drugs and medicine: pharmacology, sources of drugs, animal, plant, microbiological, synthetic sources of drugs

1. .

2. ◦ pharmacology is the study of how a
drug affects a biological system and
how the body response to the
drug.The discipline encompasses the
sources, chemical properties,
biological effects and therapeutic uses
of drugs. These effects can be
therapeutic or toxic,depending on
many factors.

3. Pharmacology has two major branches:
• Pharmacokinetics, which refers to the absorption,
distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs.
• Pharmacodynamics, which refers to the molecular,
biochemical, and physiological effects of drugs, including drug
mechanism of action.

4. Oswald Schmiedeberg
◦ Oswald Schmiedeberg was a
German pharmacologist. He is
regarded as the Father of
Pharmacology. He put forward
many fundamental concepts in
pharmacology.

5. “Pharmacology- study of substances that interact with living systems
through chemical processes, by binding to regulatory molecules and
activating or inhibiting normal body processes.” SCOPE: An area in
which something – Acts OR – Operates OR – Has power OR Control.

6. ◦ A drug is any substance that causes a
change in an organism's physiology or
psychology when consumed. Drugs are
typically distinguished from food and
substances that provide nutritional support.
Consumption of drugs can be via
inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestion,
absorption via a patch on the skin, or
dissolution under the tongue.

7. ◦ In pharmacology, a drug is a chemical substance, typically of known
structure, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a
biological effect. A pharmaceutical drug, also called a medication or
medicine, is a chemical substance used to treat, cure, prevent, or
diagnose a disease or to promote well-being. Traditionally drugs were
obtained through extraction from medicinal plants, but more recently
also by organic synthesis. Pharmaceutical drugs may be used for a
limited duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders.

8. ◦ Around 1600 BC was written Edwin Smith Papyrus, it describes the use
of many herbal drugs, around 1550 BC was written the most important
medical papyri of ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus, it covers more than
700 drugs, mainly of plant origin.
◦ Excluding distilled spirits, the first addictive ingredient isolated from a
natural product was morphine, which was extracted from crude opium
by F.W.A. Serturner, a German pharmacist, in 1806.

9. There are essentially seven different drug types, each with its own
set of characteristics, effects and dangers. Categories include
stimulants(e.g. cocaine), depressants(e.g. alcohol),
hallucinogens(e.g. LSD), dissociatives, Opium-related
painkillers(e.g. heroin), inhalants and cannabis.
◦ Toxicology is a scientific discipline, overlapping with biology,
chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, that involves the study of
the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms
and the practice of diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins
and toxicants.

10. ◦ Seizures, stroke, mental confusion and brain damage. Lung disease.
Problems with memory, attention and decision-making, which make
daily living more difficult. Global effects of drugs on the body, such as
breast development in men and increases in body temperature, which
can lead to other health problems.
◦ Drugs interfere with the way neurons send, receive, and process
signals via neurotransmitters. Some drugs, such as marijuana and
heroin, can activate neurons because their chemical structure mimics
that of a natural neurotransmitter in the body. ... This too amplifies or
disrupts the normal communication between neurons.

11. ◦ Sometimes when people say "drugs," they mean only the drugs
that can lead to addiction. But if you use the word “drug” to mean all
the medications that can treat illness, then most drugs aren't
addictive: antibiotics, allergy medications, mild pain relievers like
aspirin, and many others.
◦ Most drugs affect the brain's "reward circuit," causing euphoria as
well as flooding it with the chemical messenger dopamine. A
properly functioning reward system motivates a person to repeat
behaviors needed to thrive, such as eating and spending time with
loved ones.

12. ◦ Caffeine is defined as a drug because it stimulates the central nervous
system, causing increased alertness. Caffeine gives most people a
temporary energy boost and elevates mood. Caffeine is in tea, coffee,
chocolate, many soft drinks, and pain relievers and other over-the-
counter medications.
◦ Illegal drugs aren't good for anyone, but they are particularly bad for a
kid or teen whose body is still growing. Illegal drugs can damage the
brain, heart, and other important organs. Cocaine, for instance, can
cause a heart attack — even in a kid or teen.

