This document provides guidance on how to write an academic essay, including its typical structure and components. It explains that an essay usually contains an introductory paragraph with a thesis statement, body paragraphs that develop the thesis with examples and analysis, and a concluding paragraph that restates the main points. It also provides details on what each section should include, such as using general statements and a clear thesis in the introduction. The document offers tips for effective writing, including using transition words to connect ideas and leaving the reader with final thoughts in the conclusion.

1. How to write my
paper
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2. Introduction
In this course, you are going to be practising
the academic essay and learning techniques of
form and communication that will help you
establish and maintain a good relationship with
your reader.

3. In form, an essay is a written work composed of three or more paragraphs.
The function of an essay is to communicate to a reader an attitude or opinion
about an issue and to provide information that supports or defends this attitude.
In an essay, a writer can explain or describe something, state one side of an
argument and prove it, show the relationship between two things, or a combination
of all of these. Whatever the purpose of an essay is, it must be clearly stated to the
reader at the beginning of the essay and remain clear throughout the essay.

4. An academic essay contains
1. An introductory paragraph
2. A thesis statement
3. Body paragraphs
4. A concluding paragraphs.

5. Introductory paragraph
The purpose of the introductory paragraph is to create initial interest in what
you have to say to the reader.
The essay has a clear introductory paragraph. This outlines how you are going
to tackle the question. Remember that a good essay is analytical not merely
descriptive. You can answer a question in a variety of different ways. In your
introductory paragraph you will generally state how you are going to answer the
question and provide an outline of the essay (e.g. which issues you will
examine and in which order). This means that the reader knows what is going
to be addressed and how. You may want to pose questions that you will answer
in the course of the essay

6. Introductory paragraph
Consists of two parts: general statements and the thesis statement.
General statements give the reader background information about the topic of
the essay. They should be interesting enough to keep the reader’s attention.
The thesis statement introduces the main idea of the essay. – It states the main
topic of the essay. – It may list the subtopics of the main topic. – It may also
mention the method of organization. – It is the last sentence of the introduction.

7. A thesis statement
Expresses the main idea of the essay
completely and concisely. A thesis statement
outlines your topic as well as your “angle”, or
approach, to the topic. The thesis statement
usually appears in the introductory paragraph.

8. Body paragraphs
Each of the body paragraph develops the angle expressed in your thesis
statement. These paragraphs contain concrete specific details, examples and
facts that illustrate your angle on the topic. They also contain interpretation or
analysis of these examples in terms of your angle. Ideas within these
paragraphs (as well as the paragraphs themselves) are connected to each
other by transition words and phrases that help the reader follow your ideas.
The body paragraphs follow the introductory paragraph and are arranged
according to the topic and and an angle of the essay as expressed in the thesis
statement.

9. A concluding paragraph
Summarizes your main points and gives the
reader a feeling of “completion”. This paragraph
paraphrases the thesis statement.

10. The conclusion paragraph performs 3 main functions:
– It signals the end of the essay.
– It summarizes the main points.
– It leaves the reader with the writer’s final thoughts on the
subject.
To signal the end of an essay, use a conclusion transition signal such as in
conclusion, in summary, or to summarize. Then, either summarize the main
points of the essay or rewrite the thesis statement in different words.

11. Essay Sample MLA
Yourlastname 5
Student Name
Professor Name
Subject
24 June 2015

12. Opening Skinner Box
The book “Opening Skinner's Box” by Lauren Slater investigates the ten experiments that determined the development of social psychology in
the XX century. The author interviews eyewitnesses, participants of the experiment, the experimenters’ relatives and outlines the moral, ethical
and other issues associated with each experiment.
The first chapter of the book is devoted to Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s biography and highlights the basis of his experiments, his major ideas
and the overall contribution to the psychology science. To begin with, Skinner is a leading American behaviorist, known for his experiments on
animals that demonstrated the importance of incentives in shaping behavior. In his research-works Skinner showed the ability to control
behavior by training the subjects with the means of lower incentives and promotions (Slater 9).
His main invention called the "Skinner Box" is the tool for the study of patterns of operant activity or operant formation of the reflexes of living
creatures (originally - rats, then - the pigeons). Using food, leverage and other factors of environment, Skinner has proved that the phenomena
earlier considered as an independent response is, in fact, a conditioned reflex (Slater 15).

13. Conducting his classical experiment with the rat, Skinner formulated his law of purchase, which states that the strength of operant behavior
increases if the behavior is accompanied by a reinforcing stimulus.
When Skinner noticed that the rats turned the random behavior to a deliberate action based on previous experience while pressing the lever
and receiving the ball feed, he began to change the regularity of the promotion issuance – in such a way he introduced the so-called scheme of
reinforcement at fixed intervals. Thus he made an assumption that the probability of reinforcement changes the nature of the reaction (Slater
17).
Skinner also experimented with schemes, when the reinforcement occurred at regular and irregular intervals or was absent at all (Slater 17). He
found out that in the case of irregular incentive, the reflex is most difficult to destroy (Slater 18). He concluded that stupid thoughtless behavior
of wise and rational people can be understood with this mechanism of irregular reinforcement. In this way Skinner showed the likelihood of
irrational obsessive desire for something (Slater 19).
Experiment with a bird which he taught to peck at the plate showed that using operant learning a rare and complex behaviors usually not found
in the repertoire of the organism can be developed (Slater 19).

