Definition of matter States of matter- solid, liquid, gas, plasma. Gas laws, kinetic molecular theory of gases Phase transitions Latent heat Vapour pressure Phase rule & phase diagram Eutectic mixture Aerosol Relative humidity Liquid complexes Liquid crystals Glassy state

1. STATES OF MATTER
Presented by:
Mahewash Sana A. Pathan

2. Content:
• Definition of matter
• States of matter- solid, liquid, gas, plasma.
• Gas laws, kinetic molecular theory of gases
• Phase transitions
• Latent heat
• Vapour pressure
• Phase rule & phase diagram
• Eutectic mixture
• Aerosol
• Relative humidity
• Liquid complexes
• Liquid crystals
• Glassy state

3. STATES OF MATTER
• Matter is the 'stuff’ of the universe -The atoms, molecules
and ions that make up all physical substances.
• Matter is anything that has mass and take up space (volume).
• Three main state of matter, these are three distinct physical
forms that matter can take in most environment
1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gaseous
• Other states- plasma, bose- einstein condensates, neutron
starts and quark gluon plasmas.

4. SOLID STATE
• Matter in the solid state maintains a fixed
volume and shape, with component particle
(atoms, molecules or ions) close together and
fixed into place
• The forces between particles are so strong
that the particles cannot move freely but can
vibrate.
• Can only change their shape by force as when
broken or cut.
Solid Liquid
Melting
Gas
Sublimation

5. Solids
Crystalline
Ionic Molecular Atomic Metallic
Amorphous

6. CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
• Arranged in regular & repetitive manner forming 3D array.
• Strong intermolecular forces.
• Characteristic geometric shape.
• Sharp melting point.
• Can diffract X-rays.
• Low solubility rate.
• Various habitats-

7. IONIC SOLIDS:
positive & negative ions retained by electrostatic attractions.
High m.p.. Poor conductors, e.g. NaCl
MOLECULAR SOLIDS:
contain atoms / molecules,
London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interaction or H-bond.
Low m.p., Poor conductors, e.g. Sucrose
ATOMIC SOLIDS:
covalent network solids, High m.p., Bad conductors,
e.g. Diamond, graphite.
METALLIC SOLIDS:
Metallic bonds, Can be soft to very hard,
Good conductors

8. AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
• Amorphous ( a-without, morphe- shape or form)
• Called as Supercooled liquids.
• Molecules arranged in random manner.
• They tends to flow when subjected to pressure.
• High solubility therefore high bioavailability.

10. LIQUID STATE
• A liquid is a fluid that conforms to the
shape of its container but that retain a
nearly constant volume independent of
pressure.
• Volume is usually greater than the
corresponding solid.
• Liquid can be converted to gas through
evaporation.

11. GASEOUS STATE
• Gas molecules have either very weak
intermolecular bonds or no bonds at all,
so they can move freely & quickly.
Therefore they conform to the shape of
its container.
• Have enough kinetic energy.
• A vapour can be liquefied through
compression without cooling.

12. GAS LAWS
1. BOYLE’S LAW
“Pressure of a fixed amount of gas at a constant
temperature is inversely proportional to Volume of
gas.”
V α 1 / P
OR
P1V1 = P2V2

13. 2. CHARLE’S LAW
“ Volume of a gas maintained at constant pressure is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature of
the gas.”
V α T
OR
V1/T1 = V2T2

14. 3. GAY- LUSSAC’S LAW
“Pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with the
absolute temperature of the gas, when the volume is
kept constant.”
P1/T1 = P2/T2

15. 4. AAVOGADRO’S LAW
“ Volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number
of moles in the sample at constant temperature &
pressure”
V α n
Or
V1/n1 = V2/n2

16. IDEAL GAS EQUATION
R- Gas constant
8.314 J/mol K

17. PLASMA STATE
• Like a gas, plasma does not have a definite shape or volume.
Unlike gases, plasmas are electrically conductive, produce
magnetic fields & electric currents & respond strongly to
electromagnetic forces.
• E.g. Sun’s corona, some types of flame & stars,
• Plasma state is is not freely existing under normal conditions
on earth. it is quite commonly generated by either lightening
electric sparks, fluorescent lights, neon lights or in plasma
television.

