of the underlying risk drivers and tackling the
causes of risk creation. This has been demonstrated in Haiti where rapid deforestation has
led to increased susceptibility to floods and landslides during hurricanes and heavy rainfall
events.31
A large part of the lack of an integrated response mechanism is that DRR and DRM
legislation is not a priority in many countries. For instance, in Turks and Caicos, a national
DRM policy is not currently in place and there is no legislation which mandates the
preparation, publication and revision of hazard maps for communities.32 In Tunisia,
Trinidad and Tobago, as of 2013, legislation was outdated and did not mandate relevant
authorities to ensure public awareness and disaster resilience.33 A 2014 joint report by
UNISDR and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies assessing
legal frameworks in a sample of 31 different countries indicated that ‘there is still great
potential to make DRR a higher priority in many of the countries’ legal frameworks, as well
as in their implementation.”34
2.2 Inadequate governance mechanisms for effective DRR
Inherent within a disaster situation is not only a weak public sector capacity but often also
a lack of responsiveness. Service delivery is compromised due to lack of human resources
and effective mechanism of communication and coordination due to a breakdown, or lack
of, adequate governance systems. A primary challenge for public administrations is how to
be effective in disaster management not only for immediate humanitarian and
development reasons but also because the lack of effective institutions and governance is
30 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) Mangrove Plantation in Viet Nam:
Measuring Impact and Cost Benefit, p. 2.
http://www.ifrc.org/Global/Publications/disasters/reducing_risks/Case-study-Vietnam.pdf (accessed 10
June 2016).
31 UNISDR, HFA-Pedia: Haiti Country Profile, http://www.eird.org/wikien/index.php/Haiti. See also Fabrice
G. Renaud, Karen Sudmeier-Rieux, Marisol Estrella, The Role of Ecosystems in Disaster Risk Reduction, p. 13.
United Nations University Press, 2013.
32Turks and Caicos Islands: National progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for
Action, 2013, p. 7. Available from
http://www.preventionweb.net/files/30166_tca_NationalHFAprogress_2011-13.pdf
33 UNISDR, Progress and Challenges in Disaster Risk Reduction, UNISDR, 2014 pp. 4-6
http://www.unisdr.org/files/40967_40967progressandchallengesindisaste.pdf
34 IFRC, UNDP Effective law and regulation for disaster risk reduction: a multi-country report (2014), p. 11.
Available from
http://www.ifrc.org/Global/Publications/IDRL/reports/DRR%20Report%20(full%20version)%20final_pag
e_LR.pdf

13
likely to prolong the adverse impact on services over a longer term. A key challenge
associated with the delivery of public services in disaster management is to build and
strengthen governance processes, mechanisms and institutions so that the reconstruction,
recovery and reform process takes root.
Communication, participation and accountability in the design and execution of DRR strategies
for safeguarding public services necessarily requires feedback from the public. However in the
absence of formal in-built mechanisms of participation from communities, DRR strategies can
fall disastrously short of achieving their desired objective of safeguarding public services.
Monitoring and accountability is a key component of effective public service delivery. Generally,
governments are able to implement their programmes more effectively by building trust
between various stakeholders, both within and outside the government. Without regular and
institutionalized assessment and follow up, agencies and organizations are not able to
measure the impacts of their efforts, learn from their successes and failures, and adapt or
embrace new processes and tools for continual improvement.
Accountability in the enforcement of regulations, such as building codes, public procurement
guidelines and on-site inspections, especially with regard to construction in rapidly developing
urban areas, is the primary responsibility of the government to enforce DRR strategies through
due diligence and involvement of all stakeholders. (See Chapter II for further discussion about
accountability in other areas of public services.)
The lack of DRR mainstreaming affects marginalized groups disproportionately. The Global
Assessment Report in 200935 showed how underlying risk drivers, such as poor urban
governance, vulnerable rural livelihoods and declining ecosystems, concentrate extensive
disaster risk in low-income communities and households and enhance poverty,
undermining development. Although extensive disasters do not often cause significant
fatalities, they are responsible for a large proportion of damage to local infrastructure and
livelihoods of low-income households and communities. For instance, the number of
houses damaged relative to population growth in 21 countries and states has increased six-
fold since the 1990s.36 Gender mainstreaming in DRR is discussed at length in Chapter V of
this report.
2.3 Under-development of ICT and information systems
A primary reason for the limited use of ICT stems from an insufficient cognizance of the
potential dividends from incorporating ICT into DRR and development frameworks for
safeguarding public service delivery.
35 UNISDR, Global Assessment Report on disaster risk reduction (2009), p. 89
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/report/documents/GAR_Chapter_4_2009_eng.pdf
36 UNISDR Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, (2011) p. 39
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2011/en/bgdocs/GAR-
2011/GAR2011_Report_Chapter2.pdf

