1. Co o pe ra tive a nd
Co lla bo ra tive Le a rning
Cooperative or collaborative learning is a team process
where members support and rely on each other to achieve an agreed-upon goal. The
classroom is an excellent place to develop team-building skills you will need later in life.
Cooperative/collaborative learning is interactive;
as a team member, you:
develop and share a common goal
contribute your understanding of the problem:
questions, insights and solutions
respond to, and work to understand, others' questions, insights and solutions.
Each member empowers the other to speak and contribute,
and to consider their contributions
are accountable to others, and they are accountable to you
are dependent on others, and they depend on you
What makes for a good learning team?
Team activities begin with training in, and understanding group processes.
An instructor begins by facilitating discussion and suggesting alternatives
but does not impose solutions on the team, especially those having difficulty working
together
Three to five people
Larger teams have difficulty in keeping everyone involved
Teacher-assigned groups
They function better than self-assigned groups
Diverse skill levels, backgrounds, experience
1. Each individual brings strengths to a group
2. Each member of the group is responsible to not only contribute his/her
strengths, but also to help others understand the source of their strengths
3. Any member who is at a disadvantage or not comfortable with the majority
should be encouraged and proactively empowered to contribute
4. Learning is positively influenced with a diversity of perspective and experience
increasing options for problem solving, and expanding the range of details to
consider
Commitment of each member to a goal
that is defined and understood by the group
1. Confidential peer ratings are a good way to assess who is and who is not
contributing
2. Groups have the right to fire a non-cooperative or non-participating member if
all remedies have failed.
(The person fired then has to find another group to accept him/her)
3. Individuals can quit if they believe they are doing most of the work with little
assistance from the others.
(This person can often easily find another group to welcome his/her
contributions)
2. Shared operating principles and responsibilities,
defined and agreed to by each member. These include:
1. Commitment to attend, prepare and be on time for meetings
2. Have discussions and disagreements focus on issues, avoiding personal
criticism
3. Take responsibility for a share of the tasks and carry them out on time
You may need to perform tasks that you have little experience, feel ill-prepared
for, or even think others would do better. Accept the challenge, but be
comfortable in stating that you may need help, training, a mentor, or have to
resign and take on different task.
Process:
Refer to the Group Project Guide
Set up goals, define how often and with what means you will communicate, evaluate
progress, make decisions, and resolve conflict
Define resources, especially someone who can provide direction, supervision,
counsel, and even arbitrate
Schedule review of your progress and communication
to discuss what is working and what is not working
Teams with problems should be invited or required to meet with the instructor to discuss
possible solutions.
Cooperative learning series
Collaborative learning | Group projects | Active Listening |
Conflict resolution | Case study: conflict resolution | Peer mediation |
Tutoring guidelines | Using feedback with tutors
* "Cooperative learning" is often used in K-12 education, and "collaborative learning" in
higher educationSee also:
Online Collaborative Learning in Higher Education, primary sites a web site devoted to
world's best practice in online collaborative learning in higher education, and related topics.
Tim Roberts, Faculty of Informatics and Communication, Central Queensland University,
Bundaberg, Queensland 4670 Australia
"Cooperative learning in technical courses: procedures, pitfalls, and payoffs", Richard M. Felder,
North Carolina State University & Rebecca Brent, East Carolina University
Thinking and recall series
Critic a l thinking I
3. Strategies for critical thinking in learning and project management
Critical thinking studies a topic or problem with open-mindedness.
This exercise outlines the first stage of applying a critical thinking approach to developing
and understanding a topic. You will:
Developastatementof the topic
List whatyouunderstand, whatyou've beentold
and whatopinionsyouholdaboutit
Identifyresourcesavailable forresearch
Define timelinesanddue dates
and howtheyaffectthe developmentof yourstudy
Printthe listas your reference
Here is more on the first stage:
Define your destination, what you want to learn
Clarify or verify with your teacher or an "expert" on your subject
Topics can be simple phrases:
"The role of gender in video game playing"
"Causes of the war before 1939"
"Mahogany trees in Central America"
"Plumbing regulations in the suburbs"
"Regions of the human brain"
Developyour frame of reference, yourstarting point,
by listingwhatyoualreadyknow aboutthe subject
What opinionsand prejudicesdoyou already have about this?
What have youbeentold,or readabout,thistopic?
What resources
are available toyouforresearch
Whengatheringinformation,keepanopenmind
Look forchance resourcesthatpopup!
Playthe "reporter"andfollowleads
If you don't seemtofindwhatyouneed,asklibrariansoryour teacher.
How does your timeline anddue datesaffect your research?
Keepinmindthatyou needtofollow aschedule.
