Political Behavior, Vol. 15, No. 4, 1993 .docx

Political Behavior, Vol. 15, No. 4, 1993
CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF
GOOD CITIZENSHIP AND
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
Elizabeth Theiss-Morse
Theorists have variously defined what it means to be a good
citizen. But how do citizens
themselves views their responsibilities? And is there any
relationship between a person's
view of citizenship and his or her political participation? This
paper uses a combination of
methods to explore these issues. A Q method study reveals four
citizenship perspectives
that provide evidence for striking differences in how people
define the participatory re-
sponsibilities of a good citizen. An exploratory survey analysis
finds that the four citizen-
ship perspectives are significantly related to political behavior,
even when socioeconomic
status and attitudinal variables related to participation are
controlled. While adding to

our understanding of participation, these findings also
underscore the importance of in-
vestigating the conceptualizations of citizens to gain more
complete understandings of
how political systems work.
Most studies of good citizenship fall into two categories:
pedagogical
works on the best means of teaching good citizenship 1 and
theoretical
works on its meaning. There are few empirical studies that deal
even tan-
gentially with good citizenship, and these usually begin with an
idealized
view of "the good citizen" and find that citizens fall far short of
this stan-
dard.2 Largely neglected are citizens' own conceptualizations of
good citi-
zenship; that is, what do people themselves think it means to be
a good
citizen?
This paper attempts to answer "What is good citizenship?" from
the per-
spective of citizens, and then tests whether citizenship
conceptualizations
are related to participatory behavior. I begin with a brief
overview of the
few studies that examine citizens' conceptualizations of good
citizenship.
Then I discuss at some length the combination of methods used
in this
Elizabeth Theiss-Morse, Department of Political Science,

University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE
68588-0328.
An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual
meeting of the American
Political Science Association, Atlanta, Georgia, 1989.
355
0190-9.320/93/1200-035.5$07.00/0 © 199.3 Plenum Publishing
Corporation
356 THEISS-MORSE
study. Finally, I present the results: (I) a discussion of the four
citizenship
perspectives that emerge from a Q data analysis: and (2) an
exploratory
analysis of the relationship between these perspectives and
political behav-
ior using survey data. The paper concludes with a general
discussion of
how the results affect our understanding of good citizenship
and the study
of political participation.
AN OVERVIEW OF EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF GOOD
CITIZENSHIP

Political theorists have examined in depth the qualities of good
citizen-
ship.3 Unfortunately, empirical political scientists have
produced only a
handful of studies analyzing the public's understandings of the
concept.
Three studies stand out as exemplars: Almond and Verba's The
Civic Cul-
ture (1963), Lane's (1965) study of citizenship and patriotism,
and Conover,
Crewe, and Searing's (1991) analysis of U.S. and British
citizens' under-
standings of good citizenship.
As part of a longer survey, Almond and Verba (1963) asked
respondents
in five nations what obligations people owe their country.'
They inter-
preted these responses in terms of three citizenship orientations:
parochial,
subject, and participant. The parochial orientation does not
acknowledge
specialized political roles (that is, the political leader may also
be the reli-
gious or social leader) and expects nothing from the political
system. The
subject orientation emphasizes that people are affectively
oriented toward
the political system and have expectations about what the
government
should provide, but they are deferential to political elites and
mainly react
to what the government does. The participant orientation
stresses an activ-
ist relationship with the government: people are concerned with
both the

inputs and outputs of the system and perceive part of their role
as making
demands on the government. Almond and Verba found that the
participant
orientation is dominant in the U.S., although people generally
hold a com-
bination of the three.
Rather than defining a priori the qualities of a good citizen,
Lane (1965)
simply talked to 15 men in depth about their views of what
good citizen-
ship entails. Their responses varied a great deal, with
emphases ranging
from extensive participation to obedience to laws to private
morality and self-
control. Lane demonstrated that the meaning of good citizenship
is ambiguous
and open to interpretation by the public.
Conover, Crewe, and Searing's (1991) recent study investigated
U.S. and
British citizens' beliefs concerning the rights, duties, and
identities of citi-
zens. Using focus groups in both countries, the authors found
that in general
British citizens are more likely to hold communitarian and U.S.
citizens
liberal self-understandings. Importantly, however, views of
citizenship are
GOOD CITIZENSHIP 357

