1Organization Development An Introduction tothe Field.docx

1
Organization Development: An Introduction to
the Field, Its History, and Practices
©SallyElford/IkonImages/Corbis
LearningObjectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the �ield of organization development in terms of its
purpose, philosophy, and de�initions.
Summarize the history of organization development, including
the key practices of each period.
Explore the roles, values, competencies, professional
associations, and ethics of an organization
development practitioner.
Morethan2,500yearsago,theGreekphilosopherHeraclitusobserved
,“Changeistheonlyconstant”(Mark,2010).This
sentimentisstilltruetoday.From�luctuationsinweatherandseasons
tothegrowth and aging of your own body,
changeisnotanoption—it is a fundamental principle of existence.
What changes have you experienced recently?
Perhapsyoubecameillorrecoveredfromanillness,enrolledinordrop
pedoutofaclass,werepromotedatworkor

changedjobs,endedarelationshiporgotmarried,orsimplychangedy
ourmindaboutsomething.
Astheseexamplessuggest,sometimeschangeisintended,butjustasof
tenitisunanticipatedorevenunwanted.For
example, few of us welcomed the recent global economic
downturn, which required us to adjust our budgets and
behaviorstocope.Werethesechangesplannedorunplanned?
Unplannedchangereferstochangesthatwereunexpected,liketheloss
ofajob,surprisesuccesses,thesuddendeathof
alovedone,afailedrelationship,naturaldisasters,ornewopportuniti
es.Whatunplannedchangeshavebeenthemost
signi�icantinyourlife?
Assessment:ChangeReadiness
Most people think they are open to change. But are they? When
change comes, do you �ind yourself curious
and even exhilarated, or are you angry, frustrated, and worried
that you are unprepared? Take a few
minutes to assess your readiness for change.
http://www.ecfvp.org/�iles/uploads/2_-
change_readiness_assessment_0426111.pdf
(http://www.ecfvp.org/�iles/uploads/2_-
change_readiness_assessment_0426111.pdf)
Plannedchangereferstoshiftsthatareintendedandpreparedfor,such
asgettinganeducation,learningnewskills,
movingtoanewcity,startinganewhobby,or�indinganewjob.Overth
epastfewyears,whatsigni�icantchangeshave
youplanned?Haveyoubeensuccessfulatimplementingthesechange
s?
TipsandWisdom

Bebop was about change, about evolution. It wasn’t about
standing still and becoming safe. If anybody
wants to keep creating they have to be about change.
—Miles Davis (1926–1991), U.S. jazz musician and composer
Embracing change is not always easy, but it rewards us with
new experiences, new insights, and new
creations.
http://www.ecfvp.org/files/uploads/2_-
change_readiness_assessment_0426111.pdf
©ImageZoo/Corbis
Organizationdevelopment(OD)helps
organizationscopewithchangeonaglobal
scale.
1.1WhatIsOrganizationDevelopment?
Like individuals, organizations are continually required to adapt
to
a dizzying number, variety, and pace of change if they are to
thrive.
These unplanned changes include globalizing markets,
emergence
of the knowledge economy, advancing technology, growing
customer diversity, shif-ting customer preferences, economic
upturns or downturns, natural disasters, unanticipated
competition, and abrupt reorganizations or changes in
management. To navigate such shifts, organizations engage in
plannedchange, an intentional process in which they take action
to solve problems or overcome challenges. Examples of planned
change in organizations include intentional shifts in products or

markets, mergers and acquisitions (at least for the controlling
company), prearranged reorganizations, expansion into new
regions or countries, and new product development.
Although individuals often manage planned change
independently,
organizations frequently seek help so that the planned change is
systematic, effective, and lasting. This assistance is known as
organizationdevelopment(OD). On its simplest
level, OD is a process of helping individuals, groups, and
organizations become more effective through planned
change.
De�iningOD
Among the many de�initions of OD, no single one is
universally accepted. Beckhard (1969) offers an early
de�inition
that is now considered classic: “Organization development is an
effort (1) planned, (2) organization-wide, and (3)
managedfrom the top, to (4) increase organizationeffectiveness
and healththrough (5) plannedinterventionsin the
organization’s ‘processes,’ using behavioral-scienceknowledge”
(p. 9).
Beckhard’s (1969) de�inition points to several key aspects of
OD:
1. It is a planned, intentional process to address a problem or
issue that needs to change.
2. It is organizationwide, based on an understanding that the
organization is an integrated system and that a
change made in one place may have rami�ications in others.
3. Topmanagement provides buy-in and support of the OD
effort.

4. OD activities address both the effectivenessandthehealth of
the organization by boosting its performance
while making it a more humane place to work.
5. It is an intentional process, grounded in evidence derived
fromthebehavioralsciences.
You can see Beckhard’s points in other popular de�initions of
OD, such as this one from Cummings and Worley
(2009): “Organization development is a system wide application
of behavioral science knowledge to the planned
development, improvement, and reinforcement of the strategies,
structures, and processes that leadtoorganization
effectiveness[emphasis added]” (pp. 1–2).
Similarly, Anderson (2012) advocated: “Organization
development is the process of increasing organizational change
through the use of interventions driven by
socialandbehavioralsciencesknowledge[emphasis added]” (p. 3).
In other words, OD is an intentional change process that
involves the total system. It takes an evidence-based
approach to planning change that improves the effectiveness and
health of the organization. Moreover, management
is personally invested in making the organization more effective
and healthy. Consultants who work with
organizations to identify and implement appropriate
interventions practice OD.
ODConsultantsandClients
Many organizations rely on professionals to steer them through
complex and changing environments with planned

responses to problems and challenges. These professionals are
known as organizationdevelopmentconsultants.
Also known as OD practitioners, human resource developers,
human resource managers, or learning and
development professionals, OD consultants are skilled at
assessing problems, providing direct feedback to the
organization, and in�luencing change. OD consultants lead
organizations through interventions that are based on
careful study and preparation and are grounded in the
behavioral sciences.
The key stakeholder in the OD process is known as the client.
Sometimes there is more than one type of client. For
instance, the person who initially contacts the OD consultant
may provide introductory information about the
problem but not be the owner of the problem or the person
paying for the services. It is important for OD
consultants to correctly identify the client—an issue we will
cover in Chapter 3.
WhenIsODWarranted?
Beckhard (2006) notes there are certain conditions that warrant
an organization engaging in an OD effort. These
include when a client or organization wants to
1. change a managerial strategy;
2. develop an organization that better meets the needs of
employees, the organization, and the environment in
which the organization works (markets, community, and so
forth);
3. change cultural norms;
4. change structure and roles;
5. build intergroup collaboration;
6. improve communications;

7. improve planning;
8. tackle issues related to mergers;
9. address motivation issues among the workforce; and
10. better adapt to a changed environment.
Have you experienced an OD effort at an organization you have
worked for? If so, what motivated it?
Interventions
When someone decides to make a change, they usually do
something speci�ic. For instance, if you decided to rein in
your spending, you might establish a budget, create a
spreadsheet to track it, switch to electronic banking, visit a
�inancial planner, or change your saving habits. Actions like
these that are taken to improve a situation are known as
interventions. What are some problems you have experienced
and interventions you have made?
In OD an intervention is a corrective action made to resolve
problems or address challenges. Interventions in OD
focus on tackling organization challenges such as low morale,
quality defects, shifting markets, new management,
leadership problems, strategic planning, and so forth.
PhilosophyofOD
Most of us want to do meaningful work in an organization that
has pleasant working conditions, with colleagues
who are respectful, and where our work is recognized and
rewarded. OD seeks to honor the individual and advance
organization goals. This commitment to bene�it all

organizational stakeholders is grounded in the philosophy of
humanism.
Humanism is the belief in the inherent good of human beings,
their capacity to reach full potential in life, and their
right to be treated fairly and humanely. “The OD value is not
about change but about change that makes people
better—humanistic values” (Marshak in Wheatley, Tannenbaum,
Yardley Grif�in & Quade, 2003, p. 4). OD experts
herald OD’s humanistic values as the �ield’s distinguishing
feature (Greiner & Cummings, 2004; Porras & Bradford,
2004; Wirtenberg, Abrams, & Ott, 2004), embracing the notion
that “the individual has to gain in the long-term for
the organization to gain in the long-term” (Porras & Bradford,
2004, p. 401).
Wirtenberg, Abrams, and Ott (2004) capture this sentiment:
The need in organizations to manifest socially responsible
values and create win–win business results has never
been greater. OD is in an excellent position to seize the
opportunity to build bridges, �ind common ground, and
address organizational and cultural divides. (p. 479)
If you are fortunate enough to work in an organization with a
highly functioning OD process, you should observe an
operation engaged in continual improvement for individuals,
teams, and the organization itself. As you read the case
study on Sparklite, ask yourself if this company is engaging in
humanistic practices.
CaseStudy:IsSparkliteaCandidateforOD?
Sparklite, a spark plug manufacturing plant, underwent a
management change 6 months ago when John
Stevenson became the plant manager. Stevenson replaced Al

Smith, who was a beloved manager and had
run the plant for 20 years. Smith was a hands-on manager. He
was always willing to roll up his sleeves and
work on a problem, whether it involved a machine in the plant
or a con�lict with a customer. He was not a
micromanager; rather, he would work closely with the team to
solve problems. He listened to input,
whether from the janitor or the vice president. He expected all
management personnel to behave similarly.
People who worked in the plant respected Smith and felt
respected by him. Over time a true community
atmosphere evolved, and the plant was one of the highest
performing in the company.
Stevenson, on the other hand, spends a lot of time in his of�ice,
reading over production numbers, talking
on the phone, and holding meetings with his management team.
Rarely does he go out onto the
manufacturing �loor and talk with employees or listen to their
ideas. When one of his managers suggests,
“It might be helpful if you spent more time getting to know our
workers,” Stevenson barks, “That is what I
pay the supervisors to do. My time is better spent on �inding
ways to cut costs and improve our margin.”
Stevenson is very driven by numbers: When they are not good,
he slams his �ist on the table and demands
that the next shift “pick up the slack.”
It does not take long for the supervisors to become afraid of
Stevenson and to quit coming to him with
problems. The convivial atmosphere the plant had enjoyed for
so many years quickly erodes into an
atmosphere of fear. Soon the plant’s performance begins to
suffer. Morale sinks. Members of the
management team begin applying for transfers to other
locations. Longtime workers are exploring other

employment options. This only makes Stevenson more
frustrated, agitated, and frightening to the workers.
One day a corporate vice president comes for a plant tour and
visit. It is immediately clear to her that the
plant has taken a turn for the worse. She talks with several
employees and can see that something has to
change.
CriticalThinkingQuestions
1. How might planned change play a role in turning things
around at Sparklite?
2. How aligned with humanism is the organization emerging
under Stevenson’s leadership?
CharacteristicsofOD
As we have already learned, OD is a planned change process
that is grounded in a humanistic philosophy. It also has
the following key characteristics (Beckhard, 2006, p. 9).
ODIsSystemsBased
OD interventions are planned with consideration for the whole
organization as a system. Like medicine, OD intends
to “�irst, do no harm.” Recall that the tenets of humanism
require that OD bene�it all stakeholders. This means, for
example, that before implementing a change to work �low, the
OD consultant would check to make sure the
adjustments do not have a negative impact elsewhere in the
organization. For instance, a work-�low change might
expose employees to repetitive-motion injuries or make the
work �low in another area unmanageable.