Work back fromthe due date and define stagesof development,
not justwiththisfirstphase,butincompletingthe whole project.
Summary of critical thinking:
Determine the factsof a newsituationorsubjectwithoutprejudice
Place these factsand informationinapatternsothat you can understandthem
Acceptor rejectthe source valuesandconclusionsbaseduponyourexperience,judgment,
and beliefs
Thinking like a g e nius
Problem solving: creative solutions
"Even if you're not a genius, you can use the same strategies as Aristotle and Einstein to
harness the power of your creative mind and better manage your future."
The following strategies encourage you to think productively,
rather than reproductively, in order to arrive at solutions to problems. "These strategies are
4. common to the thinking styles of creative geniuses in science, art, and industry throughout
history."
Nine approaches to creative problem solving:
1. Rethink!Lookat problemsinmanydifferentways.
2. Visualize!Utilize diagramsandimagerytoanalyze yourdilemma.
3. Produce!Geniusisproductive.
4. Combine!Make novel combinations...
5. Form!Form relationships.
6. Opposite!Thinkinopposites.
7. Metaphor/simile!Thinkmetaphorically.
8. Failure!Learningfromyourmistakesisone example of usingfailure.
9. Patience!Don'tconfuse inspirationwithideas.
Exercise #2 illustrates how famous thinkers used these approaches.
Exercise/blog #3 contains selectedthoughts on thinking like a genius.
Exercise #1: illustrates applications of the nine approaches.
Text of exercise:
Nine approaches to creative problem solving:
1. Rethink!
Look at problemsinmanydifferentways.
Findnewperspectivesthatnoone else hastaken.
Solutionsexample:Findingajobor internship:
a. Askfriendsorcolleaguesforpotential leads
b. Over-sellyourself
Sendsamplesof yourworkor portfoliotoanyone thatmightrespond.
c. Checklocal resourceslike Craigslistoryourschool'sjobsearch
d. Broadenyourtarget audience.
What otherfieldscouldyouspecializein?
2. Visualize!
Utilize diagramsandimagerytoanalyze yourdilemma.
a. How can youuse pictures,images,graphs,etc.inyourstudies?
b. Visitguideson conceptormind maps, picturing vocabulary,flashcards,etc.
c. Write out one example of how youcanuse imagery,thenprintandpost itin yourstudy
area.
3. Produce!
Geniusisproductive.
a. Perhapsoriginalityisnotthe key,butratherconstant applicationof thoughtandtoolsto
arrive a solutions.
b. Geniuses are the luckiest of mortals becausewhatthey mustdo is the sameas whatthey
mostwantto do.
W. H. Auden(1907–1973) Anglo-Americanpoet
c. Genius is nothing buta greataptitudeforpatience.
George-LouisLeclercde Buffon(1707–1788) Frenchnaturalist
4. Combine!
Make novel combinations...
5. Combine andrecombine ideas,images,andthoughtsintodifferentcombinationsnomatter
howincongruentorunusual.
5. Form!
Form relationships.Make connectionsbetweendissimilarsubjects.
a. Thisdoesn'talwaysapplytoobjects:formrelationshipswithpeopleandaskthem
questions!
b. Get to knowpeople inyourfieldthatcanhelpyouexcel tothe bestof your ability.
c. Write downone personthat youcouldget incontact with,whyyouthinkthispersoncan
help, andprint/postitforreference!
6. Opposite!
Thinkinopposites.Don'talwaysstickwiththe obvioussolutions.
Get outside of yourcomfortzone.
a. “Opposites”bringtwoapproachestoa situationbuttheydoshare a basicsimilarity.
Example:“right”and“left”are bothdirections,butwhichisthe rightchoice?
b. The Sesame StreetMuppet Elmo teachessmall childrenthe conceptof opposites!
7. Metaphor/simile!
Thinkmetaphorically.
a. Metaphorsare connectionsthatare unusual or notan ordinaryway of thinking:
A sea of troubles;theheart of a lion; raining cats and dogs.
b. Similesuse "like"or"as"to illustrate
The boy wasas agile asa monkey.Theminer's facewaslike coal.
The taskwasas easy as ABC.Dry like a raisin in the sun.
8. Failure!
Learningfromyour mistakesisone example of usingfailure.
a. As strange as itseemsthe humanbrainisfailure machine:itgeneratesmodelsof reality,
acts on them,andadjustsor createsnew,successful modelsbasedonfailures.
b. From Daniel Coyle’s theTalentCodeon AdamBryant’sweeklyinterview:“every single
CEO shares thesame nuggetof wisdom:thecrucial importanceof mistakes, failures, and
setbacks…mistakescreate uniqueconditionsof high-velocitylearningthatcannotbe
matchedby more stable,“successful”situations.”