much more complex than this generalization implies: citizens in
both coun-
tries draw on a mix of both traditions in their self-
understandings.
These three studies provide important insights into people's
conceptual-
izations, yet each has shortcomings. First, the studies by
Almond and
Verba and Conover, Crewe, and Searing are comparative
analyses, and
they indeed find differences in citizenship conceptualizations
among citi-
zens of different countries. But these broad differences tend to
overshadow
the variations among U.S. citizens. Lane provides evidence
supporting the
likelihood that U.S. citizens hold diverse conceptualizations.
Second, problems arise when citizenship conceptualizations
are defined
a priori or when they are left completely open to respondent
definition. By
defining orientations a priori, Almond and Verba may have
misinterpreted the
beliefs people hold by not accurately categorizing their beliefs
or by missing
other orientations altogether. Lane, on the other hand,
demonstrated that a
researcher who refrains from predefining the qualities of good
citizenship may
discover wide variation in people's conceptualizations. But Lane
did not
determine whether these wide-ranging conceptualizations
cluster around
central foci; that is, whether basic understandings of citizen-

ship exist within
diverse views. Conover et al. take the middle road in this
regard: they
approach their data gathering with theoretically based views of
citizenship but
allow respondents to move beyond these predefined views by
asserting their
own understandings of citizenship.
Third, these studies are primarily concerned with people's
understandings of
good citizenship, and to some extent how these understandings
orient them to
the political system. But do people's citizenship
conceptualizations have
broader impacts, especially in relation to political behavior?
None of these
studies directly investigates the relationship between citizenship
conceptualizations and political behavior, yet people may act
within a political
system the way they think good citizens ought to act. This
relationship needs
to be explored.
More empirical work is needed on individuals' understandings
of good
citizenship, especially if we agree with Conover et al. (1991, p.
805) that
"citizenship is a fundamental identity that helps situate the
individual in
society." Using an innovative research design, I analyze
people's "citizen-
ship perspectives" on the participatory duties of a good citizen,
a major
definitional element of good citizenship.

METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN
This study uses a combination of methods to discover and
measure peo-
ple's citizenship perspectives and to relate these to political
behavior. The two
components of the methodology are Q methodology and survey
re-
358 THEISS-MORSE
MARKETING STRATEGY
CLASS : TUESDAY/THURSDAY 2:00 PM- 3:20 PM
INSTRUCTOR: AMIR JAVADINIA
E-MAIL ADDRESS: [email protected]
ZOOM ADDRESS: HTTPS://FAU-
EDU.ZOOM.US/J/3547009109
OFFICE HOURS : TUESDAY/THURSDAY 12:00 PM- 1:30 PM
LECTURE 8
Competitive Advantage
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
• Competitive advantage is anything that gives you a temporary

head start over the competition.
• It is what you have better than your competitors
• A competitive advantage can ultimately decide whether a
customer chooses you or your competitor.
• It can also help you get faster the market or get larger market
share.
• But the competitive advantage is not permanent. It is a
temporary thing that you can quickly lose
either by your own mistake, by the competition’s efforts or
simply by the market situation.
Examples:
• Better product or better service
• Better customer support or customer services
• Faster response to the customer requests
• Faster go to market approach
• Cheaper product (usually cheaper at comparable competitive
offer quality)
• Better distribution channels (how you offer or deliver to the
customer)

• Better promotion and marketing
More Examples
• Better people, human resources - more helpful, motivated
workers, smarter, and more educated,
• Better information flow, better communication
• More flexible business processes
• Better market information (about competition, trends) and the
ability to adapt quickly
• More efficient business processes (leads to cheaper and faster
processes)
• Better leadership, better strategic management
1- Provides value (Relative to competitors)
2- Unique to the Firm
3- Cannot be imitated or substituted by
competitors
SUSTAINABLE COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE

SUSTAINABLE COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
8
ROUTES TO COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
1- Achieving Cost Leadership
2- Achieving Differentiation
9
ACHIEVING COST LEADERSHIP
1 Economies of Scale
2 Experience and Learning
3 Capacity Utilization
4 Linkages
5 Interrelationships
6 Degree of Integration
7 Timing
8 Policy Choices
9 Location and Institutional Factors

10
1- Economies of Scale
• Doing things differently in volume or more efficiently
• The most effective way of reducing costs
• E.g. More production rate or less waste
• Usually there is an optimal size: very large production may
increase complexity
11
2- Experience and Learning
• Employees having performed the necessary tasks many times
before.
• Possible in all aspects of business: manufacturing, marketing,
advertising, selling, … .
• That’s why companies with larger market share have a cost
advantage.
• Experience can also be achieved by hiring experts and training

12
3- Optimal Capacity Utilization
• Planning production and inventory to minimize the impact of
seasonal demand fluctuations
4- Linkage
• Side internal/external activities (other than manufacturing and
marketing) that may affect costs:
• Quality control and inspection: The better product test and
quality check,
the lower cost of product failure and return or warranty costs
• Distribution relationships: Just-in-Time (JIT) manufacturing
and delivery by
getting customer data from retailers
• Supplier relationships: Lower cost of raw material, ...
13