14. In other words he thought that the mindless training of the individual present him with the biological features that guarantee endless
opportunities (Slater 20).
Skinner also believed that thinking is a by-product of behavior; consequently the scholar investigating the human activity should pay attention
firstly to the mind and then consider the behavior itself (Slater 36). In my opinion, such antimentalizm does not take into account the cognitive
processes, the intentions and motivation of the individual.
Skinner, on the basis of his experiments made ​​a conclusion that people do not have free will, they are simply managed by some kinds of
reinforcement, in other words, the illusory free will is actually a response on a specific incentive (Slater 22) .Thus, human behavior is just a set
of automatic responses. From my point of view, this understanding of the individual behavior is a pure manifestation of anti humanism as the
individual is described as a robot, a puppet or an engine. This perception does not give place for the individual personality and his feelings, his
sensual and spiritual experiences. It is indifferent to the love and support which are present in the life of any individual.
The whole theory of his experimental psychology covers only the general principles, ignoring the uniqueness of each individual.Moreover, by
discrediting the control, which an individual has over his own life and showing the role of environmental influences, his theory of behavior calls
into question the concept of dignity and the importance of human being.

15. His law of reinforcement also ignores the reinforcement effects such as pain and feeling of dissatisfaction. Skinner also did not try to interpret
the reinforcement in terms of reducing the impact of incentives.
His theory gave him confidence in the understanding of the economic, social, political and religious issues. He wrote about the creation of
community based on the "behavioral engineering", where the power of positive reinforcement would be used for control over people. He also
wrote that behavior of the inhabitants of the West can be improved through the application of principles derived from the basis of his
experimental analysis of behavior (Slater 20). However, the findings of his experiments can not be used for the project of reconstructing society
as the results of his research can not be extrapolated to the society as the mechanisms of its functioning goes beyond the strictly observed
data.
The narrow range of his laboratory studies ignores many aspects of behavior. Skinner’s belief that all behavior is learned by rote is false as
sometimes animals reveal instinctive behavior. This means that they replaced the instinctive behavior with the reinforcement one, even if this
instinctive behavior prevented them from obtaining food. Thus, reinforcement is not as all-powerful as it is claimed by Skinner.

16. Skinner assumes that the control (or influence) the environment on the individual is undoubtful. He thinks that a "positive
reinforcement" should be carried out that is to encourage adaptive and creative behavior of citizens. He advises the public to
create such incentives, which will force us to show their best qualities and suppress those that lead to degradation. Besides,
Skinner proposes to abandon humiliation and punishment (Slater 36). However, the necessity of the punishment lies in the
essence of the wrongful act. Punishment is vital, in the sense that it acts as a tool to intimidate people who exhibit deviant
behavior or eliminate their cruel intentions. Punishment acts as a system of regulation of social life. I think that the society will face
constant wars, murders and mass disorder if the punishment is abolished.
On the other hand, the role of Skinner as a prominent figure in psychology and sociology can not be underestimated. With the help
of his studies Skinner attempted to prove that the action can be foreseen and predicted long before the action actually takes place.
It was an attempt to scientifically substantiate the fact that human behavior is deterministic and obeys certain laws, which means
that it can be controlled, directed and modified (using positive reinforcement, in particular).

17. Works Cited
Slater, Lauren. Opening Skinner’s Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.,
2005. Print.

18. Essay Sample APA
Running head: FINAL PROJECT
Final Project
An Assignment Submitted by
Name of Student
Name of Establishment
Class XXXX, Section XXXX,

19. Final Project
Risk factors may take any form. Environmental factors which include natural and anthropogenic factors directly or indirectly affect one’s life,
health, and well-being (Jeffrey M. J. & Mark W. F.2005).
It is mentioned that Gary has severe asthma. The main risk factor for asthma is an adverse environmental condition in the area of residence. It is
mentioned that “the Smith family lives in a large urban city in the Southeast region of the United States”. As a rule, there is a high level of
industrial gas pollution of air and high degree of water contamination in big cities. Every resident of such a city is exposed to a number of
negative factors: exhaust gases, emissions of factories, and urban smog.
Another negative environmental aspect is unsatisfactory living conditions of children, which are destructive for their normal emotional,
physical, intellectual, and psychological development. It is stated that “sixteen children (ranging in age from 18 months to 9 years old) and four
adults in total live in a three-bedroom apartment”. This is an excessive number of people per 1 square meter of the living apartment.

20. “The hygiene had severely gotten worse. The children were beginning to smell of urine and feces. Jay and Gary reported that the home had a
toilet that was full of feces and there was fecal matter on the floor.” It suggests complete lack of sanitation. Undoubtedly, it is necessary to meet
all requirements of sanitary-epidemiological security to sustain conditions for the children maintenance.
Another category is individual risk factors: mental disorders and health problems. Gary and Jay have an anxiety disorder, which is a risk factor
for dissociative behavior, aggressiveness, and poor academic performance (Ibid). The reason for low
grades is fear of public speeches because of anxiety. The anxiety that occurs prior to the performance itself, leads to emotional disorganization
of thought. Children who know the subject are confused with formulation of answers, so they make a poor impression. This reinforces the sense
of inferiority and dissatisfaction with themselves. This explains the situation described in the case study: “Gary and Jay are severely below
grade level at school. Their ability level is high, so there is a discrepancy.”
Apart from mental disability, another family member has serious physiological health problems. “David had a heart transplant at age two and is
on a variety of medications due to this.” Such operations have an impact on the immunity of the organism, its resistance to many stressors and
diseases.

21. References
Catalano, R. F., & Hawkins, J. D. (1996). The social development model: A theory of antisocial behavior. In J. D. Hawkins (Ed.), Delinquency
and crime: Current
theories (pp. 149–197). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Fraser, M. W., & Galinsky, M. J. (2004). Risk and resilience in childhood: Toward an evidence-based model of practice. In M. W. Fraser (Ed.),
Risk and resilience
in childhood: An ecological perspective (2nd ed., pp. 385–402). Washington,
DC: NASW.
Garmezy, N. (1986). On measures, methods, and models. Journal of the American
Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 25, 727–729.