9. Patience!
Don't confuse inspirationwithideas.
Applyyourideaswithpatience forthe rewardtheymaydeserve.
Thinking and recall series
Concentrating | Radical thinking | Thinking aloud/private speech |
Thinking critically | Thinking critically | Thinking creatively |
Mapping explanation | Make your own map I | Make your own map II |
Thinking like a genius: Creative solutions | Famous thinkers | Selected thoughts
Adapted with permission from:
Michalko,Michael, Thinking Like a Genius: Eight strategies used by the super creative, from Aristotle
and Leonardo to Einstein and Edison (New Horizons for Learning) as seenat
http://www.newhorizons.org/wwart_michalko1.html,(June15,1999) Thisarticle firstappeared
inTHE FUTURIST,May 1998. Michael Michalkoisthe author of Thinkertoys(A Handbookof
BusinessCreativity),ThinkPak(A BrainstormingCardSet),andCrackingCreativity:The Secretsof
6. Creative Geniuses(TenSpeedPress,1998).Flash exercise by
Karl Noelle,student,College of Design;BradHokanson,faculty,College of Design,Universityof
Minnesota,St.Paul,MN; withedits/revisionsbyJoe Landsberger.
Thinking and recall series
Thinking like a g e nius
Selected thoughts
As we grow older and wiser,
we learn to recognize our strengths and weaknesses, and accept them. We work to align
our lives with the gifts we were born with, and cultivate them. This is a process of finding
our place within the world.
As we recognize and organize our strengths,
we discover and expose ourselves as to who we truly are. Our discovered place in the world
becomes the opportunity for the expression of our genius: our special set of gift(s) that we
can contribute. It lies within all of us.
Some may say that they have little to contribute.
However, if we contribute small things greatly, true to our purpose, we will exceed those
people who do great things poorly. For the small thing done greatly can be picked up, and
magnified by another, and so by another.
True prophets and leaders want us to work towards
an honest recognition and admission of who we are, to see the beauty and strength in each
of us, as well as for each of us to see and admit the beauty of others. With this honest
perception of the self, the exercise of genius takes one to a higher spiritual plane.
By its nature, genius pushes against the boundaries
of culture, religion, society, environment. Boundaries serve a purpose and should be
honored for what they are: a context that tests.
A nation or people or society is only as strong
as its individuals are empowered to rise to the level of their individual genius. When
prophets and leaders encourage us to follow them, they are asking us to hear their message
and empower our lives.
As social animals, our tendency is to institutionalize
the message and to build belief systems and rituals. However, we need to be alert to when
our spirituality, and genius, is limited by these constraints and that context. It may be that
what is built up after the prophet and leader is contrary to his or her message.
Genius recognizes that we must honestly recognize
and meet with humility, even confront, those conditions in which we are placed. We set
aside distracting influences and things of our youth since they are not true to who we
are. Should we succumb to weakness, that which we are not, we need to recognize the test
for what it is: either a miscalculation of our power, or an inappropriate response to our
environment. If we go astray, act contrary to our purpose (we are not perfect) we must
learn the lesson provided.
We hold steady, we join hands with those walking with us
on our spiritual paths, learning that the genius of others will also guide us. Others will be
there to lift us up. With them, our full genius takes us to the place where we can overcome
digressions and transgressions. There is a super genius at work, that of we as people.
7. Don't restrict yourself to the standards!
Consider them standards and build on them. Practice the basics, then don't be afraid to
move away from the normal and think outside of the box, or the textbook!"
(Colin.C.Saxton)
Read widely and deeply.
In addition to being a statesman, diplomat, author of the Declaration of Independence and
President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson was a notable agriculturalist,
horticulturist, architect, etymologist, mathematician, cryptographer, surveyor, author,
lawyer, inventor, paleontologist, and founder of the University of Virginia. As a 16-year-
old college student, he studied 15 hours a day. His insatiable curiosity and disciplined study
of a broad range of academic and practical disciplines were the basis for his exceptional
accomplishments. President John F. Kennedy welcomed 49 Nobel Prize winners to the
White House in 1962, saying, "I think this is the most extraordinary collection of talent, of
human knowledge, that has ever been gathered at the White House, with the possible
exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone." (Gavin Ehringer)
Thinking and recall series
Concentrating | Radical thinking | Thinking aloud/private speech |
Thinking critically | Thinking critically | Thinking creatively |
Mapping explanation | Make your own map I | Make your own map II |
Thinking like a genius: Creative solutions | Famous thinkers | Blog
Thinking and recall series
Thinking like a g e nius
Famous thinkers
"Even if you're not a genius, you can use the same strategies as Aristotle and Einstein to
harness the power of your creative mind and better manage your future."