13. Target validation is the first step in discovering a new drug and can
typically take 2-6 months. The process involves the application of a
range of techniques that aim to demonstrate that drug effects on the
target can provide a therapeutic benefit with an acceptable safety
window.

14. It is important to distinguish between actions of drugs and their effects. Actions
of drugs are the biochemical physiological mechanisms by which the chemical
produces a response in living organisms. The effect is the observable
consequence of a drug action. ... The primary effect is the desired therapeutic
effect.
• The duration of action of a drug is the length of time that particular drug is
effective. Duration of action is a function of several parameters including
plasma half-life, the time to equilibrate between plasma and target
compartments, and the off rate of the drug from its biological target.

15. The elimination half-life of a drug is a pharmacokinetic parameter that is
defined as the time it takes for the concentration of the drug in the
plasma or the total amount in the body to be reduced by 50%. In other
words, after one half-life, the concentration of the drug in the body will be
half of the starting dose.
A contraindication is a specific situation in which a drug, procedure, or
surgery should not be used because it may be harmful to the person. ...
Relative contraindication means that caution should be used when two
drugs or procedures are used together. (It is acceptable to do so if the
benefits outweigh the risk.)

16. Efficacy is the ability to get a job done to a satisfactory degree. ... The
word efficacy is used in pharmacology and medicine to refer both to the
maximum response achievable from a pharmaceutical drug in research
settings, and to the capacity for sufficient therapeutic effect or beneficial
change in clinical settings.

17. Drug targets
• G protein-coupled receptors (target of 50% of drugs)
• enzymes (especially protein kinases, proteases, esterases, and phosphatases)
• ion channels. ligand-gated ion channels. voltage-gated ion channels.
• nuclear hormone receptors.
• structural proteins such as tubulin.
• membrane transport proteins.

18. ◦ The science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease (in
technical use often taken to exclude surgery).
OR
◦ A drug or other preparation for the treatment or prevention of disease.
OR
◦ Medicine is the science and practice of establishing the diagnosis, prognosis,
treatment, and prevention of disease. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care
practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of
illness.

20. Hippocrates
◦ Hippocrates is considered to be the father of modern medicine
because in his books, which are more than 70. He described in a
scientific manner, many diseases and their treatment after detailed
observation. He lived about 2400 years ago.

21. ◦ There are many overlapping terms in medicine. Side effects and adverse effects, for
example, being two of the most common. Drugs and medicines, too, are two terms whose
meanings overlap – so what is, then, the difference between a drug and a medicine?
◦ To answer this question, we need to ask about purpose – more specifically, what is the purpose
of a medicine and what is the purpose of a drug?
◦ The purpose of a medicine is to prevent, alleviate or cure a symptom, ailment or disease state. In
other words, the purpose of a medicine is benign; it’s a product produced and regulated to impart
a positive medical effect on a patient.
◦ A medicine also tends to have many different components. In addition to the active ingredient,
medicines also contain other substances, called excipients, that assist in the formulation and
efficacy of that medicine for the patient.

22. ◦ A drug, in contrast to a medicine, can have a positive or negative effect on a patient.
◦ For example, heroin is a drug, in that it’s a substance that causes a specific biological
effect. Heroin is not, though, categorised as a substance that “prevents, alleviates or
cures a symptom, ailment or disease state”. In that sense, heroin is a not a medicine.
◦ Both drugs and medicines can be poisons, though. This depends on the dose of the
drug and/or medicine. As Paracelsus (1493-1541), the founder of toxicology, said, “All
things are poisons and nothing is without poison, only the dosage makes a thing not
poison”.
◦ To conclude – all medicines are drugs, whereas not all drugs are medicines.
◦ The difference between a drug and a medicine is, then, a slight and simple but
significant one.