5- Interrelationships
• With other SBUs (Small Business Units) in the corporate to
share some activities such
as R&D and quality control in order to save costs. E.g., the line
of iPhone and the line
of MacBook share a software quality control process.
6- Integration
• Which activities should the firm do itself (integrated into
corporation)? Which ones
should be outsourced?
• Manufacturing: Make vs. buy decisions
• Contracting delivery or service
14
7- Timing (of market entry or product introduction)
• Sometimes first mover may have cost advantage by
• Securing prime locations
• Cheap or good quality raw materials

• Technological leadership
• Sometimes second (late) mover may have cost advantage by
• Benefiting from market awareness
• Leaning from the mistakes of the first mover
.
15
8- Policy Choices
• Example: Ryanair
• Reducing service levels and charging for all extras which
enabled company
to offer low fares.
9- Location and institutional factors
• Better geographic location to take advantage in distribution,
assembly, raw
materials, or energy costs
• Government regulations
• The sensitivity of government to lobbyists and pressure groups
is important.

ACHIEVING DIFFERENTIATION
1 Product Differentiation
2 Distribution Differentiation
3 Price Differentiation
4 Promotional Differentiation
5 Brand Differentiation
16
17
PRODUCT DIFFERENTIATION
1- Differentiation the core and expected product
2- Augmenting the product
3 Quality
4 Packaging
5 Service
18

PRODUCT DIFFERENTIATION
1 Differentiation the core and expected product
• A new way, e.g. step-change in technology, of providing
benefits.
2 Augmenting the product
• Offering more exciting features
3 Quality
• E.g. Durability of product, reliability of service
4 Packaging
• Storing, protecting, facilitating usage, creating image, and
promoting the product
5 Service
• After-sales services and relationships with customers
19
ACHIEVING DIFFERENTIATION
1 Product Differentiation
2 Distribution Differentiation
• Using a different network
• How internet has changed distribution?

3 Price Differentiation
• If you have cost advantages you can reduce prices and survive
price wars
• If you have product/service differentiation you can charge
premium prices
• If you address multiple customer segments you can offer a
menu of prices
4 Promotional Differentiation
• Public Relations (PR): Creating relationships with media to
get positive exposure.
• How social media has changed promotions and distributions?
5 Brand Differentiation
• Changing images, social status, and emotions connected to
your brand
OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMPETITIVE
STRATEGIES
20
1 Build (growth) strategies
2 Hold (maintenance) and defensive strategies,
3 Niche Market (focus) strategies

4 Harvest (reaping) strategies
5 Deletion (divestment) strategies
OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMPETITIVE
STRATEGIES
21
1 Build (growth) strategies
• In growing markets by market expansion:
• New Users
• New uses
• Increased frequency of use
• In non-growing markets by stealing shares from weak
competitors
BUILD STRATEGIES: STEALING FROM COMPETITORS
22
1 Frontal attack
2 Flanking attack

3 Encirclement attack
4 Bypass strategy
5 Guerilla tactics
23
1- Frontal attack
• Attacking competitor where it is strong
• When you are superior on at least one key area
24
2- Flanking attack
• Attacking where the competitor is weak
Example:
• Attacking geographical regions or customer
segments underserved by the defender
Key factors:

• Identification of the competitor’s weaknesses
and its inability to serve particular segments
25
3- Encirclement attack
• Cutting the competitor from critical
resources, and access to suppliers or
customers
• Example:
• Isolate the competitor from the
supply of raw material
26
4- Bypass strategy
• Avoid competing where the competitor is strong: leapfrogging
by
a new technology or trade model

• Remember core offer: coming up with a totally new way of
satisfying needs, e.g. iPod replacing cd players.
• Don’t try to imitate resources of the competitor, achieve new
ones.
27
5- Guerilla tactics
• Are employed primarily as ‘spoiling’ activities
to weaken the competition.
• Often used by a weaker attacker on a stronger
defender.
Example
• Selective price cuts, especially during a
competitor’s new product testing or launch
• Executive raids and legal maneuvers
DEFENSIVE STRATEGIES

28
• Good for market leaders operating in mature or declining
markets
• Specially in cash generator markets
• Even in growing markets when potential rewards of expansion
is outweighed by
its costs
Examples:
• Price cutting when you have cost advantage by economies of
scale or
experience
• Guarding of technological expertise
29
Types:
1 Position defense
2 Flanking defense
3 Pre-emptive strike
4 Counter-offensive

5 Mobile defense
6 Contraction defense
30
1- Position defense
• Erecting barriers to copy and/or
entry by:
• Differentiation on non-copyable
grounds (e.g. distinctive skills,
competencies and marketing assets)
• Brand name and reputation
• Higher quality
• Lower prices
31
2- Flanking defense

• Against a flanking attack
• Identify where the attacker is going to strike
your weaknesses and work on those weaknesses
• Concerns:
• New position weakens the company on the core
position
• It may be hard to defend the new position
32
3- Pre-emptive strike
• Attacking the competitor before it can mount at
attack
• Or merely signal an intention to attack
33
4- Counter-offensive

