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統計学2
変数変換~確率関数まで
逆関数の微分など
変数変換による確率密度関数の変化
データの変換1
• 対数変換:x→loga(x+b)
y = 2.7246x - 0.303
R² = 0.9057
-2
0
2
4
6
8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
logY
自然対数をとると、直線の当てはまりが良くなる。↓
人口・株価・所得…
y = 87.042x - 274.13
R² = 0.6381
-500
0
500
1000
1500
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Y
Box-Cox変換
• Box-Cox変換(非負データのみ)
𝑥𝜆 − 1
𝜆
(𝜆 = 0)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 (𝜆 ≠ 0)
→x=1のあたりを0付近に移動させる
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
y = Box-Cox
ramda = -2 ramda = -1 ramda = 0 ramda = 1 ramda= 2
ロジット変換・ロジスティック変換(ロジットの逆変換)
・ロジット変換
𝑝 → 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑝
1 − 𝑝
確率pのような0~1の値をオッズの
自然対数(-∞~∞)に変換する。
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
y = log(p/1-p)
・ロジスティック変換
𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑝
1 − 𝑝
→ 𝑝 =
exp(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑡)
1 + exp(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑡)
ロジットから確率pのような0~1の
値に変換する
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-10 -5 0 5 10
y = exp(logit)/(1 + exp(logit))
離散一様分布
確率変数Xが1,2,3…Kを等確率でとる。すなわち
𝑃 𝑋 = 1 = 𝑃 𝑋 = 2 = ⋯ = 𝑃 𝑋 = 𝐾 =
1
𝐾
であるとき、Xの分布を離散一様分布という。
𝐸 𝑋 =
𝐾 + 1
2
, 𝑉 𝑋 =
𝐾2 − 1
12
また確率母関数は
𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐸 = 𝑠𝑥
𝑠 + 𝑠2 + 𝑠3 + ⋯ + 𝑠𝑘
𝐾
=
𝑠(1 − 𝑠𝑘)
𝐾(1 − 𝑠)
ベルヌーイ分布
2つの結果のうち、いずれか一方が起こる試行を考える。成功確率
をpとすると、この試行を成功確率pのベルヌーイ試行という。確
率変数Xを成功の時1, 失敗の時0とする。Xは試行を1回行った時の
成功の回数ともいえる。Xの従う分布を成功確率pのベルヌーイ分
布といい、Bin(1,p)と表す。
𝑃 𝑋 = 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑥
𝑞1−𝑥
Bin(1,p)の期待値は
𝐸 𝑋 = 𝑝, 𝑉 𝑋 = 𝑝𝑞
確率母関数は
𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠𝑥
= 𝑝𝑠 + 𝑞
二項分布
成功確率pのベルヌーイ試行をn回行った際の成功回数を
Y=X1+X2+…+Xnの従う分布を成功確率pの二項分布といい、
Bin(n,p)と表す。
𝑃 𝑌 = 𝑦 =
𝑛
𝑦
𝑝𝑦𝑞𝑛−𝑦, 𝑦 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛
Bin(n,p)の期待値、分散、確率母関数は、
𝐸 𝑌 = 𝑛𝑝, 𝑉 𝑌 = 𝑛𝑝𝑞, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠𝑌 = 𝑝𝑠 + 𝑞 𝑛
超幾何分布
𝑃(𝑌 = 𝑦) =
𝑀𝐶𝑦 × 𝑁−𝑀𝐶𝑛 − 𝑦
𝑁𝐶𝑛
𝐸 𝑌 = 𝑛 ×
𝑀
𝑁
, 𝑉 𝑌 = 𝑛
𝑀
𝑁
1 −
𝑀
𝑁
𝑁 − 𝑛
𝑁 − 1
N
N-M
M
赤玉
白玉
Nからnコ取り出す。
n=1のとき、赤玉を取り出す確率はM/Nの
Bin(1, M/N)に従う。
nコ中の赤玉の個数をYとすると、その分布は
超幾何分布HG(N, M, n)に従う。
ポアソン分布
非負整数値を取る確率変数Yがあるλ>0に対して
𝑃 𝑌 = 𝑦 =
𝜆𝑦
𝑦!