23. Drugs are obtained from six major sources:
◦ Animal sources.
◦ Mineral/ Earth sources.
◦ Microbiological sources.
◦ Semi synthetic sources/ Synthetic sources.
◦ Recombinant DNA technology.
◦ Plant sources

24. ◦ A natural product is a chemical compound or substance produced by a
living organism—that is, found in nature. ... Many secondary
metabolites are cytotoxic and have been selected and optimized
through evolution for use as "chemical warfare" agents against prey,
predators, and competing organisms.
◦ Drugs of plant, animal, microbiological, marine, mineral, geographical
origins constitute the natural sources. The entire plant, plant parts,
secretion, and exudate of plants are the sources of plant drugs

25. Animals
sources
of drug

26. ◦ Pancreas is a source of Insulin, used in treatment of Diabetes.
◦ Urine of pregnant women gives human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) used for the
treatment of infertility.
◦ Sheep thyroid is a source of thyroxin, used in hypertension.
◦ Cod liver is used as a source of vitamin A and D.
◦ Anterior pituitary is a source of pituitary gonadotropins, used in treatment of infertility.
◦ Blood of animals is used in preparation of vaccines.
◦ Stomach tissue contains pepsin and trypsin, which are digestive juices used in
treatment of peptic diseases in the past. Nowadays better drugs have replaced them.

27. Certain animal parts and animal products are used as drug in therapeutics. The major
group of animal products used in medicine is hormone, enzymes, animal extractives,
organs and bile acids.
A. Hormones:
i. Thyroid:
◦ Thyroid is a modified preparation of thyroid gland of sheep and pigs. It is given orally to treat
patients suffering from thyroid insufficiency. It contains the hormone thyroxin and
liothyronine.
ii. Conjugated oestrogens:
◦ Conjugated oestrogens are an amorphous preparation containing water-soluble conjugated
forms of mixed estrogens obtained from urine of pregnant mares. It is employed in the
treatment of menopausal symptoms in the female and also used for therapy of dysmenorrhea.

29. iii. Insulin:
◦ Insulin is a polypeptide hormone secreted by the beta cells of the islets of langerhans,
situated in the pancreas of all vertebrates this day it may of catties or pigs is the major
source of this hormone. These days it may be obtained by recombinant DNA
technology. Insulin is available in several different forms. It is used in the therapy of
diabetes mellitus.
iv. Epinephrine (adrenaline):
◦ Epinephrine is a hormone produced adrenal medulla in man. It is found in other
animals also. Because of its simple structure, all of the epinephrine used in medicine
today is prepared by synthetic means. It is used as a vasoconstrictor drug. It is also a
rapid acting bronchi dilator useful in the treatment of acute asthma.

31. v. Oxytocin:
◦ Oxytocin is a polypeptide hormone secreted by posterior pituitary gland. It causes
constriction of uterine muscles and also stimulating the ejection of milk in lactating
mothers. This hormone is obtained from the pituitary glands of cattle’s and pigs. It
can also be prepared by synthesis. Oxytocin is used to induce labour in full-term
pregnant women and to stop hemorrhage after childbirth.
vi. Vasopressin:
◦ Vasopressin is also a peptide hormone obtained from the posterior lobe of pituitary
gland of healthy catties and pigs. It is used in the treatment of intestinal paralysis. It is
also in the treatment of diabetes insipid us because of its anti-diuretic action.

32. B. Enzymes:
(i) Pancreatin:
◦ Pancreatin is a preparation, which contains enzymes of the pancreas. It is prepared
commercially from pig pancreas. It is used in the treatment of pancreatitis condition
resulting from a deficient production of these enzymes by the body.
(ii) Trypsin:
◦ Trypsin is a proteolytic enzyme prepared commercially from an extract of ox pancreas.
It is used by topical application for the treatment of wounds, ulcers, abscesses, and
fistulas. It is also used for the same purposes inflammatory agent

33. (iii) Chrymotrypsin:
◦ Chrymotrypsin is also proteolytic enzyme produced by the pancreas in the form of
inactive chrymotiypsinogen. The enzyme is obtained commercially from the pancreas
of ox. It is used for the same purposes as trypsin.
(iv) Fibrinolysin:
◦ Fibrinolysin is prepared from pro-fibrinogen, which is isolated from human plasma. It
is activated to Fibrinolysin by streptokinase. It is employed in the treatment of venous
thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, but it is of questionable value.