Nine approaches to creative problem solving:
1. Rethink!Lookat problemsinmanydifferentways.
2. Visualize!Utilize diagramsandimagerytoanalyze yourdilemma.
3. Produce!Geniusisproductive.
4. Combine!Make novel combinations...
5. Form!Form relationships.
6. Opposite!Thinkinopposites.
7. Metaphor/simile!Thinkmetaphorically.
8. Failure!Learningfromyourmistakesisone example of usingfailure.
9. Patience!Don'tconfuse inspirationwithideas.
Exercise #1: illustrates applications of the nine approaches.
Exercise/blog #3 contains random thoughts on thinking like a genius.
Exercise #2 illustrates how famous thinkers used these approches.
Exercise text:
1. Look at problems in many different ways.
Find new perspectives that no one else has taken (or no one else has publicized!)
8. Leonardo da Vinci believed that, to gain knowledge about the form of a problem, you
begin by learning how to restructure it in many different ways. He felt that the first
way he looked at a problem was too biased. Often, the problem itself is reconstructed
and becomes a new one.
2. Visualize!
When Einstein thought through a problem, he always found it necessary to formulate
his subject in as many different ways as possible, including using diagrams. He
visualized solutions, and believed that words and numbers as such did not play a
significant role in his thinking process.
3. Produce!
A distinguishing characteristic of genius is productivity.
Thomas Edison held 1,093 patents. He guaranteed productivity by giving himself and
his assistants idea quotas. In a study of 2,036 scientists throughout history, Dean
Keith Simonton of the University of California at Davis found that the most
respected scientists produced not only great works, but also many "bad" ones. They
weren't afraid to fail, or to produce mediocre in order to arrive at excellence.
4. Make novel combinations.
Combine, and recombine, ideas, images, and thoughts into different
combinations no matter how incongruent or unusual.
The Austrian monk Grego Mendel combined mathematics and biology
to create a new science of heredity. The modern science of genetics is based upon his
model.
5. Form relationships.
Make connections between dissimilar subjects.
Da Vinci forced a relationship between the sound of a bell and a stone hitting water.
This enabled him to make the connection that sound travels in waves. Samuel Morse
invented relay stations for telegraphic signals when observing relay stations for
horses.
6. Think in opposites.
Physicist Niels Bohr believed that if you held opposites together, then you suspend
your thought, and your mind moves to a new level. His ability to imagine light as
both a particle and a wave led to his conception of the principle of complementarity.
Suspending thought (logic) may allow your mind to create a new form.
7. Think metaphorically.
Aristotle considered metaphor a sign of genius, and believed that the individual who
had the capacity to perceive resemblances between two separate areas of existence
and link them together was a person of special gifts.
8. Prepare yourself for chance.
Whenever we attempt to do something and fail, we end up doing something else.
That is the first principle of creative accident. Failure can be productive only if we do
not focus on it as an unproductive result. Instead: analyze the process, its
components, and how you can change them, to arrive at other results. Do not ask the
question "Why have I failed?", but rather "What have I done?"
9. M ultiple c ho ic e te sts
Multiple choice questions usually include a phrase or stem
followed by three to five options:
Test strategies:
Read the directions carefully
Know if each question has one or more correct option
Know if you are penalized for guessing
Know how much time is allowed (this governs your strategy)
Preview the test
Read through the test quickly and answer the easiest questions first
Mark those you think you know in some way that is appropriate
Read through the test a second time and answer more difficult questions
You may pick up cues for answers from the first reading, or become more
comfortable in the testing situation
If time allows, review both questions and answers
It is possible you mis-read questions the first time
Answering options
Improve your odds, think critically:
Cover the options, read the stem, and try to answer
Select the option that most closely matches your answer
Read the stem with each option
Treat each option as a true-false question, and choose the "most true"
Strategies for answering difficult questions:
1. Eliminate options you know to be incorrect
If allowed, mark words or alternatives in questions that eliminate the option
2. Give each option of a question the "true-false test:"
This may reduce your selection to the best answer
3. Question options that grammatically don't fit with the stem
4. Question options that are totally unfamiliar to you
5. Question options that contain negative or absolute words.
Try substituting a qualified term for the absolute one.