𝑒−𝜆
, 𝑦 = 0,1,2, …
二項分布Bin(n,p)の確率関数において、npをλに固定してn→∞
とした場合の極限として得られる。
𝐸 𝑌 = λ, 𝑉 𝑌 = λ, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠𝑌
= 𝑒𝜆(𝑠−1)
ポアソン分布 証明
幾何分布
ベルヌーイ試行を繰り返し、初めて成功するまでに起こる失敗の
回数をXとする。Xの分布を幾何分布といい、Geo(p)と表す。
𝑃 𝑋 = 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑞𝑥, 𝑥 = 0,1,2, …
𝐸 𝑋 =
𝑞
𝑝
, 𝑉 𝑋 =
𝑞
𝑝2
, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑆𝑥 =
𝑝
1 − 𝑞𝑠
, 𝑠 <
1
𝑞
負の二項分布
幾何分布を一般化として、k回目の成功を得るまでの失敗回数をx
とすれば、x=1,2,3…でその確率は
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘+𝑥−1𝐶𝑥𝑝𝑘𝑞𝑥, 𝑥 = 0,1,2, …
確率変数Xが負の二項分布に従うとき、期待値、分散は
𝐸 𝑋 =
𝑘𝑞
𝑝
, 𝑉 𝑋 =
𝑘𝑞
𝑝2
※幾何分布のk倍となっている。
多項分布
K>=2個の結果、いずれか一つが起こる試行を考える。
結果jが起こる回数をY(j)とするとき、Yの従う分布を多項分布と
よび、Mと表す。
𝑃 𝑌1, 𝑌2, … 𝑌𝑘 =
𝑛!
𝑌1! 𝑌2! … 𝑌𝑘!
𝑝1𝑦1𝑝2𝑦2 … 𝑝𝑘𝑦𝑘
𝐸 𝑌
𝑗 = 𝑛𝑝𝑗, 𝑉 𝑌
𝑗 = 𝑛𝑝𝑗 1 − 𝑃𝑗 , 𝑗 = 1,2, … 𝐾
連続一様分布
a,bに対し、確率密度関数
𝑓 𝑥 =
1
𝑏 − 𝑎
(𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏)
0(その他)
𝐸 𝑋 =
𝑎 + 𝑏
2
, 𝑉 𝑋 =
𝑏 − 𝑎 2
12
𝑀 𝑡 = 𝐸 𝑒𝑡𝑋 =
𝑒𝑏𝑡 − 𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑡
− ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞
証明◯
正規分布
正規分布(平均0, 分散1のものを標準正規分布という)
𝑓 𝑥 =
1
2𝜋𝜎2
exp −
𝑥 − 𝜇 2
2𝜎2
𝐸 𝑋 = 𝜇, 𝑉 𝑋 = 𝜎2
𝑀 𝑡 = 𝐸 𝑒𝑡𝑋 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝜇𝑡 +
1
2
𝜎2𝑡2
※証明バツ
指数分布
λ>0に対し、
𝐸𝑥𝑝 𝜆 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝜆𝑒−𝜆𝑥, 𝑥 > 0
累積密度関数は
𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑃 𝑋 ≤ 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑒−𝜆𝑥
, 𝑥 > 0
平均、分散、モーメント母関数は
𝐸 𝑋 =
1
𝜆
, 𝑉 𝑋 =
1
𝜆2
𝑀 𝑡 = 𝐸 𝑒𝑡𝑋
=
𝜆
𝜆 − 𝑡
= 1 −
1
𝜆
𝑡
−1
, 𝑡 < 𝜆
※証明◯
ガンマ分布
形状母数a>0,尺度母数b>0に対し、確率密度関数
𝑓 𝑥 =
1
Γ(𝑎)𝑏𝑎
𝑥𝑎−1𝑒−
𝑥
𝑏, 𝑥 > 0
Γ(a)はガンマ関数
Γ 𝑎 ∶=
0
∞
𝑥𝑎−1
𝑒−𝑥
𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 > 0
X ~Ga(a,b)のとき、
𝐸 𝑋 = 𝑎𝑏, 𝑉 𝑋 = 𝑎𝑏2
, 𝑀 𝑡 = 𝐸 𝑒𝑡𝑋
= 1 − 𝑏𝑡 −𝑎
, 𝑡 <
1
𝑏
証明
ベータ分布
a>0,b>0に対し、
𝑓 𝑥 =
1
𝐵(𝑎, 𝑏)
𝑥𝑎−1(1 − 𝑥)𝑏−1, 0 < 𝑥 < 1
区間0<x<1上の分布をベータ分布といい、Be(a,b)で表す。
ここで、B(a,b)はベータ関数
𝐵 𝑎, 𝑏 ≔
0
1
𝑥𝑎−1(1 − 𝑥)𝑏−1𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0
X~Be(a,b)のとき、平均・分散は
𝐸 𝑋 =
𝑎
𝑎 + 𝑏
, 𝑉 𝑋 =
𝑎𝑏