18. PHASE TRANSITIONS/ CHANGES IN THE
STATES OF MATTER

19. LATENT HEAT
• “Latent heat is a thermal energy released
or absorbed by a body during a constant
temperature process.”
• Latent heat can be understood as heat
energy in hidden form which is supplied or
extracted to change the state of a
substance without changing its
temperature.
• The term was introduced around 1762 by
British chemist Joseph black it is derived
from the Latin word Latere ( to lie hidden).

20. • Two common forms of latent heat are
1. latent heat of fusion
. E. g. Enthalpy of fusion of ice is 80cal/gm
2. latent heat of vaporization.
E. g. Enthalpy of vaporization of water is 540 cal/gm.

21. VAPOUR PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS
• Vapour pressure or equilibrium vapour pressure is
defined as the pressure exerted by the vapours on
the liquid & walls of container at equilibrium.
Unit for measurement:
Pascal(Pa)
1Pa = N/m^2
In medical context, unit
is 'mmHg’.

22. • The Antoine equation is a mathematical expression of the
relation between vapour pressure & the temperature of pure
liquid or solid substance.
log P= A-B/ C+ T
Where, P= Absolute vapour pressure
T= Temperature of substance
A, B, C= substance specific coefficients (constant)

23. PHASE DIAGRAM AND PHASE RULE
James Willard Gibbs
The Gibbs phase rule identifies the degree of freedom of
a multiphase system that is in thermodynamic equilibrium.

24. ONE COMPONENT SYSTEM (Water)
Inside the regions
F = C – P + 2
F = 1- 1 + 2
F = 2
On the curves
F = C -P + 2
F = 1 – 2 +2
F = 1
At triple point
F = C – P +2
F = 1- 3 + 2
F = 0

25. CONDENSED SYSTEMS
• “Physical or chemical systems, in which an equilibrium exists
between solid-liquid phases & gaseous phase is practically
absent.”
• Effect of pressure on such system is neglected, therefore,
only 2 variables i.e. temp & concentration are taken into
considerations.
F = C – P + 1
Consist of-
Two component system
Three component system

26. TWO COMPONENT SYSTEM
(Phenol-water system)
Above the curve
F = C – P + 1
F = 2 – 1 + 1
F = 2
Inside the curve
F = C – P + 1
F = 2 – 2 + 1
F = 1

27. THREE COMPONENT SYSTEM
Inside the curve
F = C – P + 1
F = 3 – 2 + 1
F = 2
Binodal
curve

28. KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES
• Developed to explain behavior of gases & to
additional support to the gas laws.
• Basic assumptions:-
1. Gases consist of a large number of
particles (atoms/ molecules) in constant
random motion.
2. Volume of individual molecule is negligible
compare to volume of container.
3. Due to random motion, particles collide
with wall and pressure is exerted by gas.
4. Intermolecular force are negligible.
5. Average K. E. of gas particles is directly
proportional to kelvin temp. of gas.

29. EUTECTIC MIXTURES
Greek, ‘eutektos’- easily melted
“A mixture of 2 or more components, which usually do not
interact to form a new chemical compound but, at certain
concentration ratio, inhibit the crystallization of one
another resulting in a system having lower melting point
than either of the components.”
Examples:
• Salol- thymol
• Nacl – water
• 60% NaNO3 and 40% KNO3
• Lidocaine and prilocaine
• Menthol and camphor

30. • Formation of eutectic mixture is governed by:
i. The components must be miscible in liquid state &
mostly immiscible in solid state.
ii. Intimate contact between eutectic forming
materials is necessary.
iii. The components should have chemical groups that
interact to form physical bonds such as H-bond, etc.
iv. The molecules which are in accordance to modified
Vant hoff’s equation can form eutectic mixtures.