For example, frequently for always; or typical for every to see if you can eliminate
an option
6. "All of the above:"
If you know two of three options seem correct, "all of the above" is a strong
possibility
7. Number answers:
toss out the high and low and consider the middle range numbers
8. "Look alike options"
probably one is correct; choose the best but eliminate choices that mean basically the
same thing, and thus cancel each other out
9. Double negatives:
Create the equivalent positive statement
10. Echo options:
If two options are opposite each other, chances are one of them is correct
10. 11. Favor options that contain qualifiers
The result is longer, more inclusive items that better fill the role of the answer
12. If two alternatives seemcorrect,
compare them for differences,
then refer to the stem to find your best answer
Guessing:
Always guess when there is no penalty
for guessing or you can eliminate options
Don't guess if you are penalized for guessing
and if you have no basis for your choice
Use hints from questions you know
to answer questions you do not.
Change your first answers
when you are sure of the correction, or other cues in the test cue you to change.
Remember that you are looking for the best answer,
not only a correct one, and not one which must be true all of the time, in all cases, and
without exception.
Testing with success series
Test preparation series |
Ten tips for terrific test taking | Taking online tests | True/false tests |
Multiple choice tests | Short answer tests | Open book exams | Oral exams |
Essay Exams | Essay terms and directives | Math Exams
9. Have patience
Paul Cézanne (1839 – 1906) is recognized as one of the 19th century's greatest
painters, and is often called the father of modern art, an avant garde bridge between
the impressionists and the cubists. During his life he only had a few exhibitions
though his influence on subsequent artists was great as an innovator with shape and
form. His genius, however, was not evident until late in life. He was refused
admission to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts at age 22 and his first solo exhibition was at
age 56. His genius was the product of many years' practice and experimental
innovation.
Thinking and recall series
Concentrating | Radical thinking | Thinking aloud/private speech |
Thinking critically | Thinking critically | Thinking creatively |
Mapping explanation | Make your own map I | Make your own map II |
Thinking like a genius: Creative solutions | Famous thinkers | Blog
Rules of Good and Bad Studying
11. These rules form a synthesis of some of the main ideas of the course.
10 Rules of Good Studying
Excerpted from A Mind for Numbers: How to Excel in Math and Science (Even if You
Flunked Algebra), by Barbara Oakley, Penguin, July, 2014
1. Use recall. Afteryoureada page,lookaway andrecall the main ideas.Highlightverylittle,
and neverhighlightanythingyouhaven’tputinyourmindfirstbyrecalling.Tryrecalling
mainideaswhenyouare walkingtoclass or ina differentroomfromwhere youoriginally
learnedit.Anabilitytorecall—togenerate the ideasfrominsideyourself—isone of the
keyindicatorsof goodlearning.
2. Test yourself.Oneverything.Allthe time.Flashcardsare yourfriend.
3. Chunk your problems. Chunkingisunderstandingand practicingwithaproblemsolution
so that itcan all come to mindina flash.Afteryousolve aproblem, rehearse it.Make sure
youcan solve itcold—everystep.Pretendit’sasongandlearnto playit overandover
againin yourmind,so the informationcombinesintoone smoothchunkyoucanpull up
wheneveryouwant.
4. Space your repetition. Spreadoutyour learninginanysubjectalittle everyday,justlike
an athlete.Yourbrainislike a muscle—itcanhandle onlyalimitedamountof exercise on
one subjectat a time.
5. Alternate differentproblem-solvingtechniquesduringyourpractice. Neverpractice too
longat any one sessionusingonlyone problem-solvingtechnique—afterawhile,youare
justmimickingwhatyoudidonthe previousproblem.Mix itupand workon different
typesof problems.Thisteachesyoubothhow andwhento use a technique.(Books
generallyare notsetup thisway,soyou’ll needtodothison your own.) Afterevery
assignmentandtest,gooveryour errors,make sure youunderstandwhyyoumade them,
and thenreworkyoursolutions.Tostudymosteffectively,handwrite(don’ttype) a
problemonone side of a flashcard and the solutiononthe other.(Handwritingbuilds
strongerneural structuresinmemorythantyping.) Youmightalsophotographthe card if
youwant to loadit intoa studyapp on yoursmartphone.Quizyourself randomlyon
differenttypesof problems.Anotherwaytodo thisisto randomlyflipthroughyourbook,
pickout a problem,andsee whetheryoucansolve itcold.
6. Take breaks. It iscommon to be unable tosolve problemsorfigure outconceptsinmath
or science the firsttime youencounterthem.Thisiswhyalittle studyeverydayismuch
betterthana lotof studyingall at once.Whenyouget frustratedwithamath or science
problem,take abreakso that anotherpart of yourmindcan take overand work inthe
background.