34. (v) Pepsin:
◦ Pepsin is the main proyeolytic enzyme of the
gastric juice. It is produced commercially from
grendular layer of fresh pig stomach. Pepsin is
useful in the treatment of achylia gastric, a
condition in which the stomach fails to produce
both acid and pepsin. This condition is observed
most often in patients suffering from pernicious
anaemia or gastric carcinoma.

35. C. Animal extractives and organs:
◦ Liver and stomach preparations and bile are examples of this group. Liver and
stomach are derived from healthy and domesticated animals and converted into
suitable preparations, which are used as replacement therapy in pernicious anemia.
D. Bile is a natural secretion of the liver which passes into the
intestinal tract and aid in the digestion of fats by emulsifying them and promoting their
absorption.

37. Metallic and Non metallic sources:
◦ Iron is used in treatment of iron deficiency anemia.
◦ Mercurial salts are used in Syphilis.
◦ Zinc is used as zinc supplement. Zinc oxide paste is used in wounds and in eczema.
◦ Iodine is antiseptic. Iodine supplements are also used.
◦ Gold salts are used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

38. ◦ Metals in medicine are used in organic systems for diagnostic and treatment purposes.[1]
Inorganic elements are also essential for organic life as cofactors in enzymes called
metalloproteins. When metals are scarce or high quantities, equilibrium is set out of balance
and must be returned to its natural state via interventional and natural methods.
◦ Metals are used for diagnosis.
◦ Metals are sed in treatment.e.g
 zinc is used to heal wounds...
 gold salt complexes are used to treat rheumatid arthiritis etc...
 silver and copper have anti-cancer properties...

39. Miscellaneous Sources:
◦ Fluorine has antiseptic properties.
◦ Borax has antiseptic properties as
well.
◦ Selenium as selenium sulphide is used
in anti dandruff shampoos.
◦ Petroleum is used in preparation of
liquid paraffin.

40. I. Synthetic Sources:
◦ When the nucleus of the drug from natural source as well as its chemical structure is altered,
we call it synthetic.
◦ Examples include Emetine Bismuth Iodide
ii. Semi Synthetic Source:
◦ When the nucleus of drug obtained from natural source is retained but the chemical structure is
altered, we call it semi-synthetic.
◦ Examples include Apomorphine, Diacetyl morphine, Ethinyl Estradiol,
Homatropine, Ampicillin and Methyl testosterone.
◦ Most of the drugs used nowadays (such as antianxiety drugs, anti convulsants) are synthetic
forms.

41.  Synthetic drugs are chemical compounds produced in a laboratory. They can be produced
commercially by drug manufacturers for valid medical purposes and are diverted from legal
channels or produced illegally in clandestine laboratories for illicit markets worldwide.
 Types of Synthetic Drug:
Based on their chemical composition, synthetic drugs are commonly divided into two categories:
 Cannabinoids such as K2 and Spice. Synthetic Cannabinoids are chemicals that mimic the
effect of THC, the primary psychoactive active ingredient in marijuana.
 Stimulants such as Bath Salts. Most synthetic stimulants contain chemical compounds that
mimic the effects of cocaine, LSD and methamphetamine. (Similar drugs include MDMA
sometimes referred to as “ecstasy”, “molly”).
 The first synthetic drug, chloral hydrate, was discovered in 1869 and introduced as a
sedative-hypnotic; it is still available today in some countries.

42.  Synthetic drugs can have severe, adverse effects on health, a high potential for addiction and
abuse, and can be potentially life threatening. According to the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, 15 people in the U.S died from synthetic drugs in the first half of 2015---three
times as many as the same period in 2014. American Association of Poison Control Centers
also indicated there were about 1,000 reports of synthetic drugs related hospitalizations in April
2015 alone; it was more than double the total number of cases seen in the first three months of
2015 and nearly four times the total recorded by this time last year.

43.  For synthetic cannabinoids, the effects include severe agitation and anxiety, nausea, vomiting,
tachycardia (fast, racing heartbeat), elevated blood pressure, tremors and seizures,
hallucinations, dilated pupils, and suicidal and other harmful thoughts and/or actions.
 For synthetic stimulants, the effects include increased heart rate and blood pressure, chest
pain, extreme paranoia, hallucinations, delusions, and violent behavior, which causes users to
harm themselves or others.
 For MDMA, the effects include severe hyperthermia, dehydration, long term learning
impairment, nausea, chills, sweating, involuntary jaw clenching and teeth grinding, muscle
cramping, blurred vision, high blood pressure, heart failure and arrhythmia.