14
Information as a primary public service is imperative in post-disaster situations, especially
where communications links are disrupted. Useful information provided by the authorities
on security, food and services for displaced persons, refugees and devastated communities
may literally mean the difference between life and death. However, in many parts of the
world, inadequate use of information systems in addressing DRM often contributes to
inconsistent or non-existent provision of basic public services. Among some of the common
constraints identified by countries are difficulties in national coordination and lack of a
culture of information sharing (both among government agencies and NGOs), lack of
standards for information sharing among government agencies, and a demonstrated lack of
qualified staff for data collection and information management.37 Despite the fact that the
production, dissemination and access to information is relatively cheaper and easier than
before, information remains supply-driven and practical guidance to the most relevant
information is also often lacking.38 Difficulty in communicating at the community level,
especially with remote populations due to a lack of Internet connectivity constitutes a
major impediment to effective disaster management.39
Further, there exists a lack of clear standards and consistency for loss accounting. Disaster
loss accounting is generally used as a framework for monitoring the impact of disasters,
formulating initial assessments and measuring progress towards set targets. However,
compiling, maintaining and updating disaster data is challenging, and lack of clear
standards and definitions has led to inconsistency and poor interoperability of different
data initiatives. While disaster loss of data quality and coverage has significantly improved
in recent years in all countries, there are data gaps which are common in many databases
at all levels. These gaps include missing years and/or months, missing reports from some
geographical regions or communities, loss estimation with losses reported for low impact
or high frequency events and inconsistency with loss indicators across events.40
Though plenty of evidence exists in the demonstrated use of ICT in mapping and
monitoring disaster and humanitarian missions, information systems have not yet become
an integral part of a DRR framework worldwide. Use is sporadic and mostly by
international agencies on a piecemeal basis. For instance, TV and radio are still used but
37 Duncan, Craig et al, Background Paper: Prepared for the 2015 Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk
Reduction, HFA Thematic Review: Research Area 2, Priority For Action 3 - Core Indicator 1, (UNISDR) p. 25
Available from
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2015/en/bgdocs/UNISDR,%202014c.pdf
Reduction, HFA Thematic Review: Research Area 2, Priority For Action 3 - Core Indicator 1, (UNISDR) p. 9.
Available from
Reduction, HFA Thematic Review: Research Area 2, Priority For Action 3 - Core Indicator 1, (UNISDR) p. 25.
Available from
40 Integrated Research on Disaster Risk(IRDR) Peril Classification and Hazard Glossary. DATA Project Report
No.1, (March 2014), p 5 Available from http://www.irdrinternational.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/04/IRDR_DATA-Project-Report-No.-1.pdf

15
only for warnings and not for capacity development or preparedness.41 Part of the problem
is the lack of existing infrastructure on the ground and the need for vast sums of money for
investment in many countries. Overall ICT has the potential to enhance DRR and DRM
strategies although that potential has barely been tapped.
2.4 Challenges in partnerships for disaster reduction
Over the past decades, countless intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations
and volunteers have provided both human and financial resources to help communities
respond to and recover from the impact of various disasters.
However, there still exists a need to build strong and sustainable international partnership
and support for mainstreaming DRM into development management at the national and
local levels. There is a need for more research, better cross boundary organizational
linkages, and the establishment of mechanisms for the involvement of various
stakeholders. The United Nations and the World Bank are leading efforts to integrate DRM
into all related sectors such as agriculture, health, tourism and water through disaster
management, disaster mitigation and disaster preparedness but more remains to be done.
III. Framework of innovative approaches to DRM
The reliable delivery of public services should be seen to be a key objective in assessing and
managing disaster risk, whether the disasters are natural or caused by people. Although in
principle most disasters may be avoided, their effects can be mitigated and their impact
significantly reduced, it is of key importance that in all instances basic life sustaining and
recovery services continue to operate without serious interruption. This requires resilient
public services and delivery, aware and informed communities, and risk-sensitive public
and private institutions.
A disaster is generally understood as a serious disruption of the functioning of a
community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental
losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope
using its own resources.42 The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR)
describes DRR as “the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic
efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced
Reduction, HFA Thematic Review: Research Area 2, Priority For Action 3 - Core Indicator 1, (UNISDR) p. 25
Available from
42 UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2009, p. 9 Available from
http://www.unisdr.org/files/7817_UNISDRTerminologyEnglish.pdf

16
exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of
land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events.”43 Public
administration institutions, strategies, policies and coping capacities which would reduce
the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disasters are called disaster risk
management.44
Innovation in policy and planning for continuity of public service delivery systems need to
integrate DRM into overall development planning. Section 2 above outlined and illustrated
many of the main challenges associated with disasters and how they impact sustainable
development. This section examines each of these challenges in turn and shows how good
practice experiences and new innovations can be used to successfully address them. The
innovative approaches described are not mutually exclusive, but rather interrelated and
often mutually reinforcing themes. The focus is on the governance and institutional
challenges posed by each issue in turn and examples of innovative approaches taken to
overcome them.
3.1 Building an integrated institutional approach
The need to build DRM into institutions, regulations and mechanisms of service delivery
from the beginning stems from the fact that the dividends in sustaining public services
would be high immediately following a disaster.
Mainstreaming risk management by building an integrated approach to DRR, establishing
guidelines for responsibility, establishing legal frameworks and identifying sources of
funding can help mitigate the impact on public service delivery at times of disaster.
Necessary public services can be maintained by moving from simple risk information, that
is, what the risks are, to risk knowledge or how risks arise and what types of response are
appropriate, through an assessment of the costs and benefits of alternative risk mitigation
strategies. Appropriately reformed governance institutions with in built accountability
mechanisms are an important component of a DRM framework. Capacity building for DRR
and DRM of national and local players will allow for greater ownership and impart
sustainability to development measures.
The UNISDR suggests that DRR plan guidelines should be developed within relevant
institutions and coordinated with development plans, resource allocations and programme
activities.45 National level plans need to be synchronized to each level of administrative
responsibility and adapted to the different social and geographical circumstances that may
be present. The time frame and responsibilities for implementation and the sources of
45 UNISDR Disaster Reduction Plan. Available from
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/terminology/v.php?id=7820 (accessed 10 June 2016)