TopManagementIsCommitted
Effective OD secures management’s awareness of and
commitment to the chosen intervention and its management
from the very beginning. Employees look to management for
approval and example, and it is imperative for
organization leadership to visibly support any change effort. OD
consultants play a key role in holding management
accountable for demonstrating sustained and visible
commitment to the OD change process.
TheInterventionIsTiedtotheOrganization’sMission
A key aspect of securing management commitment is helping
leaders see how the OD initiative helps actualize the
organization’s mission. It is also important for employees to
understand this connection. For example, in the
Sparklite case study, the organization’s mission to produce
quality products on a timely basis was facilitated by a
collegial, collaborative atmosphere that was being eroded by
Stevenson’s behavior. If an intervention were made to
help Stevenson and other managers change their managerial
style to a more participative one, everyone would have
to understand and buy in to how the new behaviors would help
the organization meet its mission.
ThereIsLong-TermCommitmenttoImplementingtheIntervention
Although OD interventions can sometimes be relatively simple
and quick to implement, they often require a long-
term commitment, sometimes 2 to 3 years or more.
Interventions that change work practices, beliefs, or standards
do not succeed overnight. Making lasting organization change
needs long-term commitment and action from all
levels of the organization.

Consider a large change made by your organization—perhaps a
shift to a new database, marketing plan, or
procedure. How long did it take? Make a list of a few changes
you can recall and estimate how long they took.
Chances are, the more complex changes required more time and
resources.
ODHasa“BiasforAction”
Management guru Tom Peters, coauthor of
InSearchofExcellence,one of
the best-selling business books of all time, became famous for
saying that
ShannonFagan/Taxi/GettyImages
ThegoalofODistotaketimely,
meaningfulactiontoaddress
problems,challenges,and
opportunitieswithinthe
organization.
effective organizations have a “bias for action” (1982;
2004).Thismeans
that an organization engages in active decision making and
moves
quickly to action, rather than being caught in an incessant cycle
of
planning without action. Although OD implementation can take
a long
time, it is based on taking action, analyzing how the action is
working,
tweaking it, and repeating the process for as long as necessary.

ODFocusesonChangingAttitudesorBehavior
Lasting change occurs when people alter their ways of thinking
and
doing. This is why OD can be powerful and can also take a long
time to
implement. For example, when leaders experience opportunities
for
leadership development and receive feedback that indicates they
are not
as effective as they think they are, they usually engage in
introspection
and change. Becoming less autocratic may not happen
overnight, but real,
lasting change occurs as leaders experiment with new ways of
thinking
about their role as leaders and when they implement new
behaviors,
such as listening or including others in decision making.
ODTendstoIncorporateExperientialLearning
We will learn throughout this book that when people change,
they learn
new ways of thinking and doing. OD favors action; thus,
interventions
often create opportunities for employees to experience new
ways to
think and act. Can you recall a time when you participated in a
change
that prompted new learning? For example, when I participated
in a leadership development initiative, I learned how
to coach employees in a way that focused on helping them solve
problems on their own, rather than me giving them
the answer. Although there was a chance to learn about
coaching from books, I did not internalize it until there was

an employee in front of me with a problem and I made a
conscious effort to behave differently.
ODIsLargelyaGroupProcess
Most OD is not done in isolation. Even when consultants make
individual interventions such as providing training or
coaching, the goal is usually to help the person function better
with others. Similarly, changes in processes require
that groups understand and collectively implement the changes.
As we will discover, the �ield of group dynamics and
facilitation grew out of OD.
RealitiesandMisconceptionsAboutOD
To better understand what OD is, it is useful to explore what it
is not. Table 1.1 compares some common realities and
misconceptions about OD.
Table1.1:ODRealitiesandMisconceptions
ODrealities ODmisconceptions
OD is a systematic process of planned change to
address organization problems or issues. It follows the
action research model (introduced later in this
chapter).
OD is not management consulting or performance
improvement activities that focus on making speci�ic
expert, functional interventions that are disconnected
from the organization system.
ODrealities ODmisconceptions

OD is humanistic in that it seeks to improve
organizations through performance enhancements and
improvements to people that make an organization a
better place for all stakeholders.
OD is not oriented toward processes that only bene�it
the organization and economic values of performance
and productivity.
OD is strategic, and its interventions include a range of
activities.
OD is not simply training and development initiatives,
although often these interventions are erroneously
prescribed to address problems.
OD is a long-term commitment to change that requires
buy-in at multiple levels.
OD is not a short-term, quick �ix for problems.
OD interventions are customized to address needs
speci�ic to the organization and its goals.
OD does not come with a one-size-�its-all set of
interventions. Matching the right consultant with the
problem is important for effective OD.
The next section of this chapter examines OD’s origins and the
interventions that have developed over the past 70
years.
TakeAway1.1:WhatIsOrganizationDevelopment?
People constantly experience both planned and unplanned

change in the course of their personal
and work lives.
OD is a planned change effort that is supported by management
and applied system-wide to
increase organization effectiveness and health through
interventions targeted at organization
challenges or problems.
OD is practiced by individuals who help the organization cope
with and respond to change, also
known as OD consultants. They work with the key
organizational stakeholders or clients to resolve
problems.
OD is grounded in the philosophy of humanism that assumes
human goodness and seeks to do no
harm to the individuals or their organizations when making
changes.
Key characteristics of OD include: it is systems-based, top
management is committed, the
intervention is tied to the organization’s mission, there is a
long-term commitment to
implementing the intervention, there is a bias for action, it
focuses on changing attitudes or
behavior, it tends to incorporate experiential learning, and it is
largely a group process.
1.2TheHistoryofOD
If you work at a company, belong to a nonpro�it board,
participate in a professional organization, or are a member of
a church, it is likely you have engaged in team-building
exercises, �illed out climate surveys, collected data about the
organization, solved problems, developed talent, devised
strategy, or sought to change the organization. These
activities emerged during the historical evolution of OD,

beginning in the 1940s. These interventions are discussed
in chronological order in this section, which also introduces you
to some key terminology used in the �ield. (Refer to
the Key interventions in the history of OD interactive timeline
for a summary of OD’s historical development.)
KeyinterventionsinthehistoryofOD
T-GroupsandtheEmergenceofOD(1940s)
Kurt Lewin (1898–1947) is widely regarded as the father of OD
for his innovations in group dynamics and action
research, although he died before the term
organizationdevelopment came into use in the mid-1950s. It is
dif�icult to
overstate Lewin’s contributions to the �ield. As Burke (2006)
notes, “His thinking has had a more pervasive impact
on organization development, both directly and indirectly, than
any other person’s” (p. 25).
AssociatedPress
KurtLewincontributedtoODwith
innovationsingroupdynamicsand
actionresearch.Forthisreasonheis
oftenreferredtoasthefatherofOD.
Author of the well-known saying “If you want truly to
understand
something, try to change it” (as cited in Neill, 2004), Lewin
applied his
logic by working in organizations to facilitate change. His
practice and
research led to some of the most important discoveries about
group

dynamics and factors that help organizations make effective
change.
Lewin founded the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1944. His key
contributions include understanding group facilitation,
inventing action
research, and demonstrating that social interactions could be
studied
with controlled experiments. Lewin developed many of the
classic OD
interventions still in use today. These are discussed further in
this
chapter and throughout this book.
Can you recall a time when you discussed a process with a
group you
belong to? Or a situation in which it would have been helpful to
re�lect on
issues such as “What were your assumptions when you
disagreed with
the decision?” “What did you really want to say?” “What just
happened
here?” or “How did our behaviors impact the meeting?” When a
group
engages in such conversations, it is known as a training group,
or T-
group. This is a small group in which participants receive input
about
their own behaviors and discuss how they affect the group
dynamics.
Lewin accidentally discovered the process used in T-groups,
known as
laboratory training or sensitivity training. This “accident”
represented
the founding of OD.