7. Use explanatory questioningandsimple analogies. Wheneveryouare strugglingwitha
concept,thinktoyourself,How canI explainthissothata ten-year-oldcouldunderstand
it?Using an analogyreallyhelps,like sayingthatthe flow of electricityislike the flowof
water.Don’tjustthinkyour explanation—sayitoutloudorput itin writing.The additional
effortof speakingandwritingallowsyoutomore deeplyencode (thatis,convertinto
neural memorystructures) whatyouare learning.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
12. Focus. Turn off all interrupting beeps and
alarms on your phone and computer, and
then turn on a timer for twenty-five
minutes. Focus intently for those twenty-
five minutes and trReading: Renaissance
Learning and Unlocking Your Potential
NOTE: All these readings are optional
Chapters 11 - 18 of A Mind for Numbers are especially helpful in providing helpful
information and additional exercises related to the materials of Module 4.
Worthwhile Additional Popular Works
TimothyVerstynenandBradleyVoytek, Do ZombiesDreamof Undead Sheep?A
NeuroscientificViewof theZombie Brain,PrincetonUniversityPress,2014. (Dr.Sejnowski
recommendsthisbook!)
SelenaRezvani,"HowtoHave a ThickerSkinforNegative Feedback,"Forbes,October22,
2014.
TravisBradberry,(February6, 2014) "How Successful People StayCalm,"Forbes.
CarlinFlora, Friendfluence:TheSurprising WaysFriendsMakeUs Who We Are,Anchor,
2013.
Cell Press,"Howcuriositychangesthe braintoenhance learning,"ScienceDaily (2014).
RobertTwigger,"Masterof manytrades:Our age reveresthe specialistbuthumansare
natural polymaths,atour bestwhenwe turnour mindsto manythings,"Aeon,November
4, 2013.
Pam Belluck,(January20,2011). "To ReallyLearn,QuitStudyingandTake a Test."The New
York Times.
Harvard HealthPublications,(May2009). "Take a DeepBreath,"Harvard Medical School.
JustinReich,(March30, 2014). "Big Data MOOC ResearchBreakthrough:Learning
ActivitiesLeadtoAchievement,"Ed Tech Researcher.
Universityof UtahHealthCare Office of PublicAffairs."ResearchersDebunkMythof
'Right-Brain'and'Left-Brain'PersonalityTraits."ScienceDaily (2013).
Felder,RichardM. "Memoto StudentsWhoHave BeenDisappointedwithTheirTest
Grades."Chemical Engineering Education 33, no.2 (1999): 136-37.
Sue Barry, Fixing My Gaze,Basic Books,2009.
Magic Eye,Inc., MagicEye: A New Bag of Tricks, AndrewsMcMeel Publishing,1995. See
alsothe website at http://www.magiceye.com/.
www.brainfacts.org
13. WorthwhilePopularApp
Breathe2Relax,bythe National CenterforTelehealth&Technology
Heavier Duty References
Video:Introuctionto Module4
Fischer,K.W., & Bidell,T.R.(2006). Dynamicdevelopmentof action,thought,and
emotion.InW.Damon & R. M. Lerner(Eds.), TheoreticalModelsof Human Development.
Handbookof Child Psychology.NY:Wiley.
Siegler,R.S.(1998). Emerging Minds:The Processof Changein Children's Thinking.New
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Video:No NeedforGeniusEnvy - TheImposter Syndrome
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8. y to workas diligentlyasyoucan. Afterthe timergoesoff,give yourself asmall,fun
reward.A fewof these sessionsinaday can really move yourstudiesforward.Trytoset
up timesandplaceswhere studying—notglancingatyourcomputeror phone—isjust
somethingyounaturallydo.
9. Eat your frogs first. Do the hardestthingearliestinthe day,whenyouare fresh.
10. Make a mental contrast. Imagine where you’ve come fromandcontrastthat withthe
dreamof where yourstudieswilltake you.Postapicture or wordsinyour workspace to
remindyouof your dream.Lookat that whenyoufindyourmotivationlagging.Thiswork
will payoff bothfor youand those youlove!
10 Rules of Bad Studying
Excerpted from A Mind for Numbers: How to Excel in Math and Science (Even if You
Flunked Algebra), by Barbara Oakley, Penguin, July, 2014
16. Avoid these techniques—they can waste your time even while they fool you into thinking
you’re learning!
1. Passive rereading—sittingpassivelyandrunningyoureyesbackovera page.Unlessyou
can prove that the material ismovingintoyourbrainby recallingthe mainideaswithout
lookingatthe page,rereadingisa waste of time.
2. Letting highlightsoverwhelmyou. Highlightingyourtextcanfool yourmindintothinking
youare puttingsomethinginyourbrain,whenall you’re reallydoingismovingyourhand.