17
funding should be specified in the plan. As environmental factors are often associated with
disaster risk, linkages to climate change adaptation plans should be made where possible.46
An integrated approach to safeguarding the delivery of public services during disasters is
to streamline DRR and DRM initiatives across multiple levels of government, including at
the sub-national level. Colombia has established itself as a leader in Latin America in
developing a comprehensive vision for risk and disaster management. Its multipronged
approach centres on investments in structural measures, risk assessments, early warning
and emergency response, institutional support, and financial and fiscal measures at the
national and municipal levels, as well as the organization of national and local entities for
emergency response. As a result of these measures, mortality rates per natural
phenomenon have dropped from the 1970s to the 2000s, from 4,025 deaths to 2,180.47
Country ownership of a disaster needs to be asserted but in a manner which ensures
efficient, effective and transparent coordination without causing bottlenecks or becoming
an opportunity for corruption. Accordingly, the role of the state is to maximize the overall
effectiveness of the contributions of each actor, as illustrated in the aftermath of the
Mozambique floods below.
Box 1. Disaster risk reduction leadership after the Mozambique floods in early
2000-2001
The Government of Mozambique’s strategy after the serious floods in 2000 and 2001 aimed to move as
quickly as possible from the immediate relief mode to a disaster risk reduction agenda, and thereby also to
act as an engine for sustainable development. This meant ensuring that both donors and government adopted
coordinated sector-wide approaches and common mechanisms for appraising, monitoring and funding sector
programmes. A coordinated sector-wide approach included defining roles and activities, and establishing a
systematic monitoring system which allowed the creation of a structured approach. As a result, 50,000 people
were rescued by boat and aircraft, and public health measures were put in place which successfully avoided
measles and cholera outbreaks.
Source: Wiles, Peter et al, Learning Lessons from Disaster Recovery: The Case of Mozambique: Disaster Risk
Management Working Paper Series no. 12 (World Bank) pp 6-7. Retrieved from
http://www.recoveryplatform.org/assets/publication/mozambique.pdf
As noted, ownership of the DRR and DRM process is not only important at the country
level, but at the sub-national level as well. While local governments may lack the capacity of
46 UNISDR Global Assessment Report, 2011, p. 150.
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2011/en/bgdocs/GAR-
2011/GAR2011_Report_Chapter8.pdf
47 The World Bank. Preparing for the unexpected: An integrated approach to disaster risk management in the
Philippines and Colombia, p. 77. (accessed 10 June 2016) Available from
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTNWDR2013/Resources/8258024-1352909193861/8936935-
1356011448215/8986901-1380046989056/01a--Spotlight_1.pdf

18
central governments, their potential contributions to long term sustainable DRM and
increased disaster resilience are significant. There are many positives associated with
supporting the capacity of local governments for better DRM public service delivery. First,
local governments are more familiar with local social, economic, environmental and
political systems. This means that they are frequently better placed to assess the needs of
the affected communities and devise more relevant disaster risk reduction programmes.
Local government leaders are often more accountable to their constituencies than central
governments. This provides them with an incentive to ensure greater quality of DRR
services. They are typically responsible for the development planning of their respective
constituencies. Their leadership is critical to mainstreaming disaster reduction measures
in development plans and aligning efforts with long-term sustainable development goals.
For instance, in the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the district government of
Aceh in Indonesia was quickly overwhelmed due to poor planning, low capacities and
incidences of corruption. However, a team led by the National Planning Development Board
formulated a Master Plan to rebuild the district involving a wide range of stakeholders in
the process, including line ministries and local government representatives. This also
focused on developing the capacity of local governments to manage their affairs and deliver
effective public services, as well as on enhancing the effectiveness of the relationship
between central government agencies and local governments.48
Mainstreaming DRM regulation supports the effectiveness of the public sector in
safeguarding public service. The consistent application of legal frameworks over time and
vertical integration of DRM policy with sub-national governments by Mexico over the last
decade shows how a combination of legal, policy and institutional reforms can be used to
move a complex national coordination system from one that was essentially response-
based in 2000 to a DRM law in 2012 that supports a whole-of-society approach to DRR.
Box 2. Mainstreaming legal frameworks for DRM in Mexico
In 2012, the national government worked with states and municipalities in establishing a new national legal
framework, due to their autonomous devolved powers under the Constitution. The new General Law on Civil
Protection built on both the 2006 legal reforms and the policy framework of the National Civil Protection
Programme 2008-2012 and advanced Mexico’s policy and strategy innovations in DRR. It established new
and clear institutional mandates on full integration of DRR within the national government agencies.
Source: IFRC, UNDP Effective law and regulation for disaster risk reduction: a multi-country report (2014). p
11. Available from
http://www.ifrc.org/Global/Publications/IDRL/reports/DRR%20Report%20(full%20version)%20final_pag
e_LR.pdf
48 World Bank, Rebuilding a Better Aceh and Nias (2005), pp. 20-21. Available from
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/226271-1113558711510/986166-
1119884224676/aceh_6months.pdf