The �irst T-group occurred in 1946 when Lewin, then a faculty
member at
MIT and director of the Research Center for Group Dynamics,
conducted
a training program aimed at improving community leadership
and interracial relationships for the American Jewish
Congress of New York’s Commission on Community
Interrelations. The T-group evolved when program participants
were invited to observe the daily posttraining debrie�ing
between community leaders and program facilitators.
The observers did not remain in that role for long; instead, they
jumped into the discussion to clarify, build on, or
dispute the observations raised by the trainers and researchers.
Lewin’s “aha moment” during these interactions
was the power of this act of re�lecting on the day’s experience
and questioning the assumptions and behaviors of the
individuals in the training program. These re�lections, in other
words, were more powerful than the training itself,
particularly in enabling participants to transfer their new
insights about group process back to relationships in their
workplace.
You may have unknowingly experienced an informal T-group if
you have ever met with coworkers to debrief a
meeting in which you spoke frankly and tried to make meaning
of your own and others’ actions during the meeting.
Sometimes this is known as “the meeting after the meeting.”
These exchanges are often much more enlightening and
educational than the formal meetings themselves.
WhoInventedThat?TheFlipChart
Ronald Lippitt and Lee Bradford are among those who helped
popularize the use of the �lip chart, a �ixture

in most meeting rooms today. They used the �lip chart to
record group insights and issues raised during the
1946 T-group sessions (French & Bell, 1999).
Although T-groups are still used today, their popularity has
waned because it is challenging to transfer insights from
the experience back to the workplace. Moreover, T-groups tend
to focus on individual behaviors and therefore are
not always effective at moving the group or organization to the
next level. Eventually, these limitations led to the
emergence of team building, representing OD’s �irst shift from
the individual to the group unit of analysis.
SociotechnicalSystems(1940s)
During the post–World War II era of rapid industrialization in
which T-groups emerged in the United States, changes
were also afoot in the United Kingdom, where Eric Trist and
Ken Bamforth of the Tavistock Institute
(http://www.tavinstitute.org/) encountered problems in their
consultancy with a coal mining company. The mining
teams were cohesive work groups that were responsible for
managing their work and received pay based on group
effort. However, they experienced problems when management
improved their equipment and technology in ways
that fractured their previously cohesive working arrangements.
Trist and Bamforth (1951) worked with the company to
reestablish the social elements that worked so well before
the technology changed. This was the �irst time that a
relationship between social and technical systems was
recognized. Both aspects had to be considered when
implementing change because they affected each other. In
short, organizations were now understood as

sociotechnicalsystems in which social and technical systems are
interrelated and interdependent.
Consider your own experience in school or at work. What are
the social and technical systems? How do they impact
each other? How has one affected the other?
ActionResearchandSurveyFeedback(1940s–1950s)
Lewin is known for saying, “There is nothing so practical as a
good theory” (as cited in Smith, 2001). He believed
that organizations should only enact interventions that are based
on sound data. Just as it is good practice for a
doctor to run tests to diagnose illness before prescribing
treatment, so too should organizations make data-based
diagnoses before prescribing treatments for organization
challenges. Kurt Lewin, John Collier, and William Whyte
believed that research and action had to be connected to help
organizations make and manage change. Based on this
belief, they developed a process of diagnosing organizational
ills in the 1940s known as action research.
ActionResearch
Actionresearch is a recurring, collaborative effort between
organization members and OD consultants to use data
to resolve problems. It is essentially a cycle of action and
research, followed by more action and research. For
example, Yvette might use a new meeting format with her team
(action) and decide to interview team members
about its effectiveness (research). What she learns is then
shared with the team, the meeting format gets modi�ied
(action), and so on. The action research process helps the
organization collect, analyze, and apply data to make
informed decisions and not waste time and money on
inappropriate interventions.

The steps of action research include
1. collecting data about organizational problems or functioning,
2. analyzing data to understand the issue,
3. devising and implementing interventions to solve the issue or
problem,
4. collecting additional data to evaluate the results, and
5. repeating the cycle (back to step 1).
For example, suppose an organization is experiencing high
turnover. Rather than just guessing about the cause and
trying a program to address it, such as providing training, the
action research process would investigate the
http://www.tavinstitute.org/
turnover issue �irst by collectingdata. Data might be collected
by conducting exit interviews with former employees,
surveying current employees about their intentions to leave,
conducting a climate survey, or talking with managers.
The second step, analyzingdata, involves interpreting the
�indings of the data collected in the previous step. The
action research process is iterative; that is, the cycle of data
collection and action are often repeated, and they inform
future action. So in the case of turnover, exit interviews with
former employees might reveal that the issue is related
to pay, which the organization may want to investigate further
by collecting industry data.
Once enough data are collected and analyzed, the organization
is ready to move on to the third step, devisingan
intervention. The best solution in this case might be to adjust
the pay scale.

Finally, the organization is ready for step 4, evaluatingresults.
This often involves additional data collection and
analysis, such as monitoring the turnover rate to see if the
intervention worked. If it did not, then the action research
cycle repeats (step 5).
We will return to this action research model throughout this
book. Together, the humanistic philosophy and the
action research process distinguish OD from other organization
problem-solving pro-cesses. Action research is a
valuable model to memorize and follow, whether or not you
intend to work in the OD �ield.
TipsandWisdom
A knee-jerk reaction to organization problems is often to
prescribe training. Yet training is one of the
costliest interventions to implement. When training is an
inappropriate intervention, not only have time
and money been wasted designing and delivering it, but the root
cause of the original problem has gone
unaddressed. This outcome can lead to further problems,
frustrated employees, and lower organizational
performance.
SurveyFeedback
Organizations often collect data on employee satisfaction. Have
you ever received a survey asking you to rate
organization variables related to management, innovation, and
satisfaction along a continuum from strongly
disagree to strongly agree? If so, you have completed a
Likertscale (Likert, 1932) for an OD intervention known as
surveyfeedback.

Survey feedback is usually shared in meetings by providing a
consolidated analysis of the results to work groups and
their supervisors. During the feedback meetings, the data are
discussed and next steps determined. Survey feedback
is widely used in all types of organizations today and can be
especially useful for monitoring change. Likert became
a leading proponent of participative management, probably as a
consequence of his immersion in data about
management practices through his work in developing survey
feedback.
WhoInventedThat?TheLikertScale
Rensis Likert (1903–1981), a colleague of Kurt Lewin, is best
known for creating organization attitude
surveys and the commonly used 5-point Likert scale. Likert
developed these scales for organizations to
measure employee satisfaction on a range of issues. They yield
more sensitive results than a simple yes or
no. Today it is easy to create Likert scales with the help of web-
based programs such as SurveyMonkey®.
You can also purchase surveys from various vendors or work
with a consultant to create a customized one
for your organization. Likert was a founder of the University of
Michigan Institute for Social Research. You
can learn about its history and his involvement at the institute’s
website:
http://home.isr.umich.edu/about/history/timeline(http://home.isr
.umich.edu/about/history/timeline).
ParticipativeManagement(1960s)
Take a moment to recall managers you have known or worked

with. They might have been teachers, pastors, bosses,
coaches, board presidents, and so forth. Whom did you really
like and respect? Why? Whom did you despise? Why?
Chances are that you admired the managers who earned your
respect and trust through behaviors such as listening,
seeking your input, respecting you as a person, valuing your
contributions, and admitting their own mistakes. These
behaviors are typical of participative managers or participative
management. The rise of participative
management emerged as OD consultants sought to apply OD’s
humane and democratic principles to management.
Likert (1977) developed a categorization of management types
and styles that helped popularize participative
management. These include:
Exploitative–authoritative: characterized by decision making
from the top with little teamwork or
communication (other than threats).
Benevolent–authoritative: characterized by a master–servant
relationship between management and
employees, in which rewards are used to motivate, with minimal
teamwork and communication.
Consultative: characterized by a relationship of trust among
management and subordinates, in which both
rewards and involvement are used to motivate and there is a
higher level of shared responsibility for
meeting goals with moderate amounts of teamwork and
communication.
Participative: characterized by managerial trust and con�idence
in employees such that goals are collectively
determined and rewarded, the responsibility for meeting
organization objectives is shared, work is
collaborative, and communication is open.
Which management de�inition typi�ies the organization(s) you
belong to? Now that you have guessed, take this

management-style quiz to �ind out.
Assessment:Management-StyleQuiz
Participative management differs from traditional authoritative
management styles that seek minimal
input from workers in running the organization and are built on
top-down management, decision making,
and communication with little lateral interaction or teamwork.
Participative managers, in contrast, engage
all levels of employees in decision making, problem solving,
and strategic planning. Participative
management techniques have been found to increase
productivity, quality, and satisfaction. OD consultants
are trained to help managers become more participative in their
managerial practice through activities
such as management development and executive coaching.
Use this Leadership Style Survey to assess your management
style:
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/survstyl.html
(http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/survstyl.html). How
would you classify it? Are you happy with it,
or do you have some work to do?
http://home.isr.umich.edu/about/history/timeline
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/survstyl.html
QualityofWorkLife(QWL)(1950s–1970s)
The quality-of-work-life (QWL) movement emerged in the
1950s and 1960s. It focused on enhancing
organizations’ sociotechnical systems by incorporating union–
management cooperation, emplo-yee involvement,
and self-directed work teams. QWL was grounded in the idea

that organizations should promote individual well-
being, team functioning, and overall organization health. The
in�lation and escalating energy costs characteristic of
the 1970s shifted QWL’s focus to global competitiveness,
productivity, and employee satisfaction and became known
as totalqualitymanagement(TQM). W. Edwards Deming is
credited with being one of TQM’s founders, although
his ideas did not develop traction in the United States until the
1980s. He was embraced in Japan much earlier.
Typical QWL–TQM activities include quality circles (groups of
employees that meet and identify process-
improvement projects), employee involvement, employee
empowerment, process improvement, team decision
making, and self-directed work teams.
TipsandWisdom
The TQM movement is alive and well today. Certi�ication in
TQM is offered by organizations such as the
American Society for Quality (http://asq.org/learn-about-
quality/total-quality-
management/overview/overview.html(http://asq.org/learn-about-
quality/total-quality-
management/overview/overview.html)) and iSix Sigma
(http://www.isixsigma.com/methodology/total-
quality-management-tqm/eight-elements-
tqm(http://www.isixsigma.com/methodology/total-quality-
management-tqm/eight-elements-tqm)). Many organizations also
apply for the Malcolm Baldrige Award,
which recognizes outstanding quality performance
(http://www.nist.gov/baldrige
(http://www.nist.gov/baldrige)). The International Organization
for Standardization provides international
standards for quality management (ISO 9000)
(http://www.iso.org/iso/home
/standards/management-standards/iso_9000.htm