A little highlightinghere andthere isokay—sometimesitcanbe helpful inflagging
importantpoints.Butif youare usinghighlightingasamemorytool,make sure that what
youmark is alsogoingintoyourbrain.
3. Merelyglancingat a problem’ssolutionand thinkingyou know how to do it. Thisis one
of the worsterrors studentsmake whilestudying.Youneedtobe able tosolve a problem
step-by-step,withoutlookingatthe solution.
4. Waitinguntil the last minute to study. Wouldyou cram at the lastminute if youwere
practicingfora track meet?Yourbrain islike a muscle—itcanhandle onlyalimited
amountof exercise onone subjectata time.
5. Repeatedlysolvingproblemsofthe same type that you already know how to solve. If
youjust sitaroundsolvingsimilarproblemsduringyourpractice,you’re notactually
preparingfora test—it’slikepreparingforabigbasketball game byjustpracticingyour
dribbling.
6. Letting studysessionswith friendsturn into chat sessions. Checkingyourproblemsolving
withfriends,andquizzingone anotheronwhatyouknow,can make learningmore
enjoyable,expose flawsinyourthinking,anddeepenyourlearning.Butif yourjointstudy
sessionsturntofunbefore the workisdone,you’re wastingyourtime andshouldfind
anotherstudygroup.
7. Neglectingtoread the textbookbefore you start working problems. Wouldyoudive into
a pool before youknewhowtoswim?The textbookisyourswimminginstructor—it
guidesyoutowardthe answers.Youwill flounderandwaste yourtime if youdon’tbother
to readit. Before youbegintoread,however,take aquickglance overthe chapteror
sectiontoget a sense of whatit’sabout.
8. Not checkingwith your instructors or classmatesto clear up pointsof confusion.
Professorsare usedtoloststudentscominginforguidance—it’sourjobto helpyou.The
studentswe worryaboutare the oneswhodon’tcome in. Don’t be one of those students.
9. Thinkingyou can learn deeplywhenyouare beingconstantly distracted. Everytinypull
towardan instantmessage orconversationmeansyouhave lessbrainpowerto devote to
learning.Everytugof interruptedattentionpullsouttinyneural rootsbefore theycan
grow.
10. Not gettingenoughsleep. Your brainpiecestogetherproblem-solvingtechniqueswhen
yousleep,anditalsopracticesand repeatswhateveryouputin mindbefore yougoto
sleep.Prolongedfatigue allowstoxinstobuildupinthe brainthat disruptthe neural
connectionsyouneedtothinkquicklyandwell.If youdon’tgeta good sleepbefore atest,
NOTHINGELSE YOU HAVE DONE WILL MATTER.
17.
18. 12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013John Dunloskyisa professorof psychologyandthe
directorof experimental trainingatKentState University.Hisresearchfocusesonself-regulated
learningandhowitcan be usedto improve studentachievementacrossthe
lifespan.Strengtheningthe StudentToolboxst udy str ategiestoBoostlearningByJohn
DunloskyIt’sthe nightbefore herbiologyexam, andthe highschool studenthasjustbegunto
study.she takesouther highlighterandreadshertextbook,markingitupas she goesalong.
sherereadssentencesthatseemmostimportantandstaysupmostof the night,justhopingtoget
a good enoughgraspof the material todo well onthe exam.These are studystrategiesthatshe
may have learnedfromherfriendsorherteachersor thatshe simplytookto onher own.she is
not unusual inthisregard;manystudentsrelyonstrategiessuchashighlighting,rereading,and
crammingthe nightbefore anexam.Quite often,studentsbelievethese relativelyineffective
strate-giesare actuallythe mosteffective,1andat leastonthe surface theydo seemsound,
perhapsbecause,evenafterpullinganall-nighter,studentsmanage tosqueakbyonexams.
Unfortunately,inarecentreviewof the research,mycolleaguesandIfoundthatthese strategies
are notthat effective,2especiallyif studentswanttoretaintheirlearningandunderstandingof
contentwell afterthe examisover—obviously,animportanteducational goal.so,whyaren’t
studentslearningaboutthe beststrategies?Icanonlyspeculate,butseveral reasonsseemlikely.