19
Further, national and local governments need to strengthen the capacity building of public
officials to enable better service delivery. The development of disaster risk reduction
management capacity throughout sectors and across all levels of government can ensure
that the state achieves its right of leadership and is prepared for the responsibility of
fulfilling that right. A comprehensive review both at the national and sub-national levels; a
capacity development strategy; training and leadership development; incentive systems;
institutional reform and change management; public engagement capacities; and
mentoring should form the cornerstone of a viable DRR strategy. (See Chapter VI for a
detailed discussion on capacity building.)
Learning from prior experiences and adapting ideas appropriately can help initiatives to
avoid pitfalls and provide useful perspectives. Evaluating and documenting the process and
outcomes further develops local, national and global understanding of good DRR practices,
benefitting governments, populations and other actors in responding to ongoing and future
disasters.
3.2 Including governance mechanisms in DRM strategy
Critical governance mechanisms required to successfully prepare and implement a DRM
strategy cover three main areas:
An important governance mechanism for effective DRM is the creation and implementation
of a participation strategy to ensure that affected groups and localities are able to
participate in surviving and recovering from a disaster. Preparing a strong and clear
1. Communication
to and with
affected
populations
3. Ensuring that
accountability for
services is clear
and followed up
2. Ensuring that
affected groups
and localities are
able to participate
in surviving and
recovering from a
disaster

20
participation strategy will help to prevent the loss of valuable time and resources directed
toward unrealistic outcomes, while also limiting false expectations, conflicts and mistrust
between DRR agencies and affected communities. In order to facilitate participation, a wide
variety of partnerships can be developed to engage beneficiaries in the DRM process. For
example, working with traditional authorities and customary knowledge can be
particularly effective.
One example of a well-detailed participation strategy was the Government of Pakistan’s
Livelihood Disaster Risk Reduction Plan for populations affected by the 2005 Kashmir
Earthquake. The livelihood programme of the Earthquake Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation Authority in Pakistan was unique in the sense that it not only benefited the
community directly, but was also implemented with the active participation and
collaboration of all concerned in the affected areas. Livelihood coordination units were
established at the national, provincial and state levels and Livelihood Working Committees
were established within each District Reconstruction Unit and comprised of all the agencies
(line departments, I/NGOs, local governments) supporting livelihood rehabilitation in the
district. Together these bodies determine which agencies will support which communities
to draw up their Community Livelihoods Rehabilitation Plans, ensuring that no areas are
omitted. They also maintained coordination, networking and data management
responsibilities as well as the review and approval of the Community Livelihood
Rehabilitation Plans for funding. The Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation
Authority and its partners experienced various challenges and learned important lessons,
while implementing the livelihood programme.
While community-driven approaches require commitment and trust this may be
challenged by the pressure to show progress quickly. However, this needs to be balanced
by the potential outcomes the participatory approach intends to achieve. Understanding
that community ownership and participation of the initiative can increase the likelihood of
sustainability, the Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority extended its
projected completion date when certain communities required considerable capacity
development to design, manage and evaluate their plans.49 This trade-off between time and
quality is an important consideration, but one which should be determined in the initial
planning stages.
Another innovative example of a successful participation approach that helped to facilitate
mutual understanding and overcome community distrust is the vigias initiative in Ecuador.
49 Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority. “Building Back Better Livelihood Rehabilitation
Strategy, Earthquake Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Authority of the Government of Pakistan,” pp. 16-17
(accessed 10 June 2016). Available from http://www.erra.pk/Reports/Livelihood_%20strategy111206.pdf

21
Box 3. Using community participation and observatory-based monitoring to reduce
risk in Ecuador
In the Ecuadorean Andes, although communities lived in close proximity with active volcano Tungurahua,
there was limited trust in scientific advice, a
factor which limited the effectiveness of risk
communication and impacting management of
evacuations in times of disasters. A network of
volunteers (called ‘vigias’), formed from people
already living in the communities at risk, was
created with two main goals in mind: (i) to
facilitate timely evacuations as part of the civil
protection communication network, including the
management of sirens, and (ii) to communicate
observations about the volcano to the
scientists.* Since the formation of the vigias in the aftermath of the 1999 Tungurahua eruption, community
trust in scientific advice and information has been reformed, with vigias acting as intermediaries.
Sources: ^Stone, J, Barclay, J. et al UNISDR Science and Technical Advisory Group Case Studies – 2014.
http://www.preventionweb.net/files/workspace/7935_7935jstoneecuador.pdf; and “Reunión de Vigías de los Volcanes
Tungurahua y Cotopaxi”. Instituto Geofísico, Escuela Politecnia Nacional, http://www.igepn.edu.ec/interactuamos-con-
usted/1252-reunion-de-vigias-volcan-tungurahua-y-cotopaxi (Accessed 28 June 2016); and **** Stone, J., Barclay, J.,
Simmons, P., Loughlin, S. C., Cole, P., Mothes, P., & Ramón, P. Risk reduction through community-based monitoring: the
vigias of Tungurahua. In review with the Journal of Applied Volcanology, 2014; 3 (1): 11. Picture source: Instituto
Geofísico, Escuela Politecnica Nacional.
Ensuring that accountability for services is clear and followed up is also an important
governance mechanism for effective DRM. In order to increase social accountability and
conduct social audits, one of the simplest means is to gather information on the
performance of public services by soliciting feedback from beneficiaries. An innovative
example is the use of citizen report cards on pro-poor public services in the Philippines to
obtain information on satisfaction with public services targeted at the poor. The report
card questionnaire asks for information on awareness, access, use and satisfaction related
to five pro-poor public services: healthcare, primary education, housing, water, and
subsidized rice distribution. For improved governance and accountability, the government
committed itself to treat the poor as clients and not as beneficiaries, moving away from a
paternalistic approach to a more entrepreneurial one where service provision is linked to
user satisfaction. Findings are used to revise disaster reduction and sustainable
development plans, to create new poverty alleviation strategies, as well as to assess the
performance and accountability of public agencies.
A good communication strategy is flexible with feedback mechanisms to identify changing
conditions. When such information, especially of a technical nature, is not communicated
in a familiar and meaningful way to intended recipients, the desired changes are
unachievable. Governments have recognized the need to improve communication and have
experimented with mechanisms that facilitate a clear and timely flow of information both
to and from affected communities during and after a disaster. Innovative approaches in