• Attacking the competitor right after it attacked you
• Most effective where the aggressor is vulnerable
through overstretching resources.
34
COUNTER-OFFENSIVE EXAMPLE
• When Xerox attempted to break into the mainframe computer
market against the
established market leader, IBM launched a classic counter-
offensive in Xerox’s bread-and-
butter business (copiers). The middle-range copiers were the
major cash generators of
Xerox operations and were, indeed, creating the funds to allow
Xerox to attack in the
mainframe computer market. The IBM counter was a limited
range of low-priced copiers
directly competing with Xerox’s middle-range products, with
leasing options that were
particularly attractive to smaller customers.
• The counter-offensive had the effect of causing Xerox to
abandon the attack on the

computer market (it sold its interests to Honeywell) to
concentrate on defending its copiers.
35
5- Mobile defense
• continuously update and improve the company’s offerings to
the marketplace
• keep the product in line with changing customer requirements.
• Persil going through many reformulations as washing habits
have changed and evolved.
• Good for markets where technology and/or customer wants
and needs are
changing rapidly.
36
6- Contraction defense
• Giving up untenable ground to reduce overstretching and
allow concentration on
the core business that can be defended against attack

• Necessary where the company has diversified too far away
from the core skills
37
MARKET NICHE STRATEGIES
• To identify new and potential niches not yet exploited by
major competitors.
• Focusing effort (not blindly pursue any potential customer)
• An ability to segment the market
• Efficient use of R&D resources
• Concentrating not on pioneering work but on improvements to
existing technologies
• Thinking small
38
HARVESTING STRATEGIES
• Obtaining maximum returns from the product before its
eventual death or withdrawal from the market
• Since no long-term future could be imagined for them because

of major changes in customer
requirements or technology
• For products which are obsolete or do not generate cash
• Cutting expenses:
• Marketing support
• Advertising
• Sales support
• R&D
• Reducing production and increasing prices
39
DIVESTMENT/DELETION STRATEGIES
What makes a poor literature review?
It's easy to write a bad literature review and difficult to write a
good one. The main mistake that a lot of people
make is to write a literature review that looks like this:
LITERATURE REVIEW
Until recently many researchers have shown interest in the field

of coastal erosion
and the resulting beach profiles. They have carried out
numerous laboratory
experiments and field observations to illuminate the darkness of
this field. Their
findings and suggestions are reviewed here.
JACHOWSKI (1964) developed a model investigation
conducted on the interlocking
precast concrete block seawall. After a result of a survey of
damages caused by the
severe storm along the coast of USA, a new and especially
shaped concrete block
was developed for use in shore protection. This block was
designed to be used in a
revetment type seawall that would be both durable and
economical as well as
reduce wave run-up and overtopping, and scour at its base or
toe. It was proved
that effective shore protection could be designed utilising these
units.
HOM-MA and HORIKAWA (1964) studied wave forces acting
on the seawall which
was located inside the surf zone. On the basis of the
experimental results
conducted to measure wave forces against a vertical wall, the
authors proposed an
empirical formula of wave pressure distribution on a seawall.
The computed
results obtained by using the above formula were compared well
with the field
data of wave pressure on a vertical wall.
SELEZOV and ZHELEZNYAK (1965) conducted experiments
on scour of sea bottom

in front of harbour seawalls, basing on the theoretical
investigation of solitary
wave interaction with a vertical wall using a Boussinesque type
equation. It
showed that the numerical results were in reasonable agreement
with laboratory
experimental data.
Here are some of the questions a literature review SHOULD
answer:
1. What do we already know in the immediate area concerned?
2. What are the most important studies in this area?
3. What are the key concepts, theories and issues in this area?
4. What are the relationships between these key concepts,
theories and issues?
5. What are the main debates?
6. Where are the inconsistencies or other shortcomings in our
knowledge and understanding?
7. What needs further research?
8. What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradictory or too
limited?
9. What contribution to knowledge can the present study be
expected to make?
Try answering these questions after reading the above review:
• Which of the questions does this literature review answer?
• Which of them doesn’t it answer?
• What system has the writer used to organise the literature
review?
• Briefly summarise what’s wrong with this literature review.

Answers:
Which of the questions does this literature review answer?
This literature offers a summary of previous research, so it does
answer the first
question. It simply tells the reader what was discovered in
previous research.
Which of them doesn't it answer?
This literature review doesn't answer any of the questions from
2 to 9. It doesn't
evaluate the research it summarises, nor does it show the
relationships between the
different theories, views and approaches it describes.
Which method has the writer used to organise the literature
review?
The writer has organised this literature review around the
researchers and has presented
it chronologically (arranging the work by when it was
published). Notice that by
organising it around the researchers (the summaries are listed
after the names of the
people who did the research) and not around the research
(around key concepts) the
writer emphasises the people and not their work. There are no
themes shown, and no
sense of how all the different studies relate to each other.