𝑎 + 𝑏 2(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 1)
証明
コーシー分布
特徴として、期待値・分散・母関数が存在しない
確率密度関数は
𝑓 𝑥 =
1
𝜋(1 + 𝑥2)
, − ∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
確率変数X,Yの確率密度関数が標準正規分布に従うとき、X/Y
はコーシー分布に従う。また、Xの逆数である、1/Xも従う。
対数正規分布
確率変数Xが正規分布に従うとき、eXが従う分布
確率密度関数は
𝑓 𝑥 =
1
2𝜋𝜎𝑥
𝑒𝑥𝑝 −
(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − 𝜇)2
2𝜎2
(𝑥 > 0)
平均と分散は
𝐸 𝑋 = exp 𝜇 +
𝜎2
2
, 𝑉 𝑋 = (𝑒𝜎2
− 1)𝑒2𝜇+𝜎2
カイ二乗分布
確率変数Z1…Znが互いに独立であり、それぞれが標準正規分布
N(0,1)に従うとき、
𝜒2 = 𝑍1
2
+ 𝑍2
2
+ ⋯ 𝑍𝑘
2
に従う分布を自由度k(足される標準正規分布の数)のカイ二乗
分布という
期待値・分散は
𝐸 𝑋 = 𝑘, 𝑉 𝑋 = 2𝑘
確率変数の収束
確率変数の列X1,X2…を{Xn}とする。{Xn}が確率変数Yに概収束するは確率1で
収束することを示すが証明が難しい。
𝑃( lim
𝑛→∞
𝑋𝑛 = 𝑌) = 1
そこで確率収束を用いる。{Xn}がYに確率収束するとは、任意のε>0に対して
以下が成り立つ。
lim
𝑛→∞
𝑃 𝑋𝑛 − 𝑌 > 𝜀 = 0
また{Xn}がYに平均二乗収束するとは、以下が成り立つ。
lim
𝑛→∞
𝐸 𝑋𝑛 − 𝑌 2 = 0
平均二乗収束する確率変数列は確率収束する。
大数の弱法則
{Xn}は独立同一分布に従い、E X𝑛 = 𝜇, 𝑉 𝑋𝑛 = 𝜎2とする。
このとき、X1…Xnの標本平均はn→∞でE[Xn]に平均二乗収束す
る。
𝑋𝑛 =
1
𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑋𝑖
証明は
𝐸 𝑋𝑛 − 𝜇 2 = 𝑉 𝑋𝑛 =
𝜎2
𝑛
→ 0 (𝑛 → ∞)
確率分布の収束
確率変数列{Xn}を考え、Xnの分布関数をFn(x)=P(Xn<x)とす
る。
このとき{Xn}がある確率分布Gに分布収束、あるいは法則収束す
るとは、以下が成り立つことを示す。
lim
𝑛→∞
𝐹𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐺(𝑥)
少数法則
確率変数Xnが試行回数n、成功確率λ/nの二項分布に従うとする。
このとき、xを固定してn→∞とすると
lim
𝑛→∞
𝑃 𝑋𝑛 = 𝑥 =
λ𝑥
𝑥!
𝑒−λ
つまり、Xnはポアソン分布に分布収束する。
これをポアソンの少数法則という。
Ex. 一週間に発生する交通事故の回数の分布は近似的にポアソン分
布で表せると考えられる。
中心極限定理
{Xn}は平均𝜇、分散σ2の独立同一分布に従うと仮定する。ま
たX1…Xnの標本平均をXnと表すとき
𝑛(𝑋𝑛 − 𝜇)は正規分布(0, σ2 )に分布収束する。
これを中心極限定理と呼ぶ。
極値分布
標本の最大値あるいは最小値が従う分布。および極限のこと。
{Xn}は独立に平均1の指数分布に従うとする。このとき、X1…Xn
の最大値Mn=max{X1…Xn}の分布は以下に従う
𝑃 𝑀𝑛 ≤ 𝑥 =
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑃 𝑋𝑖 ≤ 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑒−𝑥 𝑛
最大値を適切に位置・尺度変換することにより、
ガンベル分布・フレシェ分布・ワイブル分布の3種類のどれかに収
束する
分布収束の性質
連続写像定理
XnがXに分布収束し、かつhが連続関数であれば、h(Xn)はh(X)に分布収
束する。
Ex.XnがN(0,1)に分布収束するならば、Xn2は自由度1のカイ二乗分布に
分布収束する。
スルツキ―の補題
XnがXに分布収束し、かつYnが定数cに確率収束するならば、Xn+Ynお
よびXnYnはそれぞれ、X+cおよびcXに分布収束する。
Xnのモーメント母関数Mn(t)は各実数tに対してMn(t)→M(t)が成り立つ
ならば、XnはXに分布収束する。

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