22
building communication strategies include communication forums in post-disaster
reconstruction as, for example, exchange of information through community radio in
Indonesia.50 The Aceh Nias Reconstruction Radio Network is a community radio network
designed to give communities access to information about the post-tsunami reconstruction
and rehabilitation efforts. The network hosts interactive talk shows, developed, managed
and hosted by women-headed households that discuss reconstruction issues relevant to
the particular needs of women. The talk show has also become a forum to share knowledge
on public service issues of concern, such as reproductive health and education as well as
livelihood-related topics like animal husbandry and home industries, aimed at accelerating
the restoration of women’s livelihoods.51
3.3 Data and technology is essential for mainstreaming DRM
There is a need to consolidate the importance of, and benefits from, an early use of information
technology as an integral part of the overall DRM approach. In situations where early warning
signals are not reaching vulnerable sections of the population, ICT could be a relatively
inexpensive and effective solution. The adoption of ICT in DRM requires adequate
infrastructure for organizations and individuals especially information management platforms
and databases, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing and satellite
communications, mobile technology, as well as different types of radio communication including
amateur and satellite radio.52
In the long run, a judicious use of important information such
as various development initiatives and public health and education programmes, can
contribute to effective service delivery, nation building and sustainable development. (see
Chapter III on ICT).
Basic information and data, about the population, and physical and other features of areas
vulnerable to disasters, are essential to preparing and implementing a successful DRM
strategy. Multi-user, Internet accessible databases with simple interfaces, such as the
Disaster Risk Reduction of Aceh and Nias (RAN) Database in Indonesia have been used to
gather such data and track the progress of DRR efforts following major disasters.
The RAN database is a relatively low-tech, robust ICT system designed to collect and
analyze data on reconstruction projects, to coordinate more effectively, pinpoint gaps and
overlaps in the DRR process, and work to resolve bottlenecks. Critical information on key
performance indicators, funding sources, sectors, locations, and budget allocation is
entered into the RAN Database by each partner to provide a powerful tool. Over 1,100
50 For further information on gender responsive communication, please see:
Gender Note # 5 Women, Gender & Disaster Risk Communication. Gender and Disaster Network
http://www.gdnonline.org/resources/GDNGenderNote5RiskCommunication.pdf
51 World Bank. World Development Indicators. Available from
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,co
ntentMDK:21139926~menuPK:224605~pagePK:2865066~piPK:2865079~theSitePK:226309,00.html
52 Asian and Pacific Training Centre for Information and Communication Technology for Development
(APICT) ICT for Disaster Risk Reduction, ICTD Case Study 2 May 2010, p. 13.
http://www.preventionweb.net/files/14338_14338ICTDCaseStudy21.pdf

23
donors and implementing partners participate in this online data sharing, directly
providing up-to-date, often real-time, transparent and accountable information on the
progress of tsunami reconstruction work available to all stakeholders including the general
public.
Box 4. Facilitating coordination through information systems in Indonesia
The Disaster risk reduction of Aceh and Nias (RAN) Database, a relatively low - tech, robust ICT system, was
designed after the Indonesia tsunami to collect and analyze data on reconstruction projects. It contained
information on approval and progress of all projects based on the BRR PCN approval system, as well as
monitoring data based on key performance indicators. With the database, humanitarian organizations and
the general public had access to real-time information to support the overall reconstruction process by
measuring progress, identifying gaps, addressing implementation problems and improving the planning of
interventions.
Sources: UNDP The Third Annual Report of the UNDP Aceh/Nias Emergency Response and Transitional Recovery (ERTR)
Programme 2007-2008 Available from
http://www.undp.org/content/dam/indonesia/docs/ERTR%20Report%202008.pdf
Information flow and coordination mechanisms in rehabilitation work in Aceh: An overview of the FAO Role , Available
from http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ag116e/AG116E16.htm (accessed 13 June 2016).
It is also critically important to be able to collect, analyze and visualize appropriate data
during and after the disaster, for example through real-time spatial applications. The ability
to seamlessly integrate and distribute digital data into spatially explicit forms for rapid
assessment and other analyses during and after a disaster, can be hugely significant in
saving lives as well as mitigating the long-term impact. Additionally, spatial information
systems can also be used in the pre-address phase of DRM as shown by a local initiative in
Afghanistan.
Collection and assessment data capturing the activities of both men and women not only
sheds light on the complex realities of their differing and interdependent roles, but also
provides vital information for developing more comprehensive and relevant strategies.
Sex-disaggregated analysis helps to ensure that the right questions are asked to capture
gender specific needs and capacities. Following the Pakistan earthquake of 2005, the
gender team of the Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority worked with
the management information specialists to disaggregate assessment data based on
recipients’ names in order to provide hard evidence to policy makers and decision makers
on the differential needs of different groups, particularly women and girls. The existing
database of livelihood cash grants and rural housing financial assistance did not capture
the sex of recipients, leaving decisions to be made based on assumptions of who the heads
of household and income earners were. The newly disaggregated data confirmed a
considerable presence of women-headed households. This data convinced senior level
managers to consider gender differences, approve targeted interventions and integrate a