(http://www.iso.org/iso/home/standards/management-
standards/iso_9000.htm)), with which many
organizations also seek to comply.
WhoInventedThat?Kaizen
Kaizen (Imai, 1986) means “improvement” or “change for the
best” in Japanese. The Kaizen principle
captures the notion of continuous improvement that became a
dominant in�luence in post–World War II
Japan and a key idea in the TQM movement. The Kaizen
principle applies to work processes, individuals,
groups, and all levels of the organization. Deming originated
the quality improvement principles that
helped Japan develop into a manufacturing powerhouse in the
United States, although they did not receive
traction in the United States until it became a competitive
necessity to improve quality in manufacturing.
OrganizationCulture(1980s)
http://asq.org/learn-about-quality/total-quality-
management/overview/overview.html
http://www.isixsigma.com/methodology/total-quality-
management-tqm/eight-elements-tqm
http://www.nist.gov/baldrige
http://www.iso.org/iso/home/standards/management-
standards/iso_9000.htm
As OD practice shifted from individuals to groups, the natural
progression was to expand that focus to the
organization itself and how it could be more effective and
ef�icient. With this shift, OD looked to the unique rules,
values, and rituals that governed the beliefs and behaviors of
organization members; that is, to the study of

organizationculture. Jacques (1951) de�ines organization
culture as
the customary or traditional ways of thinking and doing things,
which are shared to a greater or lesser extent by
all members of the organization and which new members must
learn and at least partially accept in order to be
accepted into the service of the �irm. (p. 251)
Schein (1991), a prominent culture scholar, de�ined culture as
a pattern of basic assumptions that are invented,
discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope
with its problems of adaptation to the external
environment. He suggested that when we understand culture, we
can understand how it impacts its members’
thoughts, feelings, and actions. Think of a culture you belong to
and identify some of its beliefs, activities, and
customs.
Although the issue of culture was addressed in the study of
organizations as early as the 1950s, organizational
values and culture were rarely studied systematically until the
early 1980s (Peters & Waterman, 1982). The notion
driving this shift was that organization culture needed to align
with strategy. Consider high tech as an example.
Today the culture of these companies values creativity,
innovation, and speed. Companies such as Google or Apple
demand innovation on what is often referred to as “Internet
time”—intense hours and quick turnarounds on
projects. In return for the high expectations and long hours, the
work environments are casual and cater to every
need employees might have, including grooming, eating, health
care, child care, and even pet care. This type of
culture supports these companies’ strategy of being �irst with
the most innovative products and services. In
contrast, companies focused on �inance or manufacturing have

a very different organization culture.
Every organization has a culture governed by spoken or
unspoken rules. For example, some organizations are highly
hierarchical, and it would be culturally taboo to skip rank to
raise issues with upper management. Although this
cultural rule may not be written anywhere, violating it would
result in quick correction by the culture’s members.
Culture also has artifacts that express its values and rules. The
Apple corporation’s icon represents its mantra of
“think different” and has become an iconic representation of a
culture of innovation and design. Major university
sports teams have logos and mascots that carry meaning. For
example, the mascot of the University of Georgia is the
English bulldog. This symbol holds many meanings, and people
often refer to the university as “the Bulldawg
Nation” and have a ritual of barking during kickoff at football
games.
PlannedandStrategicChange(1980s–1990s)
When you set a goal for yourself and intend to be successful,
you typically have a plan. Consider your pursuit of a
college degree. You have probably plotted your course work,
determined your time line, and sought out people and
other supports to help you succeed. Without some sort of
strategy, your chances of success are slimmer. Similarly,
organizations make plans to help achieve their goals. In OD
these steps are known as planned and strategic change.
The movement toward planned and strategic change emerged as
OD consultants recognized the importance of
linking organization change initiatives to the broader strategy
and goals of the organization.
Earlier in the chapter, OD was described as planned change. OD
interventions such as updating software, shuf�ling

managers, or introducing new procedures typically �low from
decisions to make changes that are associated with a
higher performing organization. In contrast, strategicchange
involves aligning the organization’s strategy with its
mission while accounting for technical, cultural, environmental,
social, and political systems (Beckhard & Harris,
1977). For example, the organization might reach out to its
local community regarding recycling or pollution
reduction (environmental and political strategy), adopt a new
social networking marketing campaign (technical
strategy), or make deliberate efforts to shift the organization
culture through leadership development, management
reorganization, or mergers and acquisitions (cultural strategy).
Strategic change usually follows some type of
upheaval that may be unplanned, such as a change in
government regulations, competition, new technology, or a
new leader. Such strategic disruptions have occurred on a
national scale in the United States—for example, with
health care legislation, the rapid and broad adoption of
smartphones, and the election of President Barack Obama.
OrganizationLearningandtheLearningOrganization(1990s)
OD’s concentration on culture and strategic change fueled the
interest in learning as a key lever in creating high-
performing organizations in the 1990s. The shift to learning
also parallels the rise of the knowledgesociety, the
cultural and social shift away from industrialization to an
economy based on service and intellectual work.
How an organization acquires and uses knowledge is known as
organization learning. It involves ongoing,
collaborative learning among the employees. Song, Joo, and

Chermack (2009) describe organization learning “as the
collaborative learning process of individuals . . . [the] learning
processes that transform local or individual
knowledge into collective knowledge” (p. 47). A key bene�it of
organization learning is that it can help organizations
be more competitive when they enhance their capacity to create,
share, and preserve knowledge.
When organizations attempt to use learning as a strategic
advantage and create infrastructure and interventions to
do so, they are striving to become a learningorganization. This
concept was popularized by Peter Senge’s 1990
book The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning
Organization. Senge (1990) de�ined learning
organizations as “organizations where people continually
expand their capacity to create the results they truly
desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are
nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free and where
people are continually learning how to learn together” (p. 56).
Watkins and Marsick (1993) suggested “a learning
organization is one that learns continuously and can transform
itself ” (p. 8). They developed the Dimensions of the
Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ), which measures
learning organization capacity in seven areas:
1. Continuous learning: Opportunities for ongoing education
and growth are available, and learning is built
into the work itself to promote on-the-job learning.
2. Inquiry and dialogue: The organization culture is built around
developing the capacity to listen and inquire
into the assumptions and perspectives of others. Questioning
and feedback are welcome behaviors.
3. Team learning: Teams are expected to learn and create new
knowledge together.

4. Embedded system: Systems to capture and share learning
exist and are integrated with work and available
for employees to access.
5. Empowerment: Organization members are involved in
creating and implementing a shared vision and share
responsibility for attaining it.
6. System connection: The organization is connected to its
broader communities.
7. Strategic leadership: The leaders are committed to using
learning as a business strategy and support
learning efforts.
You can take the assessment below to evaluate your
organization’s readiness to become a learning organization.
Assessment:DimensionsoftheLearningOrganizationQuestionnair
e
Take the DLOQ to see if your organization is a learning
organization at this site:
http://www.partnersforlearning.com/instructions.html
(http://www.partnersforlearning.com/instructions.html).
A simple way to think about the difference between
organization learning and a learning organization is
that organization learning describes how an organization learns.
A learning organization is what an
organization does to strategically leverage organization learning
to improve performance and outcomes.
http://www.partnersforlearning.com/instructions.html

ContemporaryTrends(2000s)
“Organization effectiveness” and “employee engagement” are
the newest buzzwords on the OD scene. Both terms
have gained prominence only in the last decade.
Anderson (2012) explains that the idea of
organizationeffectiveness is not notably different from
organization
development and that it was part of Beckhard’s (1969) classic
de�inition. However, the shift may be away from
development, which some viewed as a “soft” term, and more
toward more practical efforts to quantify OD activities
and outcomes. Nevertheless, former PepsiCo chair Roger Enrico
is noted for saying, “The soft stuff is always harder
than the hard stuff ” (as cited in LeadershipNow, n.d.), meaning
that working on “soft” human relations issues such
as communication, leadership, team cohesion, con�lict
resolution, and the like are much more challenging than
repairing “hard” problems related to machinery, correcting
defects, and analyzing organizations’ �inancial waste.
To learn about the essentials of an effective organization and
how they relate to productivity, Haid, Schroeder-
Saulnier, Sims, and Wang (2010) conducted a global study of
nearly 29,000 employees from 10 major industry
sectors in 15 countries in the Americas, Europe, and
AsiaPaci�ic. Review the report “Organization Effectiveness:
Discovering How to Make it Happen” at
http://www.right.com/thought-
leadership/research/organizational-
effectiveness -discovering-how-to-make-it-happen.pdf
(http://www.right.com/thought-
leadership/research/organizational-effectiveness-discovering-
how-to-make-it-happen.pdf).