44.  The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has indicated that the primary users of these
synthetic drugs are youth. This is because products are cheap and easily accessible to
teenagers online or in gas stations, and at convenience stores, smoke shops, and head shops.
 Synthetic cannabinoids are often sold as herbal incense in convenience stores, tobacco shops,
or head shops, and common brand names include “Spice”, “K2 “, Blaze”, “Red X Dawn”,
“Genie” and “Zohai” etc.
 Synthetic stimulants are often labeled as “bath salts” because they are usually white or brown
crystal-like powder. The brand names include “Ivory Wave”, “Purple Wave”, “Red Dove”,
“Blue Silk”, “Zoom”, “Bloom”, “Cloud Nine”, “Ocean Snow”, “Lunar Wave”, “Vanilla Sky”, “White
Lightning”, “Scarface” and “Hurricane Charlie” etc.
 MDMA is usually sold in nightclubs and at all-night dance parties ("raves"). It commonly comes
in capsule or tablet form but can also be crystalline powder or liquid form. The brand names
include “Ecstasy”, “XTC”, “E”, “X”, “Beans”, “Adams”, “Love Drug”, “Hug Drug”, “Scooby
snacks”, “Snowball” etc.

45.  Semi-synthetic drugs are neither completely natural nor completely synthetic. They are a
hybrid and are generally made by chemically modifying substances that are available from
natural source to improve its potency, efficacy and/or reduce side effects. Sometimes, semi-
synthetic processes are used to prepare drugs when the natural sources may yield impure
compounds or when the synthesis of drugs (complex molecules) may be difficult, expensive,
and commercially unviable.
 In semi-synthetic drugs, the nucleus of drug obtained from natural source is kept intact but the
chemical structure is altered. Examples of semi-synthetic medicine include heroin from
morphine, bromoscopolamine from scopolamine, homatropine from atropine, ampicillin from
penicillin etc.

47. ◦ Penicillium notatum is a fungus which
gives penicillin.
◦ Actinobacteria give Streptomycin.
◦ Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin
and tobramycin are obtained from
streptomycis and micromonosporas.

48.  Antibiotics are specific for the type of bacteria being treated and, in general, cannot be
interchanged from one infection to another. When antibiotics are used correctly, they are
usually safe with few side effects.
 However, as with most drugs, antibiotics can lead to side effects that may range from being a
nuisance to serious or life-threatening. In infants and the elderly, in patients with kidney or liver
disease, in pregnant or breastfeeding women, and in many other patient groups antibiotic
doses may need to be adjusted based upon the specific characteristics of the patient, like
kidney or liver function, weight, or age. Drug interactions can also be common with antibiotics.
Health care providers are able to assess each patient individually to determine the correct
antibiotic and dose.

49.  Antibiotics are not the correct choice for all infections. For example, most sore throats, cough
and colds, flu or acute sinusitis are viral in origin (not bacterial) and do not need an
antibiotic. These viral infections are “self-limiting”, meaning that your own immune system will
usually kick in and fight the virus off. In fact, using antibiotics for viral infections can increase
the risk for antibiotic resistance, lower the options for future treatments if an antibiotic is
needed, and put a patient at risk for side effects and extra cost due to unnecessary drug
treatment.
 Antibiotic resistant bacteria cannot be fully inhibited or killed by an antibiotic, even though the
antibiotic may have worked effectively before the resistance occurred. Don't share your
antibiotic or take medicine that was prescribed for someone else, and don't save an antibiotic
to use the next time you get sick.

50. ◦ Recombinant DNA technology is the joining together of DNA molecules
from two different species. The recombined DNA molecule is inserted
into a host organism to produce new genetic combinations that are of
value to science, medicine, agriculture, and industry.