24
gender equity focus throughout the entire programming of the Earthquake Reconstruction
and Rehabilitation Authority.53
Governments, citizens, companies and many others are increasingly using mobile
technology in natural disaster preparedness and public safety responses. With an
estimated 6 billion mobile phone users worldwide, mobile communication is fast proving
to be the most effective and efficient means of reaching and informing the public when
disaster strikes. Real-time mobile phone data can also provide valuable insights about the
behaviour of affected populations during a disaster, as well as enable both victims and
rescuers to send real-time reports and upload data providing instantaneous situation
analyses. For example, recent research has demonstrated the potential of mobile phone
data to help model malaria outbreaks in Kenya54 and study population movements after an
earthquake in Haiti.55 By examining mobile phone activity data before, during and after a
disaster, a baseline understanding of emergency behaviour and capacity to measure the
rate of disaster recovery can be established.56
3.4 Strengthening implementation through partnerships
The United Nations is leading efforts to integrate DRM into all related sectors such as
agriculture, health, tourism and water. It is committed to addressing disaster and climate
risk throughout its development and humanitarian work. The United Nations International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) is the focal point in the United Nations system
for the coordination of disaster reduction and facilitates synergy among the disaster
reduction activities of the United Nations system and regional organizations.57
In 2005, the “Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations
and Communities to Disasters” was adopted by 168 United Nations Member States in Kobe,
Japan as a plan to explain, describe and detail the work that is required from all different
sectors and actors to reduce disaster losses.
53 “Build Back Better” Livelihood Rehabilitation Strategy, Pakistan Earthquake Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation Authority. Available from http://www.erra.pk/Reports/Livelihood_%20strategy111206.pdf
(accessed 13 June 2016).
54 Wesolowski A, Eagle N , Tatem A, Smith D, Noor A, Snow R, Buckee C (2012), Quantifying the impact of
human mobility on Malaria, Science 338(6104) pp. 267-270.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23066082
55 Bengtsson L, Lu X, Thorson A, Garfield R, von Schreeb J (2011), Improved Response to Disasters and
Outbreaks by Tracking Population Movements with Mobile Phone Network Data: A Post-Earthquake
Geospatial Study in Haiti. Available from
http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article/asset?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1001083.PDF
56 WFP Global Pulse “Using Mobile Phone Activity for Disaster Management during Floods” p. 1 (The full
technical report on this study is available: “Flooding through the Lens of Mobile Phone Activity.” Pastor-
Escudero, et al IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference, GHTC 2014) Available from
http://unglobalpulse.org/sites/default/files/Mobile_flooding_WFP_Final.pdf
57 A/RES/56/195

25
Building on ten years of work on DRM in 2015 Member States adopted the “Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030” which provided a framework for “the
substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the
economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses,
communities and countries.”
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030
To attain its expected outcome, the Sendai Framework has set the following goal: “Prevent new and reduce
existing disaster risk through the implementation of integrated and inclusive economic, structural, legal,
social, health, cultural, educational, environmental, technological, political and institutional measures that
prevent and reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster, increase preparedness for response and
recovery, and thus strengthen resilience.”
The Sendai Framework focuses action on the following four priorities:
1. Understanding disaster risk by adopting policies and practices for disaster risk management in all its
dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure of persons and assets, hazard characteristics and the
environment.
2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk through prevention, mitigation,
preparedness, response, recovery and rehabilitation, in order to foster collaboration and partnership
across mechanisms and institutions for the implementation of instruments relevant to disaster risk
reduction and sustainable development.
3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience via public and private investment in disaster risk
prevention and reduction through structural and non-structural measures to enhance the economic,
social, health and cultural resilience of persons, communities, countries and their assets, as well as the
environment.
4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery,
rehabilitation and reconstruction.
The seven global targets outlined in the Sendai Framework are as follows:
a) Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower the average global mortality rate
per 100,000 persons in the 2020-2030 decade, compared to 2005-2015.
b) Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower the average global
figure per 100,000 persons in the 2020-2030 decade, compared to 2005-2015.
c) Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product by 2030.
d) Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services, among
them health and educational facilities, including through developing their resilience by 2030.
e) Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies
by 2020.
f) Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through adequate and
sustainable support to complement their national actions for implementation of this Framework by 2030.
g) Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning systems and disaster
risk information and assessments to the people by 2030.
Source: UNISDR, Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 pp. 12 and 14. Available from
http://www.unisdr.org/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf
The priorities and targets of the Sendai framework align with the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development, also adopted in 2015. Together they offer a unique opportunity
to ensure that disaster risk is significantly reduced and managed all over the world,
especially for the most vulnerable. In Goal 13.1, the 2030 Agenda requires urgent action to
strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural
disasters and urges Member States to undertake appropriate actions.