Interventions that promote employee involvement and
satisfaction are collectively known as employee
engagement. This trend may harken back to the employee
involvement and empowerment initiatives that were
characteristic of QWL/TQM programs in the 1980s. Anderson
(2012) noted that this return to individual concerns
may be a measure to counteract the emergence of organization
effectiveness. Noting that organization effectiveness
and employee engagement may be too young to gauge as true
OD trends, Anderson (2012) observed that they are
receiving attention in practice, if not research.
The interventions pro�iled in this section have traced OD from
its beginnings in the 1940s with T-groups focusing on
individual behavior and accountability, to strategic
interventions focusing on the organizational system’s
effectiveness and health. OD is both change oriented and
learning oriented, and each of these innovations has
advanced organization practices and policies.
Now that you have a better sense of what OD involves, you may
be wondering who implements it. The next section
explores the values, competencies, and ethics of the OD
consultant.
TakeAway1.2:HistoryofOD
Historically, OD evolved from T-groups that focused on
individual interventions to more systemic
and strategic interventions that target overall organization
health and functioning.
OD has helped us understand organizations as sociotechnical
entities in which the social and
technical systems affect and are affected by each other.
OD has been instrumental in making the workplace more
humane with its advocacy of

participative management, quality of work life, and total quality
management.
OD contributed some key tools to organizations during the 20th
century, including the �lip chart,
Likert scale, action research model, and survey feedback.
Contemporary OD seeks to be more strategic and to foster
learning, organization effectiveness,
and employee engagement.
http://www.right.com/thought-
leadership/research/organizational-effectiveness-discovering-
how-to-make-it-happen.pdf
GreatStock/Corbis
ODpractitionerscollaboratewithclientsto
planandimplementchange.Theycanbe
eitherinternalorexternaltothe
organization.
1.3BecominganODConsultant
If you are excited about what you are reading or perhaps are
already involved in change efforts at work, you might
be interested in pursuing a career in OD. Even if this is not the
�ield for you, awareness of OD can help you
participate more effectively in an organizational intervention or
prompt you to decide to talk to an OD consultant to
facilitate organization change. This section describes OD
consultants and identi�ies the values, ethics, and
competencies needed for effective practice as well as
professional communities.
TipsandWisdom
Advanced graduate training is recommended for those interested

in pursuing a career as an OD consultant.
There are several outstanding graduate programs in OD and
human resource development that can
provide this specialized training. The Academy of Resource
Development maintains a comprehensive
listing of graduate programs in this area. See http://www.hrd-
directory.org(http://www.hrd-
directory.org).
WhoIstheODConsultant?
There are at least three types of OD consultants (Cummings &
Worley, 2009):
The �irst type includes internal or external consultants.
Internal consultants are employed by the organization as
permanent employees. External consultants are not
members of the organization and are hired on a temporary
basis. OD consultants typically have advanced training in
the �ield, ascribe to humanistic values, and have expertise
in group dynamics, facilitation, decision making, coaching,
leadership, and other social process areas.
The second type are often management consultants
working in content-oriented �ields related to OD, such as
total quality, organization design, reward systems,
information technology, or business strategy (Cummings &
Worley). They work in conjunction with OD consultants to
implement interventions.
The third type includes managers who apply OD to their
own functional areas. Although they may not be formally
trained in OD, their organizations provide training, and
they gain experience from interventions they are
responsible for managing. This manager-as-OD-
practitioner is on the rise as organizations attempt to
rapidly implement change. Managers often build this
expertise by working with OD consultants in ongoing

change programs in their organizations.
http://www.hrd-directory.org/
Cummings and Worley (2009) note that the distinctions between
these three types of OD consultants are blurring.
See the Tips and Wisdom in this section for advice on pursuing
an OD career.
ODValuesandEthics
Humanism has already been introduced as an underlying
philosophy of OD. People who embrace humanism seek to
trust and respect others and help them develop and grow. They
also value democracy, equity, and fair treatment. In
OD this translates into creating healthy, equitable, af�irming
organizations for all members.
Anderson (2012) translated OD’s history of humanism into
modern-day values that include
1. participation, involvement, and empowerment;
2. groups and teams;
3. growth, development, and learning;
4. valuing the whole person;
5. dialogue and collaboration; and
6. authenticity, openness, and trust.
Each will be discussed in the following sections.
Participation,Involvement,andEmpowerment
OD is not about consultants prescribing change in isolation.
Rather, it is a collaborative, democratic partnership in
which organization members have input throughout the process

and co-own the change. This value re�lects an
understanding that changes only endure when system members
have involvement and say in the changes chosen
(Schein, 1990). That is why interventions that promote
organization members’ participation, involvement, and
empowerment are so highly valued in OD. Examples of these
types of interventions include participative
management, T-groups, survey feedback, quality of work life,
and learning organizations.
GroupsandTeams
An organization relies on groups and teams to do its work.
Groups and teams are often the focus of OD
interventions. Beckhard (1969) emphasized that “the basic
building blocks of an organization are groups (teams)”
(p. 26). A key competency for OD practitioners is to understand
group dynamics and strategies for facilitating group
process. High-performing groups and teams are built on
productive relationships among members, high levels of
communication, clearly de�ined roles, speci�ic goals, the
ability to resolve con�lict, and recognition for goal
attainment. When groups and teams are high performing, they
create great results for the organization.
Growth,Development,andLearning
“Perhaps the value that differentiates organization development
from most other management and consulting work
is its emphasis on growth, development, and learning”
(Anderson, 2012, p. 42). This value is also in sync with the
reality that adults are continually learning, developing, and
changing throughout their lives (Merriam & Bierema,
2014). A signi�icant amount of adult learning happens in the
workplace, whether it is formal education in a �ield
such as accounting, formal training on how to use computer

software, informal learning where workers observe or
ask coworkers how something is done, or incidental learning
that is a byproduct of something else (for instance, one
might observe interpersonal dynamics between colleagues
during a meeting and conclude they do not like each
other). Valuing growth, development, and learning also �its
with OD’s humanistic philosophy that through learning
and development we can turn around nonperforming individuals
and teams; learn what is preventing optimal
performance; and create organizations that promote, rather than
impede, learning.
ValuingtheWholePerson
Consider yourself. You probably have a job title, but this is not
the totality of who you are. In addition to that, you
have roles, hobbies, interests, and relationships outside work.
Sometimes in organization life we typecast people
based on their positions and fail to consider their input or
interest in issues beyond the scope of their job. For
example, a secretary might be heavily involved in community
service, serving on nonpro�it boards, holding key
leadership roles, facilitating meetings, and leading strategic
planning. These experiences could provide valuable
insights to her organization, yet when it comes to setting
organization strategy, no one thinks to engage her because
she is a secretary. Valuing the whole person means seeing
organization members as people, not positions. It involves
treating people with respect and inviting their participation. It
also incorporates creating an environment that
values diversity and inclusion—one where people feel welcome
and valued regardless of age, race, gender, class,
national origin, sexual orientation, ethnicity, religion, physical
ability, and so forth.

DialogueandCollaboration
“A key value in organization development is the creation of
healthy environments that promote collaboration rather
than competition, with the assumption that a win–win solution
is both possible and more desirable than con�lict”
(Anderson, 2012, p. 44). How individuals and groups
communicate with each other has a signi�icant impact on
whether collaboration is possible. Our cultural communication
pattern in the United States is debate centered. That
is, people often take a win–lose stance in conversations. The
exchange is not about creating meaning or
understanding, but rather about swaying the other person to
your way of thinking. This type of advocacy-based
conversation is known as discussion (Ellinor & Gerard, 1998;
Senge, 1990). Discussion is not necessarily bad, since
advocating ideas is necessary for us to make decisions. Where it
breaks down is when an advocacy stance is the only
mode of discourse used. All you need to do is turn on talk radio
or television to see daily—if not hourly—examples
of this highly confrontational, negative, nonproductive form of
discourse at its extreme. Sadly, it has become the
default way of communicating in many social settings,
including organizations.
An alternative form of discourse is one in which you do not
seek to prove your views as right or superior, but rather
to understand differing, perhaps contradictory viewpoints. This
is known as dialogue, or inquiry-based
communication. To effectively dialogue, you must suspend
judgment of various viewpoints, identify your
assumptions, truly listen to others, and practice inquiry and
re�lection (Ellinor & Gerard, 1998). When we dialogue,
rather than trying to determine who has the right answer, we
usually generate new meanings and ways of thinking

no one had thought of previously. OD practitioners must
become experts at dialogue because it effectively invites the
client into the conversation. Rarely should an OD practitioner
give clients the answer or tell them what to do.
Instead, the consultant might say: “What is not working?”
“What is one thing we could do today to begin addressing
the problem?” “What I hear you saying is . . .” “Would you say
more about that?”
Learning how to dialogue is important for implementing
effective philosophy and practicing OD because it helps
build collaborative relationships and bridge understanding. It
also builds knowledge and tolerance since it is based
on inquiry rather than advocacy and explores new ideas.
Discussion is useful when the group is ready to make a
decision—ideally after the group or organization has done its
best thinking and meaning making—through
dialogue. The key is to �ind ways to better balance the use of
discussion and dialogue.
Authenticity,Openness,andTrust
Authentic behavior with a client means you put into words what
you are experiencing with the client as you
work. Thisisthemostpowerfulthingyoucandotohavetheleverage
you are looking for and to build client
commitment.(Block, 1999, p. 37)
Authenticity as an OD practitioner involves candidly sharing
observations or asking questions of clients without
alienating them. Being authentic means sharing honest feedback
with the client in a way that saves face. Valuing
authenticity, openness, and trust enables OD practitioners to

identify the “elephant in the room” in a tactful and
respectful manner.
A consultant once worked with a very command-and-control
president whom most employees feared. She found
herself greatly affected by his mood. In one of their meetings,
he shared that he was perplexed about how to better
motivate his workforce. She looked at him and said, “You
know, I think you should just try smiling for a change and
see what kind of results you get.” The president was furious at
the “frivolous” suggestion and threw her out of his
of�ice. Nonetheless, after about 3 weeks, he called the
consultant back and admitted, “You were right.” He could not
believe the effect a visible change in his demeanor had on his
employees. The consultant in this story risked being
authentic with the client and in the end was able to have a
profound in�luence on him when he realized his effect on
the organization. When OD practitioners are successful with
authenticity, clients become more open and trust the
relationship. See the Tips and Wisdom in this section to see
how other OD consultants use smiling as an
intervention.
TipsandWisdom
5 Reasons to Smile More as a Leader
1. It helps others relax.
2. It draws people to you.
3. It enables you to connect.
4. It creates positive culture.
5. It elevates your mood.
For more on these reasons, visit http://us2.campaign-
archive1.com/?
u=52d5c7778a3adfda535c3b349&id=da7bef9cf2&e=6302681a5f