51. ◦ The new techniques for preparing certain drugs e.g. human insulin,insulin analogs,
erythropoietin.
◦ human insulin and insulin analogs may be prepared by inserting human or modified pro-insulin
gene into e-coli or yeast and treating the extraed pro-insulin to form insulin and insulin analogs.
◦ ADVANTAGES:
1. mass production
2. cost effective
3. less immunological reactions.

53. ◦ Plant source is the oldest source of drugs. Most of the drugs in ancient times were derived from
plants. Almost all parts of the plants are used i.e. leaves, stem, bark, fruits and roots.
◦ Leaves:
◦ a. The leaves of Digitalis Purpurea are the source of Digitoxin and Digoxin, which are cardiac glycosides.
◦ b. Leaves of Eucalyptus give oil of Eucalyptus, which is important component of cough syrup.
◦ c. Tobacco leaves give nicotine.
◦ d. Atropa belladonna gives atropine.
◦ Flowers:
◦ Poppy papaver somniferum gives morphine (opoid)
◦ Vinca rosea gives vincristine and vinblastine
◦ Rose gives rose water used as tonic.
◦ Photo of Papaver somniferum by Evelyn Simak

54. Fruits:
◦ Senna pod gives anthracine, which is a purgative (used in constipation)
◦ Calabar beans give physostigmine, which is cholinomimetic agent.
Seeds:
◦ Seeds of Nux Vomica give strychnine, which is a CNS stimulant.
◦ Castor oil seeds give castor oil.
◦ Calabar beans give Physostigmine, which is a cholinomimetic drug.
Roots:
◦ Ipecacuanha root gives Emetine, used to induce vomiting as in accidental poisoning. It also has
amoebicidal properties.
◦ Rauwolfia serpentina gives reserpine, a hypotensive agent.
◦ Reserpine was used for hypertension treatment.

55. Bark:
◦ Cinchona bark gives quinine and quinidine, which are antimalarial drugs. Quinidine
also has antiarrythmic properties.
◦ Atropa belladonna gives atropine, which is anticholinergic.
◦ Hyoscyamus Niger gives Hyosine, which is also anticholinergic.
Stem:
◦ Chondrodendron tomentosum gives tuboqurarine, which is skeletal muscle relaxant
used in general anesthesia

58. ◦ Plants have been the basis for medical treatments through much of human history, and such
traditional medicine is still widely practiced today. Modern medicine makes use of many plant-
derived compounds as the basis for evidence-based pharmaceutical drugs. Although herbalism
may apply modern standards of effectiveness testing to herbs and medicines derived from
natural sources, few high-quality clinical trials and standards for purity or dosage exist.
◦ Herbal medicine is also called phytomedicine or phytotherapy. Paraherbalism describes
alternative and pseudoscientific practices of using unrefined plant or animal extracts as
unproven medicines or health-promoting agents. Paraherbalism differs from plant-derived
medicines in standard pharmacology because it does not isolate or standardize biologically
active compounds, but rather relies on the belief that preserving various substances from a
given source with less processing is safer or more effective – for which there is no evidence.
Herbal dietary supplements most often fall under the phytotherapy categor

60. ◦ Archaeological evidence indicates that the use of medicinal plants dates back to the Paleolithic
age, approximately 60,000 years ago. Written evidence of herbal remedies dates back over
5,000 years to the Sumerians, who compiled lists of plants. Some ancient cultures wrote about
plants and their medical uses in books called herbals. In ancient Egypt, herbs are mentioned in
Egyptian medical papyri, depicted in tomb illustrations, or on rare occasions found in medical
jars containing trace amounts of herbs.[6] Among the oldest, lengthiest, and most important
medical papyri of ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus dates from about 1550 BC, and covers
more than 700 compounds, mainly of plant origin.[7] The earliest known Greek herbals came
from Theophrastus of Eresos who, in the 4th century BC, wrote in Greek Historia Plantarum,
from Diocles of Carystus who wrote during the 3rd century BC, and from Krateuas who wrote in
the 1st century BC. Only a few fragments of these works have survived intact, but from what
remains, scholars noted overlap with the Egyptian herbals.