Is it a good literature review? Why?
We don't believe that it is a good literature review. It only gives
a summary of previous
research; it does not use the literature to explain more about his
own research problem.
Also, it is not critical: after we read it we still do not know
which theories or findings are
important, which are inconclusive and what the shortcomings
are.
The main problem with this literature review is that it does not
show how previous
research relates to the writer's own research problem, or the
relationship between
different research already carried out. Given the organisation
the writer has used, this
literature review could not be effective because there is little
scope for showing
relationships, drawing comparisons or making evaluations.
University of Westminster
Politics, International Relations, Development Studies
Workshop 2: Literature Review 1
Literature Search and Organisation
(and formulating your research question and topic)

6PIRS022W: Dissertation – Module Leader: Dr Bridget Cotter
Workshop Plan
Research Questions and Titles
What is a Literature Review?
Kerry Gilfillan from Learning Development
Smart searching: Finding Credible Sources
Organising your reading
PIR Research Journeys: Sam and Jac on the Rendition Project
Research question
Ask yourself:
Do I have a research question?
Is my question interesting?
What potential contribution does it make to the field?
Is my question answerable
Is it precise and narrow enough to be covered within word limit
and the required time?
Is the study feasible, ie. are there data, research
techniques/methods, literature available?
If necessary, produce alternative questions and discuss them
with your supervisor!
Mind Map your Topic
What are your initial ideas about what you will need to discuss
in the dissertation?
Start by mind-mapping relevant theories, arguments, debates

Keep working on your Title
17
A working title helps you focus….
Keep adapting it as you research
Run it past your supervisor as you go
Don’t worry about getting it perfect
You can always change it later.
Keep working on your Question
A good question helps you focus….
It should be SMART (like a “SMART goal”)
Use the same advice as for titles below!!
Assignments & Assessment
A) 1,000 word literature review: worth 10%
Deadline: 13.00, Monday 21 November 2022
B) 10,000 word dissertation: worth 90%
deadline: 13.00, Tuesday 2 May 2023
----------------------------------------
On the following slide: list these research proposals from ‘1’ to
‘8’: ‘1’ is most like a research question; 8 the least
List these research questions from ‘1’ to ‘8’
The US interventions after 9/11
How Significant is women’s role in terrorist organisations? – A
case study of ISIS
Is war inevitable, or will the ‘responsibility to protect’ maintain
peace?

From Excluded to Tolerated and Beyond: Women’s long journey
to gender equality in modern American politics
How effective are government measures for increasing women’s
substantive representation in the UK Parliament?
Conservative Party policy and Covid
Is the liberal democratic order best suited to shape
environmental policy or is environmental authoritarianism the
future?
Researching Islamophobia in The United States and Europe post
9/11
List these research questions from ‘1’ to ‘8’
1. How effective are government measures for increasing
women’s substantive representation in the UK Parliament?
2. How significant is women’s role in Islamic terrorist
organisations? – A case study of ISIS
3. Is the liberal democratic order best suited to shape
environmental policy or is environmental authoritarianism the
future?
4. Is war inevitable, or will the ‘responsibility to protect’
maintain peace?
5. From Excluded to Tolerated and Beyond: Women’s long
journey to gender equality in modern American politics
6. Conservative Party policy and Covid
7. Researching Islamophobia in The US and Europe since 9/11
8. The US interventions after 9/11
Perfecting a Research Question

Topic idea: social media and protest
Question: What is the relationship between social media and
protest groups.
There are many links between them, so which type do you want
to focus on? Are you looking for cause and effect? Which direct
of this relationship is interesting to you? What are the existing
research studies mainly on?
Revised Question: What is the role of social media in protest
groups?
Now my question indicates the direction of the relationship –
the impact of X on Y. Still quite broad. Social media plays a lot
of roles in groups.
More Specific question: What is the role of social media in the
emergence of contemporary protest movements?
I have read and now know there is a social movement literature,
so I have changed my terminology. And I have decided to focus
on how social movements grow and gain political influence.
Perfecting a Research Question
Our question has a direction but it is still quite a big job to
answer it!
What is the role of social media in the emergence of
contemporary protest movements?
How could this question be made specific enough to answer?
Best method: Case study
What is the role of social media in the emergence of
contemporary protest movements? Case study of the Black
Lives Matter movement
This allows me to get into the specifics of how the use of social
media has aided a social movement in getting its message heard,
in growing its membership and influence, in raising global
awareness of its issue.
After studying the case, I can then answer the question: what
does this case tell us about the broader issue of the role of
social media in the emergence of contemporary protest