(http://us2.campaign-archive1.com/?
u=52d5c7778a3adfda535c3b349&id=da7bef9cf2&e=6302681a5f
).
ODCodeofEthics
OD practitioners abide by the International Society for
Organization Development and Change’s code of ethics. They
are available at: http://www.isodc.org/resources/Pictures
/CodeofEthics.pdf
(http://www.isodc.org/resources/Pictures/CodeofEthics.pdf).
OD’s humanistic orientation is evident throughout this code, in
its emphasis on quality of life, health, justice, dignity,
win–win outcomes, holistic perspectives, and participative
decision making. What aspects of the OD code of ethics
resonate with you? How well are you living up to this code?
How well is your organization living up to this code?
CompetenciesofODPractitioners
“A consultant is one who provides help, counsel, advice, and
support, which implies that such a person is wiser than
most people” (Burke, 1992, p. 173). According to Cummings
and Worley (2009), OD consultants need the following
foundational competencies to be effective at OD. Foundational
competencies represent the theoretical knowledge
that is helpful when doing OD work. This theoretical knowledge
includes an understanding of the following:
organizational behavior,
individual psychology,
http://us2.campaign-
archive1.com/?u=52d5c7778a3adfda535c3b349&id=da7bef9cf2
&e=6302681a5f

http://www.isodc.org/resources/Pictures/CodeofEthics.pdf
group dynamics,
management and organization theory,
research methods and statistics,
comparative cultural perspectives, and
functional knowledge of business.
Beyond this theoretical knowledge is a host of competencies
related to facilitating an OD process and engaging with
your client interpersonally. The Organization Development
Network has provided a comprehensive list of OD
competencies on its website
(http://www.odnetwork.org/?page=ODCompetencies(http://www
.odnetwork.org/?
page=ODCompetencies) ). You can download a PDF of the list
here:
http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.odnetwork.org/resource/resmgr/d
ocs/od_competencies.pdf
(http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.odnetwork.org/resource/resmgr/
docs/od_competencies.pdf).
The list includes 16 areas with 141 competencies that make OD
practitioners effective. The 16 areas include the
following:
1. Marketing services as an OD practitioner or consultant.
2. Enrolling the client by building trust.
3. Contracting with the client to establish the boundaries of the
consulting relationship.
4. Conducting a mini-assessment to clarify issues, pinpoint
biases, and identify power relations.
5. Diagnosing the root problem using a process of data
collection and analysis.
6. Sharing feedback of the data analysis with the client.

7. Planning the appropriate intervention based on data analysis
and feedback.
8. Facilitating participation of key stakeholders in the decision
making and implementation of the intervention.
9. Implementing the intervention to address the root problem.
10. Conducting evaluation to assess whether the intervention
effectively solved the problem.
11. Followingup with the organization to monitor and adjust the
changes made as a result of the intervention.
12. Monitoring the client’s adoption of the changes.
13. Facilitating the separation of the consultant from the
organization (promoting client independence).
14. Developing and enhancing self-awareness to ensure you are
functioning at a high level of mental, physical,
spiritual, and intellectual health.
15. Honing your interpersonalskills in a way that makes you a
role model to the client due to building trust with,
listening to, and respecting others.
16. Managing other areas of OD competency that build cultural
sensitivity, technical competence, and ongoing
learning to stay current and relevant as an OD practitioner.
You may be thinking that this is a formidable list! The array of
technical, diagnostic, and interpersonal skills is
somewhat daunting and requires those who practice OD to
engage in continuous learning, growth, and
development. This ongoing self-improvement helps us develop
into leaders and role models our clients want to
listen to and emulate. These core competencies will be examine
in more detail later in this book.
Burke (1992) states that having foundational and core

competency is necessary but not suf�icient to do OD. He adds
important interpersonal competencies for effective practice.
These include:
Tolerating ambiguity. There are no recipes for OD because
every organization and problem is unique and
requires a customized solution.
In�luencing the client. Consultants rarely have formal
organizational power to implement interventions,
making persuasive skills imperative. Block (1999) eloquently
summed up the life of a consultant as having
in�luence without power.
Being direct. As discussed in the authenticity section, this
requires confronting dif�icult issues that no one
wants to raise.
Providing support. Clients need support as they encounter
challenges related to change, such as con�lict,
resistance, or stress.
http://www.odnetwork.org/?page=ODCompetencies
http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.odnetwork.org/resource/resmgr/d
ocs/od_competencies.pdf
Controlling your own emotions. Your presence, behaviors, and
comments signi�icantly impact the client and
organization. Remember to behave calmly and respectfully.
Recognizing and using teachable moments. OD is a learning
process for the client, so it is important to
recognize and use teachable moments as they arise.
Maintaining a sense of humor. Consulting work can be
challenging and stressful, so humor is a good tension
breaker.
Executive presence. This means exuding self-con�idence,
interpersonal savvy, and a sense of mission about
your work.

ProfessionalCommunities
Now that we have reviewed the types of OD practitioners and
their values, ethics, and competencies, let us examine
the professional community of OD. Organizations where OD
professionals can network with each other include:
International Society for Organization Development and Change
http://www.isodc.org(http://www.isodc.org)
Organization Development Network
http://www.odnetwork.org(http://www.odnetwork.org)
These organizations have conferences, training, journals and
newsletters, and other resources to support OD
practitioners.
Journals dedicated to advancing both research and practice of
OD include:
HumanResourceDevelopmentInternational
http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rhrd20/current#.UemsUGkS75h
(http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rhrd20/current#.UemsUGkS75
h)
HumanResourceDevelopmentQuarterly
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1532–
1096
(http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1532-
1096)

Leadership&OrganizationDevelopmentJournal
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/products/journals/journals.htm?
id=lodj
(http://www.emeraldinsight.com/products/journals/journals.htm
?id=lodj)
OrganizationalDynamics
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-
dynamics(http://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-
dynamics)
Being an OD practitioner demands the best of you—to be a role
model of change, behave humanistically, collaborate,
and be versed in OD’s content and process. We will go into
more depth about this dynamic and exciting �ield in the
next chapters.
TakeAway1.3:BecominganODConsultant
http://www.isodc.org/
http://www.odnetwork.org/
http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rhrd20/current#.UemsUGkS75h
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1532-
1096
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/products/journals/journals.htm?
id=lodj
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-dynamics
OD can be practiced on multiple levels, including participating
in a process in the course of your
work life, managing a function in which OD is applied,
assisting an OD process with specialized
knowledge, or working as an OD consultant.

OD’s values and ethics are grounded in its humanistic
philosophy and include participative
management, teamwork, continuous learning, collaboration, and
a spirit of authenticity and
openness.
Being an OD practitioner or consultant involves developing
book knowledge of OD foundations and
theory, as well as process knowledge that will help the
practitioner be a high-functioning role
model for leadership and organization innovation.
SummaryandResources
ChapterSummary
People constantly experience both planned and unplanned
change in the course of their personal and work
lives.
OD is a planned change effort that is supported by management
and applied system-wide to increase
organization effectiveness and health. It uses interventions
targeted at organization challenges or problems.
OD is practiced by individuals known as OD consultants. They
help the organization cope with and respond
to change and work with the key organizational stakeholder or
client to resolve problems.
OD is grounded in the philosophy of humanism that assumes
human goodness and seeks to do no harm to
the individuals or their organizations when making changes.
Key characteristics of OD include: it is systems-based, top
management is committed, the intervention is tied
to the organization’s mission, there is a long-term commitment
to implementing the intervention, there is a
bias for action, it focuses on changing attitudes or behavior, it
tends to incorporate experiential learning, and

it is largely a group process.
Historically, OD evolved from T-groups that focused on
individual interventions to more systemic and
strategic interventions that target overall organization health
and functioning.
OD regarded organizations as sociotechnical entities in which
the social and technical systems affect and are
affected by each other.
OD has been instrumental in making the workplace more
humane with its advocacy of participative
management, quality of work life, and total quality
management.
OD contributed some key tools to organizations during the 20th
century, including the �lip chart, Likert
scale, action research, and survey feedback.
Contemporary OD seeks to be more strategic and foster
learning, organization effectiveness, and employee
engagement.
OD can be practiced on multiple levels, from participating in a
process in the course of your work life,
managing a function where OD is applied, assisting an OD
process with specialized knowledge, or working
as an OD consultant.
OD’s values and ethics are grounded in its humanistic
philosophy and include participative management,
teamwork, continuous learning, collaboration, and a spirit of
authenticity and openness.
Being an OD practitioner or consultant involves developing
book knowledge of OD foundations and theory,
as well as process knowledge that will help the practitioner be a
high-functioning role model for leadership
and organization innovation.
ThinkAboutIt!Re�lectiveExercisestoEnhanceYourLearning
1. Describe your own work setting. How humanistic is it?
2. Lewin was famous for saying, “If you want truly to

understand something, try to change it” (as cited in Neill,
2004). What does this statement mean to you? How does it
relate to a change you have attempted to make?
3. What situations in your current work experience would be
enhanced by an OD process, or what has been
your experience with OD?
4. Where have you observed a humanistic philosophy in action?
How would you rate your organization in
terms of humanism?
5. What OD interventions pro�iled in this chapter have you
experienced?
6. How will knowledge of OD help you in your current or future
career?
ApplyYourLearning:ActivitiesandExperiencestoBringODtoLife
1. Identify your educational philosophy by taking the
Philosophy of Adult Education Inventory located at
http://ctl810.wikispaces.com/�ile/view/paei.tex.pdf(http://ctl81
0.wikispaces.com/�ile/view/paei.tex.pdf).
What is your dominant orientation? (Note: You might have
more than one dominant philosophy.)
2. Conduct a web search of the historical �igures of OD noted
in this chapter, such as Kurt Lewin, Richard
Beckhard, Rensis Likert, Peter Senge, or Karen Watkins.
a. Identify their key philosophy.
b. Note their key contributions to OD.
3. Return to the Sparklite case study and revisit your answers to
the questions.

a. How are they different now that you have completed the
chapter?
b. If you were an OD consultant hired to help the employees,
what would be your �irst steps? (You may want
to return to your answers after you have �inished reading the
entire book.)
c. Think of questions you would like to ask the employees.
4. Visit a website like Monster or Indeed and conduct a search
on OD jobs. This will be valuable information if
you plan to seek a career in OD. Scan the job descriptions and
note:
a. job titles
b. key training, skills, and competencies that regularly pop up
in the postings
c. salaries
d. types of organizations
e. other interests you may have
5. Identify two OD practitioners in two different organizations
and interview them about their role. Ask them
to describe:
a. their training and preparation
b. their career history
c. OD interventions they are proud of and what characterized
them
d. mistakes they have made
e. advice they would give new entrants to the �ield
6. Attend a local OD professional meeting. The Organization
Development Network has local chapters in major
metropolitan areas.
a. What did you learn about the �ield? Its practitioners?
b. Follow up with someone you met at the meeting and conduct
an informational interview.