61. ◦ The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80 percent of the population of some
Asian and African countries presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health
care. Pharmaceuticals are prohibitively expensive for most of the world's population, half of
whom lived on less than $2 U.S. per day in 2002. In comparison, herbal medicines can be
grown from seed or gathered from nature for little or no cost.
◦ Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as
herbal remedies, including artemisinin, opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. According to the
World Health Organization, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have
been derived from plants. At least 7,000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are
derived from plants. Among the 120 active compounds currently isolated from the higher plants
and widely used in modern medicine today, 80% show a positive correlation between their
modern therapeutic use and the traditional use of the plants from which they are derived.

63. ◦ The use of herbal remedies is more prevalent in patients with chronic diseases such as cancer,
diabetes, asthma and end-stage kidney disease.Multiple factors such as gender, age, ethnicity,
education and social class are also shown to have association with prevalence of herbal
remedies use.
◦ Herbal remedies are very common in Europe. In Germany, herbal medications are dispensed
by apothecaries (e.g., Apotheke). Prescription drugs are sold alongside essential oils, herbal
extracts, or herbal teas. Herbal remedies are seen by some as a treatment to be preferred to
pure medical compounds that have been industrially produced.
◦ In India the herbal remedy is so popular that the government of India has created a separate
department—AYUSH—under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. The National Medicinal
Plants Board was also established in 2000 by the Indian government in order to deal with the
herbal medical system.

65. ◦ There are many forms in which herbs can be administered, the most common of which is in the
form of a liquid that is drunk by the patient—either an herbal tea or a (possibly diluted) plant
extract.
◦ Several methods of standardization may be determining the amount of herbs used. One is the
ratio of raw materials to solvent. However different specimens of even the same plant species
may vary in chemical content. For this reason, thin layer chromatography is sometimes used by
growers to assess the content of their products before use. Another method is standardization
on a signal chemical.

66. ◦ Many herbs are applied topically to the skin in a variety of forms. Essential oil extracts can be
applied to the skin, usually diluted in a carrier oil. Many essential oils can burn the skin or are
simply too high dose used straight; diluting them in olive oil or another food grade oil such as
almond oil can allow these to be used safely as a topical. Salves, oils, balms, creams and
lotions are other forms of topical delivery mechanisms. Most topical applications are oil
extractions of herbs. Taking a food grade oil and soaking herbs in it for anywhere from weeks to
months allows certain phytochemicals to be extracted into the oil. This oil can then be made into
salves, creams, lotions, or simply used as an oil for topical application. Many massage oils,
antibacterial salves, and wound healing compounds are made this way.[35]

68. ◦ A number of herbs are thought to be likely to cause adverse effects. Furthermore, "adulteration,
inappropriate formulation, or lack of understanding of plant and drug interactions have led to
adverse reactions that are sometimes life threatening or lethal."] Proper double-blind clinical
trials are needed to determine the safety and efficacy of each plant before they can be
recommended for medical use. Although many consumers believe that herbal medicines are
safe because they are "natural", herbal medicines and synthetic drugs may interact, causing
toxicity to the patient.
◦ Standardization of purity and dosage is not mandated in the United States, but even products
made to the same specification may differ as a result of biochemical variations within a species
of plant.Plants have chemical defense mechanisms against predators that can have adverse or
lethal effects on humans. Examples of highly toxic herbs include poison hemlock and
nightshade.

69. ◦ Herbalists must learn many skills, including the wildcrafting or cultivation of herbs, diagnosis and
treatment of conditions or dispensing herbal medication, and preparations of herbal medications.
Education of herbalists varies considerably in different areas of the world. Lay herbalists and
traditional indigenous medicine people generally rely upon apprenticeship and recognition from their
communities in lieu of formal schooling.[citation needed]
◦ In some countries, formalized training and minimum education standards exist, although these are
not necessarily uniform within or between countries. In Australia, for example, the self-regulated
status of the profession (as of 2009) resulted in variable standards of training, and numerous loosely-
formed associations setting different educational standards. One 2009 review concluded that
regulation of herbalists in Australia was needed to reduce the risk of interaction of herbal medicines
with prescription drugs, to implement clinical guidelines and prescription of herbal products, and to
assure self-regulation for protection of public health and safety] In the United Kingdom, the training of
herbalists is done by state funded universities offering Bachelor of Science degrees in herbal
medicine.