movements.
What is a literature review?
Process: a stage in your research that helps you…
Search, find, make note of what is out there
read, think, and understand your topic
develop your project and your bibliography
Product: written piece of work
An essay-length piece
Proof of the process (above)
to submit to Turnitin for your CW1
Includes a bibliography and references
Method: it is what we do when we write a library-based
dissertation
The process of reading, summarising, synthesising, criticising
literature on your topic…. In other words: literature-based
research.
(sometimes) a Section in Dissertation: ONLY if doing primary
research
If producing your own empirical date. But NOT needed if your
work is mainly library based (which most of you are doing)
What is the “Literature” in a Literature Review?
The word literature (in 'literature review') broadly refers to the
scholarly or scientific writing on a topic
Sources for the literature review should be research-based and
peer-reviewed.
A book is a piece of “literature”.
“A literature” is a body of work by different authors; a
collection of sources on a topic.
You might need to use more than one “literature” in your
dissertation.

Peer review is key!
Academic Research
Found in academic publications
Peer Reviewed Sources
Academic Books
Journal articles
Research Reports
Book Chapters
Conference papers
Theses
13
Other Research-based studies
Professionally produced research for a non-academic
institutions, including papers and reports from
Think Tanks
Charities
NGOs
Advocacy Groups
Government websites
International organisations
National and local Government departments
Use their online resources and archives, write to them (if full
paper is not available on website), network / make contacts,
email questions, request possible meetings.

14
NOW BUILD YOUR BIBLIOGRAPHY!
Annotated Bibliographies
Project management
Dissertation as a marathon, rather than a sprint
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University of Westminster
Politics, International Relations, Development Studies
Workshop 3: Literature Review 2
Writing your Literature Review
6PIRS022W: Dissertation – Module Leader: Bridget Cotter
Today’s Lecture on Literature Review
Assessment Requirements
What to include in the Review
Writing your Review – style and approach
References and Bibliography
What are the requirements?
Development Expected since last year
“The Literature Review for this module will be significantly
developed and different from the work you did for your
Research Methods module. (p.2)
If doing the same topic you should
build on the dissertation proposal that you submitted in your
second year…integrating tutor feedback (10-11);
demonstrate that you have made significant progress since last
year (11).
formulate an entirely new piece of work.

“This is not the same as the research search and review you did
for your Level 5 Political Research module.” (11)
You will be expected to demonstrate:
Identify your research question beyond a general ‘topic’ of
choice. The question will need to be clearly stated in the
assignment. (p.11)
Research the relevant literature beyond what was required in
your proposal. In particular, your literature review should cover
at least 20 sources.
Found ways to categorise and characterize the types of research
and literature available and relevant to your work
Expand the bibliography to reflect your research into the
literature beyond what was required in your proposal last year
All of the above is from page 11 of the Handbook
Marking Criteria (p.11)
Your literature review will be assessed according to the:
Breadth of the literature discussed
Coherence of the themes and structure of the review
Fit between literature review and research question
Clarity of writing style
Presentation, including academic conventions
What should I include in my review?
What is a Lit Review again?
An objective, concise, and critical summary of published
research literature pertinent to your subject of study.
In most cases, you should think of it as stage in the research

process, rather than a draft section of your final dissertation.
(p.2)
Remember to refer back to Lecture 2 for tips on finding sources
Also see examples on Bb
You can use the following questions as prompts
Write about the ones that are most relevant for you.
Don’t feel you have to cover all of them.
(Note! the order of these questions is not a guide to the
structure of your review)
Questions to get started
What does my reader need to know?
Which empirical RESEARCH STUDIES have been done on your
topic? What is the knowledge? Who conducted the most
important studies, when, where? Academic or other?
What are the key CONCEPTS in your subject of study and who
has developed these? How do they help us?
Which THEORIES have been developed to analyse, explain, and
evaluate your topic (and who are the key theorists?) How do
they help us understand?
What DON’T we know? Are there gaps in the literature,
neglected areas of study?
These are the questions that drive the Literature Review!
What insights can I bring to bear?
For what purpose has the research knowledge been used by
various analysts?
What are the different political and ideological perspectives
evident in the literature?