7. Attend a national meeting of an OD organization.
a. What key trends did you notice?
b. What did you learn from the attendees (insights,
introductions, and so forth)?
8. Write a review of an article from one of the OD journals
listed in this chapter.
a. Consider how you might apply the ideas listed in the article.
b. Identify your critiques of the article.
9. Identify and evaluate OD interventions you have experienced
in your organization.
10. Review the list of competencies for OD practice. Which
ones do you have experience with? Which ones do
you want to develop?
AdditionalResources
Media
FiveWaystoBuildaResilientOrganization
http://youtu.be/DMEodKZCNmg(http://youtu.be/DMEodKZCN
mg)
IndustryAtlas:ThePursuitofHappiness
http://youtu.be/N4WMoegOuHY(http://youtu.be/N4WMoegOuH
Y)
WebLinks
http://ctl810.wikispaces.com/file/view/paei.tex.pdf
http://youtu.be/DMEodKZCNmg
http://youtu.be/N4WMoegOuHY

Philosophical Re�lections on Change Inspired by Heraclitus
http://www.thedailyphilosopher.org/daily/000011.php(http://ww
w.thedailyphilosopher.org/daily/000011.php)
International Organization Development Association, an
international network of OD professionals, consultants,
practitioners and social scientists.
http://www.iodanet.org/(http://www.iodanet.org/)
Organization Development, consultant Don Clark’s site
containing information and knowledge on performance,
learning, training, and leadership.
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_management/od.html
(http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_management/od.htm
l)
Action Research and Action Learning, by Australian consultant
Bob Dick.
http://www.aral.com.au(http://www.aral.com.au)
ActionResearchInternational, a refereed online journal of action
research.
http://www.aral.com.au/ari/arihome.html(http://www.aral.com.a
u/ari/arihome.html)
Canadian Journal of Action Research, a freely accessible, full-
text, peer-reviewed electronic journal intended for
elementary, secondary, and university teachers who are
concerned with exploring the unity between educational
research and practice.

http://cjar.nipissingu.ca/index.php/cjar(http://cjar.nipissingu.ca/
index.php/cjar)
Organisation Development: The Ultimate Practitioners Guide
for All Things OD, by consultant Carrie Foster.
http://organisationdevelopment.org(http://organisationdevelopm
ent.org)
Learn more about Kurt Lewin, Rensis Likert, and action
research at these links:
http://infed.org/mobi/kurt-lewin-groups-experiential-learning-
and-action-research
(http://infed.org/mobi/kurt-lewin-groups-experiential-learning-
and-action-research)
http://infed.org/mobi/action-
research(http://infed.org/mobi/action-research)
To learn about employee motivation and survey research, see:
http://www.businessballs.com/employeemotivation.htm(http://w
ww.businessballs.com/employeemotivation.htm)
To learn more about organization culture, see the Free
Management Library’s resources on the topic:
http://managementhelp.org/organizations/culture.htm(http://man
agementhelp.org/organizations/culture.htm)
The Tavistock Institute of Human Relations (TIHR), which
applies social science to contemporary issues and
problems. The Institute is engaged with evaluation and action
research, organizational development and change

consultancy, executive coaching and professional development,
with the goal of supporting sustainable change and
ongoing learning.
http://www.tavinstitute.org(http://www.tavinstitute.org)
Refer to Infed for a good overview of organization learning:
http://www.thedailyphilosopher.org/daily/000011.php
http://www.iodanet.org/
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_management/od.html
http://www.aral.com.au/
http://www.aral.com.au/ari/arihome.html
http://cjar.nipissingu.ca/index.php/cjar
http://organisationdevelopment.org/
http://infed.org/mobi/kurt-lewin-groups-experiential-learning-
and-action-research
http://infed.org/mobi/action-research
http://www.businessballs.com/employeemotivation.htm
http://managementhelp.org/organizations/culture.htm
http://www.tavinstitute.org/
http://infed.org/mobi/learning-in-organizations-theory-and-
practice (http://infed.org/mobi/learning-in-
organizations-theory-and-practice)
KeyTerms
actionresearch
authenticity
client
dialogue

discussion
employeeengagement
humanism
intervention
knowledgesociety
learningorganization
Likertscale
organizationculture
organizationdevelopment(OD)
organizationdevelopmentconsultant
organizationeffectiveness
organizationlearning
participativemanagement
plannedchange
qualityofworklife(QWL)
sociotechnicalsystem
strategicchange
surveyfeedback

T-group
totalqualitymanagement(TQM)
http://infed.org/mobi/learning-in-organizations-theory-and-
practice
2 Organization Change
LornaWilson/Taxi/GettyImages
LearningObjectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Categorize change according to rate of occurrence, how it
comes about, and scale.
Provide examples of personal and organizational interventions
that represent developmental,
transitional, and transformational change; �irst- and second-
order change; and operational and
strategic change.
Discuss the systems approach to change.
Describe three levels of change, including individual, group or
team, and organization or system.
Compare and contrast �ive models of organization change.
ScottAnderson/TheJournalTimes/AP

BlockbusterVideofailedtoanticipate
changeandcouldnotcompetewith
Net�lixandotherdigitalmovie
sources.
Writedownthenamesof�ivehighlysuccessfulcompaniestodaythat
werejustasdominant25yearsago.Areyouable
tothinkof�ive?Companies,likelivingorganisms,tendtohavealimit
edlifespan.Veryfewremaincompetitiveformore
thanadecadeortwo.Instead,asNewman(2010)pointedout,companie
stendtolosetheiredgebecausetheyfailto
innovateandchange.Asheputit,theybecomeobsessedwithcompetin
ginthepresentandlosesightofthefuture.
Newmanlisted10examples:Blockbuster,Dell,EastmanKodak,
Motorola, Microsoft, Sears, Sony, Sun Microsystems,
Toys“R”Us,andYahoo.Youcanprobablythinkofothers.Letuslooka
tacoupleoftheseexamples.
BlockbustereasilytransitionedfromVHStoDVDformatsbutfailedt
oanticipatethatcontentwouldbecomeavailable
viamail,vendingmachinerentals,videoondemand,andvideostreami
ng.CompaniessuchasNet�lixandRedboxdid
anticipateandadapttothistrend,however.Blockbusterbecameobsol
ete,closinghundredsof stores, accumulating
debt,andstrugglingtoregainitscompetitiveedge.
EastmanKodakdominatedthecommercializedcameraindustryforne
arly
a century, with innovations such as the Brownie camera in 1900,
Kodachrome color �ilm, the handheld movie camera, and the
easy-load
Instamaticcamera.Inspiteofsuchinnovation,Kodakfailedtoanticip
ate
theadventofdigital photography. Today most of us use our cell
phone,
iPad,digitalcamera,andavarietyofappsandwebsitestotake,store,alt

er,
print,andsharephotos.LikeBlockbuster,Kodakstruggledtoinnovat
ewith
foraysintopharmaceuticals,memorychips,healthcareimaging,docu
ment
management,andmanyother�ields.Unfortunately,theseventuresdi
dnot
restorethecompany’spro�itability.In January 2012 the New
York Stock
Exchange (NYSE) suspended trading of Kodak stock following
the
company’sannouncementthatKodakanditsU.S.subsidiarieshad�il
edfor
Chapter11reorganization.InFebruary2012theNYSEremovedtheen
tire
classofthecompany’scommonstockfromitslistingandregistration.
Itischallengingtoconvinceanorganizationtochange,particularlyw
hen
thingsaregoingwell,asthingsdidformany years for both
Blockbuster
andKodak.Evenwhencompaniesrecognizetheneedforchange,thepr
ocessiscomplexandchallenging,and most
effortsdonotsucceed.Infact,changeoftenfailstomeetitsintendedout
comes(Grif�ith,2002;Kogetsidis,2012;Self,
Armenakis,&Schraeder,2007).Some have estimated that 50% of
all change efforts fail (Quinn, 2011, and others
estimatethefailurerateevenhigher,atnearly70%(Balogun&HopeH
ailey,2004;Burnes&Jackson,2011;Higgs&
Rowland,2000).Simplyput,organizationsarenotverygoodatplanni
ngandimplementingchange.
Thepurposeofthischapteristoexploreorganizationchange.Wewilli
dentifyavarietyoftypesofchange,discussthe
systemsapproachtochange,examinelevels of change, and

compare and contrast change models. Let us begin by
consideringthenatureofchange.
2.1TheNatureofOrganizationChange
Change is the alteration or complete transformation of people,
processes, products, and places. As you know from
your own experience, change may be impermanent, transitional,
and even reversible (such as moving to a new city,
then perhaps moving home again) or permanent and
transformational (such as getting a college degree or
experiencing the death of a loved one). Organizations, too,
experience changes that can be subtle or
transformational, temporary or permanent. Managing change
effectively is considered a core competence of
successful organizations (Burnes, 2004).
ThreeCategoriesofChange
There are several ways to classify change. Cao, Clarke, and
Lehaney (2004) suggested change may be according to
organizational function, process, culture, or power distribution.
Senior (2002) took a different approach, organizing
types of change according to three categories: (a) rate of
occurrence, (b) how it comes about, and (c) scale.
RateofOccurrence
Change happens at varying paces. Often it is discontinuous and
episodic. There is only one event or episode of change
that makes a signi�icant break from what has gone on before.
Examples of discontinuous or episodic change might
include a natural disaster, economic cycles of recession and
expansion, or something more personal like the onset of