26
A critical element of the integrated approach is outlining responsibilities for coordination
during times of disaster. For example, who is responsible for ensuring adequate monitoring
and surveillance of possible disasters, who should react and in what ways when disaster
strikes, and who should ensure delivery of emergency services as well as the continuity of
other basic public services such as water supply, the rebuilding of roads and transportation
and health services provision.
In order to strengthen DRM design and implementing capacity, governments are
increasingly expanding their resource base to partner with a greater range of civil society
organizations, academic institutions and the private sector. For example, the government of
Bangladesh partnered with microfinance NGO Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee
to facilitate community-led livelihood disaster risk reduction. The Committee had
established long-standing relationships with local communities through a wide range of
services, such as micro-finance, education, health and others.58 In India, following the
Gujarat earthquake of 2001, the government partnered with the Self Employed Women’s
Association to implement a seven-year community-driven livelihood security project for
rural households. The Association, a trade union providing services to women working in
the informal sector, was chosen because of its presence in the project area, its reputation
for community capacity building and its widespread membership base in the form of
women’s federations or self-help groups.59 Another innovative example of partnerships is
provided by the role of a university in Indonesia.
Box 5. Gadjah Mada University’s role in Yogyakarta disaster risk reduction
The Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia played a central role alongside the local government in the DRM-
related housing strategy in Yogkayarta following the 2006 Java earthquake. The university provided technical
support and training on the practical aspects of building earthquake-resistant housing, while the government
established a system to facilitate and control the process to assure the quality and products of reconstruction
efforts. An accelerated building permit issuance process was established to ensure quality control of
earthquake resistant methods without delaying the reconstruction while a mobile housing clinic provided
technical assistance and advocacy services, as well as disseminating government information on DRR policies
and procedures.
Source: International Recovery Platform (IRP) and Gadjah Mada University, The Recovery Status Report: the Yogyakarta
and Central Java Earthquake 2006 p. 79. Available from
http://www.recoveryplatform.org/assets/publication/RecoveryStatusReport/RECOVERY%20STATUS%20REPORT%20
YOGYAKARTA%202009-1.pdf
Similarly, in the capital of Nicaragua, an initiative to upgrade and protect public
infrastructure from flood damage, collaborated with the Sandinista Defense Committees,
58 Beck, Tony. 2005. Learning lessons from disaster recovery: the case of Bangladesh. Disaster Risk
Management working paper series; no. 11. Washington, DC: World Bank, p. 4.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2005/04/5780225/learning-lessons-disaster-recovery-case-
bangladesh,
59 Report on the Exposure and Dialogue Programme Visit Organized in the Republic of India for Executive
Board Directors and IFAD Staff, (2005), IFAD, p. 1, https://www.ifad.org/documents/10180/e04779c2-
0251-4908-892f-88a08784374e

27
neighborhood groups formed during the Nicaraguan revolution. Because of their structure,
motivation and the cohesion of members, they proved to be an extremely effective
instrument for reaching and involving the local population.60 After a series of devastating
typhoons hit the Philippines, the Department of Education developed a programme to
rebuild schools to disaster resistant standards wherein principals or school heads, along
with Parent, Teacher and Community Associations, took charge of the implementation and
management of the reconstruction.61
In addition to partnering with civil society, some governments have developed innovative
intra-governmental mechanisms to provide the necessary surge capacity following a
disaster, as illustrated by China’s ‘twinning’ policy which paired impacted counties and
cities with other Chinese provinces and municipalities to successfully address post disaster
impact. .62
Box 6. China’s ‘twinning’ strategy
Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, the Government of China implemented an innovative approach to
provide additional resources to affected populations, including a ‘twinning’ strategy linking several badly
impacted counties and cities with other Chinese provinces and municipalities. For example, Wenchuan
County, the epicentre of the earthquake, was paired with wealthy Guangdong Province for long-term
reconstruction assistance, including the provision of medical personnel to replace staff lost in the earthquake,
and the training of Wenchuan-based staff in teaching hospitals in Guangdong. These partnerships assisted
affected areas with resources, personnel and moral support. Teams of doctors, public health professionals
and sanitation and disease control experts worked with the affected partner county. A reported 1–3 per cent
of the annual gross domestic product of sponsor provinces was pledged towards long-term rebuilding and
disaster risk reduction efforts in the affected county for at least three years.
Source: Hoyer, Brian. “Lessons from the Sichuan Earthquake,” Humanitarian Exchange No. 43 June 2009, p. 16 Available
from http://odihpn.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/humanitarianexchange043.pdf
Partnerships with agencies possessing extended experience and established relationships
in country can lead to more relevant and timely DRR efforts. Country ownership of DRR
requires that the government be prepared to negotiate goals, modalities and conditions of
collaboration with external actors. A clear vision, detailed plan and knowledge of existing
capacity as well as capacity gaps will strengthen a government’s leadership role and will
help to guide negotiations with external partners.
60 The World Bank participation sourcebook (1996). (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank), pp. 170-171.
Available from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/1996/02/696745/world-bank-participation-
sourcebook
61 Luna, Emmanuel et al, Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction in the Education Sector in the Philippines
(2008), p. 84. Available from http://www.preventionweb.net/files/8196_Philippines.pdf
62 For additional information on private-public partnerships, please see:
Private Sector Activities in Disaster Risk Reduction: Good Practices and Lessons Learned. UNISDR
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/publications/v.php?id=7519

28
In order to strengthen and develop statistical and technical capacity, governments are
increasingly expanding their resource base to partner with a greater range of regional and
international organizations. At the regional level, the United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) and the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE) have entered into partnerships to help standardize
methodologies for loss accounting. Member States of UNESCAP established an expert
group that consists of government- nominated technical advisors and regional and
international experts in the field of statistics and disaster risk management, to work on
developing a basic range of disaster-related statistics. 63 In October 2014, the Bureau of the
UNECE Conference of European Statisticians (CES) undertook an in-depth review of
international work on measuring extreme events and disasters. The review emphasized
several priority action areas, including: institutional cooperation with mapping agencies to
integrate statistical data with geographical information; and the need for common
classifications and definitions for extreme events and disasters for statistical purposes. As a
follow-up, the CES Bureau set up a Task Force on measuring extreme events and disasters,
which is planning to prepare recommendations for national statistical systems by 2017,
and will coordinate its work with the related UNESCAP initiative and other international
organizations working in this area. 64
IV. Lessons learned
This chapter has identified complex challenges facing countries and institutions when
planning for and coping with disasters, as well as how important their response is for the
delivery of public services and the achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. Not all challenges or types of innovative response have been addressed, but
the main issues have been examined and exemplified, resulting in some clear conclusions
and lessons learned.
Building an integrated institutional approach
Building an integrated institutional strategy for effective DRM and response is possible
through country ownership of all stages of DRM, integration across public services and
along national-local governance lines, and prioritization of DRR and DRM in regulations.
Country ownership of a disaster needs to be asserted at an early date and over the long
term, but in a manner which ensures efficient, effective and transparent coordination
without causing bottlenecks or becoming an opportunity for corruption. The role of the
state is thus to maximize the overall effectiveness of the contributions of each actor.
63 Global Sustainable Development Report 2015 Edition Advance Unedited Version, p. 76. Available from
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1758GSDR%202015%20Advance%20Unedited
%20Version.pdf
64 Ibid.