What are the different methodological approaches to this topic?
If empirical: what kinds of methods are used? What schools of
thought are the researchers and theorists from?
What do the concepts mean and how can they help to interpret,
explain and assess my topic?
How do the theories help us analyse the information I have
about my topic?
These are the questions that drive the Literature Review.
What needs evaluating?
What YOU think about these studies and analyses?
Which research, concepts and theories offer the most insight?
What are the strengths and weakness of the evidence, concepts
and theories?
What research questions are being asked and what is NOT being
asked?
What are the biases in the literature?
What are the limits of the literature?
These are the questions that drive the Literature Review.
Is a Literature Review the same as an essay?
No. It is different from an essay.
The main tasks of an essay:
to substantively answer a set essay question
the essay intro focuses on the question and the structure of the
argument
present an argument including extensive evidence
to persuade the reader of an argument
present evidence to show strengths and weaknesses of a range of
arguments
Evaluate the evidence and the various arguments
Give a thorough account of the topic including some detail of
the topic and analysis of this

The tasks of a Literature review (The Product)
Define your research question in relation to the literature
To introduce the reader to the key aspects of your topic
introduce the reader to the relevant strands of literature
Surveys the relevant and available literature
Demonstrates your knowledge of the literature and the subject
Gives overview of most important research studies, theories,
and analyses of your topic
categorises the literature thematically
the introduction focuses on the character of the literature and
the structure of the review (ie how you are organising the
review)
Evaluates, compares and contrast the significant theories,
studies, approaches in the literature (compares and contrasts)
Identifies trends, controversies, debates
Evaluates strengths and weaknesses of the literature
As a Process: the Review Helps you
Use the review to develop your research
Have a dialogue with the literature: from when you start your
research until the end
A review helps you to
work out your thoughts about your subject
narrow down your research aims and thesis statement
Work out your
empirical contribution
analytical contribution
to situate your topic in the field
understand the literature
decide on your research methods and methodology

How is it different from last year?
Includes more – possibly more relevant - sources
Most likely to show:
More knowledge of what is available and relevant
More advanced research and reading effort
Clearer picture of your research question
A more mature perspective on the literature
Stronger ability to stand back and generalise
Better synthesis and categorisation of literature
Less descriptive/detailed summary of specific sources
More concise writing
Incorporated tutor comments from proposal
How do I write my review?
Ideas for Organising your Review
20
Start General and get more specific.
Around key concepts, strands of your research, different
literature subject areas
Around perspectives, ideologies, arguments, approaches,
methodologies (grouping the sources)
Give a few illustrative examples from the more pertinent studies
(but not lots of details of the evidence offered by these)
Use inline references as a shorthand way of referring to your
specific sources

Writing Discursively
20
Is this a good review? What could be improved?
Student work on women’s political representation in the UK
Childs (2006) states that even after the great strides forward
after the 1997 election, women still make up less than 20% of
MPs. (p.3) She cites a number of reasons for this. Firstly,…
Jones (2005) argues that women are excluded from becoming
representatives at the point of candidacy selection. (p.134) She
based this on a 1993 study of parliamentary candidates (by
Danfield and Clover 1993), which, she argues, demonstrated
that…
Fallowfield (2003) has conducted a series of interviews gauging
the opinions of women MPs on why it is so difficult for women
to gain entry to Parliament. (p.24-27) She concludes that…
21
22
This Review is more discursive
Research studies present a series of explanations for the unequal
number of women representatives in the UK parliament,
including candidate selection, family unfriendly practices, and
continuing sexual stereo-types. (Childs 2006; Jones 2006;
Fallowfield 2003)
By far the most important author in this field is Sarah Childs
(1993, 1998, 2006) who has conducted several major studies on
the topic. In contrast to some of her earlier studies, in which
she argued that….(1993: 52), her most recent conclusion

(2006) is that….(120) However, Jones and Fallowfield suggest
that the most important factors are instead linked to….(Jones,
2006: 43; Fallowfield 2003: 21)
But there are weaknesses in all current research in that no one
has compared attitudes of male and female MPs. Without
interviewing men, it is hard to draw full conclusions. One study
that goes some way to addressing this gap is Soleri (2005). He
and his team interviewed…
23
Descriptive vs Analytical Writing
(Analytical writing is more Discursive)
In answer to the question: “How far do you think GM crops are
dangerous, basing your response on Goldsmith’s article”,
student followed the intro to his essay in a purely descriptive
way…
In the article Zac Goldsmith discusses the dangers of GM
crops. He relates how Klebsiella seeds were found to render
soil dead and threatened to end nearly all plant life. He also
mentions how easily mistakes can happen when 11,500 acres of
land in the UK was wrongly planted with GM contaminated
seed. He feels that people are becoming more aware of the
dangers of GM crops with even McDonald’s announcing that
their French fries will be GM free.
24
Here is a more analytical approach…
Goldsmith (1999) presents an array of evidence to suggest that
GM crops are dangerous. The most striking illustration of
possible disaster is the production of klebsiella seeds. David