illness or a one-time change in work.
The opposite of discontinuous or episodic change is continuous
change—an ongoing process of shifts that can lead
to signi�icant alterations over time. People experience
continuous change with technological innovations. Just a few
years ago, the idea of a smartphone seemed far-fetched, yet
today they are widely owned. Continuous change is also
prevalent in health care, where new drugs and treatments have
prolonged life—at least in industrialized countries.
HowChangeComesAbout
Another way of describing change is the way in which it occurs.
Planning is one way that change comes about,
particularly in OD. Change can also be unexpected, without
planning. This might also be considered evolutionary
change, which happens gradually and amounts to substantial
shifts over time. Organizations may be involved in
continuous improvement projects that gradually result in the
adoption of new technologies and improved
management practices such as participative management or
organization learning.
Change may also come about due to contingency—when
organizations are forced to respond to unique,
unanticipated variables that require special action and changes.
For example, lacking a necessary raw material
might require emergency alterations to product design. Another
way change comes about is via choice.
Organizations can choose what changes to make, such as
deliberately deciding to change their leadership style.
ChangeAccordingtoScale
The scale of change ranges from moderate ongoing changes at a

department level to wholesale transformation of the
organization culture. Revolutionary change, although much less
common than evolutionary change, represents a
shock to the system that alters it permanently. The terrorist
attacks of September 11, 2001, created revolutionary
change in Americans’ national identity and sense of safety, as
well as signi�icant changes in air travel. Another
revolutionary change was the economic downturn of 2008 and
its consequences. These changes forced both
individuals and organizations to adapt.
©JohnHarper/Corbis
Applewasabletotransformitselfintoone
ofthemostimportanttechnology
innovatorsofourtime.
Developmental,Transitional,andTransformationalChange
Change is one of those words that serves as a melting pot for
scores of concepts and methods. Like the Inuit
expression for snow (of which there are 20 or more shades of
meaning), change means many different things to
us. (Ackerman, 1997, p. 45)
Ackerman (1986) characterized change as developmental,
transitional, or transformational. Developmental
change is the growth and learning people experience as they
acquire new skills, manage relationships, and take on
new challenges. This type of change might involve problem
solving, work assignments, con�lict resolution, group
dynamics, team building, meeting management, role
negotiation, survey feedback, or training.
When people make incremental steps toward a preferred status

over a speci�ied period, they are making a
transitionalchange. Transitional change includes increasingly
using a device like a smartphone or gradually
reducing calorie intake in order to lose weight. On an
organization level, transitional change might occur through
reorganization, technology integration, new product
development, mergers or acquisitions, or globalization.
Transitional change seeks to accommodate the new state while
maintaining functionality during the conversion.
Employees usually view this change as a disruption in standard
operating procedures. For example, a large public
university recently switched the platform for its online courses.
The change began with an informational campaign.
Then, over two semesters, faculty could volunteer to be early
adopters of the technology. During this phase the early
adopters provided feedback to the information technology
department to help the entire organization fully
transition to this new technology. This strategy enabled the
university to continue to deliver online learning in both
the old and new formats while the technology was still in
development. The entire university was then able to
change to the new platform the following year.
A change that revolutionizes the organization and the ways its
members think and act is known as
transformationalchange. Transformational change is generally
not reversible, because processes, behaviors, or
beliefs become fundamentally different from those that
characterized the previous state. Transformational change
may be due to crisis, leadership transitions, culture or strategy
alterations, dramatic shifts in markets, or executive
coaching.
Some companies have managed to transform themselves and
stand

the test of time. IBM transformed from a mainframe computer
company into one that makes software, personal computers, and
storage solutions. Apple started as a transformational company:
In
a market dominated by large, unsightly computers with complex
software and awkward user interfaces, it introduced small, user-
friendly Macintosh computers with aesthetically pleasing
designs.
Apple gained an ardent fan base, but as its competition caught
on, it
almost faded into obscurity. Then, under the leadership of Steve
Jobs, the company underwent a series of transformational
changes
that transformed our relationship with personal digital assistants
via the iPad, iPhone, and iPod. Transformational change usually
requires a charismatic leader who inspires others with a vision
to
achieve the desired change and willingness to take risk.
First-andSecond-OrderChange
Change in OD has been historically classi�ied as �irst order
and second order. When individuals simply alter the
intensity, frequency, or duration of a behavior but otherwise
continue doing more or less what they have already
been doing, they are making a �irst-orderchange. For instance,
Jordan might decide to increase his exercise
CathyKeifer/iStock/Thinkstock
Justasacaterpillartransformsintoa
butter�ly,sotooissecond-order
changeanirreversibleprocessthat
alterswaysofbeing.

sessions from once to twice a week. Or a management team
might decide to communicate monthly instead of
quarterly about organization issues.
First-order change is considered easy to implement and readily
reversible. It does not require new learning, so it is
usually impermanent. Jordan might decide to go back to once-
weekly exercise sessions or to slack off on his regimen
all together. Or management may later decide to communicate
less frequently and implement that change easily.
Early OD focused on �irst-order change that involved moderate
adjustments to the organization, people, and
processes. These interventions were largely individualistic; that
is, practitioners modi�ied aspects of individuals’
behavior, believing that these individual changes would
translate into organization effectiveness. This mindset
caused OD consultants to overlook the big-picture, systemic
issues affecting the organization. As a result, early OD
often was ineffective.
Radical change that alters thinking, behaviors, or processes in
irreversible ways is known as second-orderchange.
This level of change requires a fundamentally different
approach to issues, as well as new learning. It is generally not
reversible and tends to be revolutionary or transformational. For
example, rather than simply increasing his number
of weekly exercise sessions, Jordan might meet with his doctor
to assess his overall health, get up earlier each day to
exercise, hire a personal trainer to work with him, consult a
registered dietitian, take a healthy cooking class, or
otherwise alter his mindset about exercise and health. Or,
management might restructure or fundamentally change
how it communicates, altering not only the frequency but also
the content and delivery mode. The rise of online
social networking offers an example of how organizations have

new platforms for communicating. Platforms such as
instant messaging, Twitter, wikis, social networking,
teleconferencing, e-mail, and collaboration apps (e.g.,
Basecamp) have radically changed the way employers,
employees, and customers communicate, and have also made
information more timely and comprehensive.
Contemporary OD, in its quest to change systems and cultures,
focuses on
second-order change. Examples include executive coaching that
transforms a leader’s behavior, performance feedback that
improves
individual and group performance, leadership development that
shifts
how leaders think and act, group and team facilitation that
revolutionizes
interpersonal dynamics, diversity and multiculturalism
initiatives that
make the organization more inclusive, total quality management
that
improves products and services, life–work balance programs
that reduce
stress, or organization restructuring that changes work
processes.
What �irst- and second-order changes have you made in your
life? How
successful were you at maintaining them? What changes have
you
noticed in your workplace? How effective are you at helping
others
change? Take the change leader style assessment to evaluate
yourself.
Assessment:WhatIsYourOwnChangeLeaderStyle?

Take this self-assessment to gain insight into your change style.
The survey covers 60 attitudes and
behaviors of leaders related to change management. It should
take about 20 minutes to work through the
assessment.
http://www.careacademy.org/ChangeManagement/Session3/Cha
ngeStyleAssessment/Managing
Change- Your Style Assessment.pdf
(http://www.careacademy.org/Change Management/Session
3/Change
StyleAssessment/ManagingChange-YourStyleAssessment.pdf)
http://www.careacademy.org/Change%20Management/Session%
203/Change%20Style%20Assessment/Managing%20Change-
%20Your%20Style%20Assessment.pdf
It is dif�icult to create change within an organization. In the
video, a manager encounters resistance from his team when
introducing a change in work systems.
OperationalandStrategicChange
When organizations make shifts that affect day-to-day
functioning or operations, they are making an operational
change. Examples include shifting the production schedule to
accommodate supply of raw materials, hiring
temporary workers to help cover a short-term increase in
product demand, adding overtime to meet production
numbers, problem solving around a quality issue, or creating a
newsletter to better communicate with employees.
TipsandWisdom
Notice the signs of approaching change: Pay attention to your

organization and the environment.
What do you notice, hear, and suspect?
Ask yourself: “What is the worst thing that could happen if
change X occurs?” Acknowledge that
the only thing you control is yourself. How do you want to show
up during the change?
Look for opportunities within the change to think differently,
take on new responsibilities, and
learn new things.
Help others cope. It will help take your mind off the uncertainty
and position you as a leader.
When the organization shifts its tactics to better achieve its
mission and vision, it is making a strategic change.
Strategic changes might include shifting the culture,
management, and rewards systems to be more inclusive as a
means of recruiting and retaining a diverse workforce; �iring
an executive and bringing in a person with a track
record for business turnarounds; hiring workers to pursue a new
market, product, or service; realigning people and
resources to focus on a goal of becoming number one in sales or
quality; or conducting a new marketing campaign
to reach new customers.
Whether operational or strategic, change can be stressful, but
strategies exist for coping with change.
AcceptingChange
TakeAway2.1:TheNatureofOrganizationChange
There are several ways of describing the nature of change in
OD, which is the alteration of the
complete transformation of people, processes, products and

places.
Change can be classi�ied according to (a) its rate of
occurrence, (b) how it comes about, and (c) its
scale.
OD can focus on �irst- or second-order change. First-order
change is a gradual or incremental
change that usually involves making moderate adjustments to
existing procedures and practices.
Second-order change signi�icantly and irreversibly alters
thinking, behaviors, or processes.
Developmental change is associated with the growth and
learning people acquire through
experiences and formal education or training. Transitional
change involves making incremental
steps toward a desired state over a speci�ied period.
Transformational change revolutionizes the
organization and the ways its members think and act.
Change can be operational or strategic. Operational change
involves shifts that affect day-to-day
functioning or operations of the organization. Strategic change
involves more revolutionary shifts
in tactics to better achieve organization mission and vision.
Accepting Change: Cutting Edge Communications Comed...
© Infobase. All Rights Reserved. Length: 04:45
2.2GeneralSystemsTheoryandOrganizationChange
Chapter 1 established OD as a data-driven, humanistic process
that seeks to foster the health and effectiveness of
individuals, groups, the organization, and the broader

1Organization Development An Introduction tothe Field.docx

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