31. SALOL-THYMOL EUTECTIC MIXTURE:
51˚C
42˚C

32. AEROSOL
“Aerosol is a pressurized dosage
form containing one or more
therapeutic active ingredients
which upon actuation emit a
fine dispersion of liquid/ solid
material in a gaseous
medium.”

35. COMPONENTS OF AEROSOL
• Propellant
• Container
• Valve & Actuator
• Product concentrate

49. Manufacture of pharmaceutical aerosol
1. Pressure filling
2. Cold filling

59. LIQUID COMPLEX OR COMPLEX FLUIDS
“Complex fluids and soft matter are materials intermediate
between conventional liquids and solids, displaying fluid‐like as
well as solid‐like behavior”.
OR
“Complex fluids are binary mixtures that have a coexistance
between two phases: solid- liquid (suspensions or solutions of
macromolecules such as polymers), solid-gas (granular), liquid-
gas (foams) & liquid- liquid ( emulsions).

60. • Examples are polymeric melts or solutions, glasses, gels,
foams and granular matter.
• Many of these systems are inherently disordered and
strongly heterogeneous with large fluctuations on a wide
range of length‐ and time‐scales.
• Furthermore many complex fluids, such as glasses or
gels, never relax to equilibrium, which makes a
theoretical analysis difficult.
• Complex systems are distinguished by a rather general
common feature: their behavior is determined by
competing processes of self-organization (ordering) and
self disorganization (disordering) creating a hierarchical
adaptive structure.

61. • A notion of complexity is also used in amorphous
materials exhibiting slow and non-exponential relaxation,
in particular in glass-forming liquids and glasses.
• Not every liquid becomes complex on cooling. Three-
dimensional (3D) liquids with simple two-particle
interactions (molten metals and salts, liquefied noble
gases, and also computer liquids of Lennard-Jones (LJ),
soft core, Morse particles) aggressively crystallize on
cooling before they show any significant signs of
complexity.

62. Gels and glasses:
• If the molecules in a polymeric melt or dense solution are
sufficiently crosslinked, a gel transition is observed, when a
macroscopic cluster of connected molecules forms for the first
time. Whereas in the fluid or sol phase at low crosslinking the
molecules explore all the available volume, in the gel or
amorphous solid phase the particles are localized a random
positions and perform finite thermal excursions.
Fig. 1: Spanning cluster (green) of crosslinked
molecules

63. DYNAMICS
• Dynamics of particles in complex fluids are an area of current
research.
• Energy lost due to friction may be a non linear function of the
velocity and normal forces.
• The topological inhibition to flow by the crowding of
constituent particles is a key element in these systems.
• Under certain conditions, including high densities and
low temperatures, when externally driven to induce flow,
complex fluids are characterized by irregular intervals of solid-
like behavior followed by stress relaxations due to particle
rearrangements.
• The dynamics of these systems are highly nonlinear in nature.
• The increase in stress by an infinitesimal amount or a small
displacement of a single particle can result in the difference
between an arrested state and fluid-like behavior.

64. • Although many materials found in nature can fit into the
class of complex fluids, very little is well understood
about them.
• Inconsistent and controversial conclusions concerning
their material properties still persist. The careful study of
these systems may lead to "new physics" and new states
of matter.
• For example, it has been suggested that these systems
can jam and a "jamming phase diagram" can be used to
consider how these systems can jam and unjam. It is not
known whether further research will demonstrate these
findings, or whether such a theoretical framework will
prove useful. As yet this large body of theoretical work
has been poorly supported with experiments.

65. LIQUID CRYSTALS

76. GLASSY STATE
“Glass is a non-equilibrium, non-crystalline state of
matter that appears solid on a short time scale but
continuously relaxes towards the liquid state.”
Or
“Glass is a non-equilibrium, non-crystalline condensed
state of matter that exhibits a glass transition.”
• Glasses can be made of quite different classes of
materials- inorganic networks, metallic alloys, ionic
melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids &
polymers.

77. • Glasses are prepared by melting crystalline
materials at very high temperature, when the
melt cools, the atoms are enclosed in a
random state before they can form in a
perfect crystalline arrangement.