curriculaare developedtohighlightthe contentthatteachersshouldteach,sothe focusison
providingcontentandnoton trainingstudentshow toeffectivelyacquireit.Putdifferently,the
emphasisisonwhatstudentsneed tolearn,whereaslittle emphasis—ifany—isplacedontraining
studentshowtheyshouldgoaboutlearningthe contentandwhatskillswillpromote efficient
studyingtosupportrobustlearning.Nevertheless,teachingstudentshow tolearnisas important
as teachingthemcontent,because acquir-ILLUSTRATIONSByDANIELBAXTERAMERICAN
EDUCATOR | FALL 2013 13ing boththe right learningstrategiesandbackgroundknowledgeis
important—if notessential—forpromotinglifelonglearning.Anotherreasonmanystudentsmay
not be learningabouteffective strategiesconcernsteacherpreparation.learningstrat-egiesare
discussedinalmosteverytextbookoneducational psychology,somanyteacherslikelyhave been
introducedtoat leastsome of them.evenso,mycolleaguesandIfoundthat,inlarge part,the
currenttextbooksdonotadequatelycoverthe strategies;some omitdiscussionof the most
effectiveones,andmostdonotprovide guidelinesonhow touse themin the class-roomoron
19. howto teach studentstouse them.Insome cases,the strategiesdiscussedhave limited
applicabilityorbenefit.3so I sympathize withteacherswhowanttodevote some classtime to
teachingstudentshowtolearn,because teacherpreparationtypicallydoesnotemphasize the
importance of teachingstu-dentstouse effective learningstrategies.Moreover,giventhe
demandsof day-to-dayteaching,teachersdonothave time tofigure outwhichstrategiesare
best.the goodnewsisthatdecadesof researchhasfocusedonevaluating the effectivenessof
manypromisingstrategiesforhelpingstudentslearn.Admittedly,the evidence formanyof these
strategiesisimmenseandnoteasilydeciphered,especiallygiventhe technical nature of the
literature.Thus,tohelppromote the teachinganduse of effective learningstrategies,mycol-
leagues*andI reviewedthe efficacyof 10 learningstrategies:1.Practice testing:self-testingor
takingpractice testson to-be-learnedmaterial.2.Distributedpractice:implementingaschedule of
practice that spreadsoutstudyactivitiesovertime.3.Interleavedpractice:implementinga
schedule of practice thatmixesdifferentkindsof problems,oraschedule of studythatmixes
differentkindsof material,withinasingle studysession.4. elaborative interrogation:
generatinganexplanationforwhyanexplicitlystatedfactorconceptis true.5. self-
explanation:explaininghownewinformationisrelatedtoknowninformation,orexplainingsteps
takenduringproblemsolving.6. rereading:restudyingtextmaterialagainafteraninitial
reading.7. highlightingandunderlining:markingpotentiallyimportantportionsof to-be-
learnedmaterialswhilereading.8. summarization:writingsummaries(of variouslengths) of to-
be-learnedtexts.9.Keywordmnemonic:usingkeywordsandmental imagerytoassociate verbal
materials.10.Imageryfortext:attemptingtoformmental imagesof textmaterialswhile readingor
listening.Beforedescribingthe strategiesindetail,Iwill putintocontextafew aspectsof our
review.First,ourintentwastosurveystrate-giesthatteacherscouldcoachstudentstouse
withoutsacrificingtoomuchclasstime andthat any studentcoulduse.We excludedavarietyof
strategiesandcomputer-driventutorsthatshow promise butrequire technologiesthatmaybe
unavailable tomanystudents.Althoughsomeof the strategieswe reviewedcanbe implemented
withcomputersoftware,theyall canbe usedsuccessfullybyamotivatedstudentwho(atmost)
has accessto a penor pencil,some index cards,andperhapsa calendar.second,we chose to
reviewsome strategies(e.g.,practice test-ing)because aninitial surveysuggestedthattheywere
relativelyeffective,4whereaswe chose otherstrategies(e.g.,rereading,highlighting) because
studentsreportedusingthemoftenyetwe wonderedabouttheireffectiveness.Finally,the
strategiesdiffersomewhatwithrespecttothe kindsof learningtheypromote.Forinstance,some
strategies(e.g.,keywordmnemonic,imageryfortext) are focusedonimprovingstudents’memory
for core conceptsor facts. others(e.g.,self-explanation) maybestserve topromote students’
comprehensionof whattheyare reading.Andstill others(e.g.,practice testing) appeartobe
useful forenhancing bothmemoryandcomprehension.Inthe followingsections,Idiscusseachof
the learningstrate-gies,beginningwiththosethatshow the mostpromise forimprov-ingstudent
achievement.TheMostEffective LearningStrategiesWeratedtwostrategies—practice testingand
distributedprac-tice—asthe mosteffective of those we reviewedbecause theycanhelpstudents
regardlessof age,theycan enhance learningandcomprehensionof alarge range of materials,
and,most important,theycanbooststudentachievement.*Mycollaboratorsonthisprojectwere
cognitive andeducational researchersKatherine A.Rawson,ElizabethJ.Marsh,Mitchell J.Nathan,