29
Ownership of the DRM process is not only important at the country level, but at the sub-
national and regional levels as well. While local governments may lack the capacity of
central governments, their potential contributions to long-term sustainable DRM and
increased disaster resilience are significant.
 It is of critical importance to develop an integrated institutional approach to the
development and implementation of a DRM policy based on sound information and
data. This needs to be collected and analyzed over the long-term to ensure that the
strategy will be effective in terms of the needs of the vulnerable populations and the
areas in which they live, as well as the types of disaster responses, which are likely to be
appropriate and effective.
 Governments must take a strong coordination role in developing a DRM policy for the
long term which is efficient, effective and transparent, and which clearly defines the
roles and relationships of all actors.
 Local government should be given a critical role within its territorial competence, both
in DRM planning and implementation, given its presence on the ground, local
knowledge and access to local actors and resources.
 Specific disaster plans and responses are required, especially for vulnerable groups,
such as women, the elderly, disabled and poor, as these are most likely to be the most
affected groups as well as having the greatest need for public services.
Including governance mechanisms in DRM strategy
There are a number of critical governance mechanisms required to successfully prepare
and implement a DRM strategy. Communication strategies need to identify the audience,
the type of information they require, and the specific purpose of communication in each
case. Ensuring that accountability for services is clear and followed up on is also an
important governance mechanism for effective DRM. In order to increase social
accountability and conduct social audits, one of the simplest means is to gather information
on the performance of public services by soliciting feedback from beneficiaries. Findings
are used to revise disaster reduction and sustainable development plans, to create new
poverty alleviation strategies, as well as to assess the performance and accountability of
public agencies. Finally, the direct participation of affected groups and localities is
important in surviving and recovering from a disaster, so an effective participation strategy
for such groups is required.
 A DRM strategy must include a communication component that ensures the clear,
timely and effective flow of information from government to the affected population,
and which recognizes and caters to the specific needs of different target groups.
 It is important to ensure the direct participation of affected groups and localities in
planning for and coping with a disaster, so an effective participation strategy for such
groups is needed. Such a strategy should also facilitate a wide variety of partnerships
and work with the custodians of traditional authority and customary knowledge where
appropriate.

30
 The acceptance and effective implementation of a DRM strategy also rests on clear
public service accountability frameworks in which service users can provide feedback
and have a voice. This is essential for both building trust as well as ensuring that DRM
strategies will be accepted and supported by affected populations.
Utilizing ICT for better DRM
The use of ICT for better DRM has grown tremendously in recent years, but remains a
largely neglected tool especially in those developing countries most subject to disasters
that threaten widespread loss of life and material destruction. The use of computing and
communication technology is today essential to achieve this.
New ICT, and in particular mobile phones, are also indispensable once a disaster strikes
and in the immediate aftermath, as they can provide instant data from virtually any
location. The ability to seamlessly integrate and distribute digital data into spatially explicit
forms for situation, rapid assessment and other analyses during and after a disaster, can be
hugely significant in saving lives as well as mitigating any long-term impact. Real-time
mobile phone data can also provide valuable insights about the behaviour of affected
populations during a disaster, as well as enable both victims and rescuers to send real-time
reports and upload data providing instantaneous situation analyses.
The ‘To Dos’ in relation to utilizing ICT for better DRM can be summarized as:
 It is essential to examine the role that new ICT can play in preparing, implementing and
monitoring DRM. ICT provides an unprecedented and powerful tool, and judicious
investment in it can significantly improve the mitigation of disaster risks and the ability
to cope with disasters when they occur. ICT infrastructure, equipment and skills also
have many other benefits for public service delivery and sustainable development, as
outlined in Chapter III.
 The use of mobile phones should in particular be prioritized given that these provide
very inexpensive and flexible tools which are easy to transport and use by most
individuals and which can provide real-time communication and data about an
unfolding disaster.
Strengthening implementation capacity through partnerships
In order to strengthen their DRM design and implementation capacities, governments are
increasingly expanding their resource base to partner with a greater range of civil society
organizations, academic institutions and the private sector. Partnering with different types
of actors provides complementary knowledge and competencies for the development and
implementation of a DRM strategy. Within a broader context, the internationally agreed
and recognized “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030” provides a
clear strategic framework and focus with expected outcomes for both developing
partnerships and accessing good practices and support.

31
 It is important to recognize that governments can rarely meet the disaster challenge on
their own, and therefore will typically need to partner with a range of appropriate
actors to access their specific knowledge and capacities.
 International strategic frameworks, like the “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015-2030” can be an important context for many countries to access
support and knowledge for developing and implementing their DRM strategies.
 Private sector partnerships are under-utilized and there is a greater need for platforms
of public-private initiatives toward DRR and DRM.

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