Suzuki, an eminent Canadian geneticist, maintains that
genetically engineered seeds could end all plant life on the
North American continent. And research in different countries,
including Canada Mexico, and the UK has revealed that genes
travel miles from their original sites. Such evidence seems to
leave no doubt as to the danger of GM crops.
However, there are a number of potentially positive affects that
Goldsmith’s article glances over but does not develop. There
appears to be potential benefits in klebsiella seeds – the
production of ethanol. In addition, Goldsmith cites mainstream
opinion as now being uncomfortable with GM foods, but the
Royal Society as only “revising its position” (a relatively mild
phrase in contrast to the more extreme language of much of the
article).
25
This summary reads like a list of research findings: Sexual
harassment has many consequences. Adams, Kottke, and
Padgitt (1983) found that some women students said they
avoided taking a class or working with certain professors
because of the risk of harassment. They also found that men and
women students reacted differently. Their research was a survey
of 1,000 men and women graduate and undergraduate students.
Benson and Thomson's study in Social Problems (1982) lists
many problems created by sexual harassment. In their excellent
book, The Lecherous Professor, Dziech and Weiner (1990) give
a long list of difficulties that victims have suffered.
This one focusses on the conclusions that can be drawn from the
studies, and uses the findings to elaborate and illustrate this:
The victims of sexual harassment suffer a range of

consequences, from lowered self- esteem and loss of self-
confidence to withdrawal from social interaction, changed
career goals, and depression (Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt,
1983:135; Benson and Thomson, 1982:23-24; Dziech and
Weiner, 1990:42). For example, Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt
(1983) noted that 13 percent of women students said they
avoided taking a class or working with certain professors
because of the risk of harassment. (p. 138)
8
Using the literature review approach as part of an introduction
or chapter…
Real Student Example (on Just War Theory and Kosovo)
A growing body of literature on ‘just war’ theory emerged soon
after the end of the Cold War. Further, the controversy
surrounding NATO’s intervention in Kosovo in 1999 led
scholars to address the issues behind the challenge of
humanitarian intervention as a contested form of ‘just
war’.REF WITH PAGE NUMBER While some continue to
defend both the theory and the intervention, there are many
who argue against the relevance of the concept of a just war
and the legitimacy of NATO’s humanitarian war in
Kosovo.(EXAMPLES OF SOURCES ON THIS) The conflict
between respect for state sovereignty as enshrined in the UN
Charter and intervention within sovereign states’ boundaries to
defend human rights is the subject of hot contemporary debate.
The opinions are divided and the subjects do not escape
without being scrutinized and evaluated.
One of the main just war theorists, Bellamy (2006)
offers an in-depth
presentation of the reasons why… NEEDS INLINE
REFERENCE WITH PAGE NUMBER!

Manchester Phrase bank
(for all your academic vocabulary and style needs!)
http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/
The Inline References and Bibliography
In-Line References
17
Harvard, Westminster Harvard…
(Name date: page)
Do I use them in my lit review?
Of course you do!!!!!
See examples in previous slides
Use the PIR RED BOOK for a style and referencing guide! Bb
PIR site (Under Organisations)
Bibliography
17
Does not count in the word requirement
At Least 20 sources – majority peer-reviewed!
Relevant to your research question and aims
Harvard, Westminster Harvard…
Hart, C. (2001), Doing a Literature Search: A comprehensive
guide for the social sciences, (London: Sage).
Caulley, D. N. (1992). Writing a Critical Review of the

Literature. La Trobe University: Bundoora.
Clark, I. (2006). Writing the Successful Thesis and dissertation:
Entering the Conversation. Oxford: Prentice Hall.
Goodson, P. (2013) Becoming an academic writer. London:
Sage
Bibliography
17
Henning (2011) ‘Literature Review: Synthesizing Multiple
Sources’ School of Liberal Arts, Indiana University Available
at:
http://liberalarts.iupui.edu/uwc/uploads/docs/Lit+Review+weav
er-1.pdf [accessed 03/03/14]
Leicester University (2013) ‘Writing a Dissertation: Study
Guide’. Available at:
http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/writing/writing-
resources/writing-dissertation
Merriam S. (1988) Case study research in education: a
qualitative approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
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The Literature Review assessment
Writing a dissertation can appear a long and difficult task but it
will be more manageable if broken down into smaller tasks.
Writing a 1000-word literature review will help you make such
a start. It is a typical way to start any research process as it
requires you to get an overview of the existing academic
research on your topic. This is important as it helps you place
your own work in the context of existing research, so that you
can make a contribution to knowledge and insight on the topic.
The literature review will be your first assessed submission,
worth 10% of your grade and due by 13.00 on 21 November
2022. To write the literature review you will build on the
dissertation proposal that you submitted in your second year in
the module 5PIRS018: Doing Political Research (the second
piece of coursework). If you have changed your topic over the
summer, this will be your chance to tackle a new topic. If you
are continuing with the same topic you identified last academic
year, this will be your chance to
a) integrate the feedback received on your proposal from
5PIRS018; and
b) demonstrate that you have made significant progress on it
during the summer and your first 8 weeks of the semester.
Whether or not this is a new topic for you, you will need to
formulate an entirely new piece of work. This is not the same as
the review you did for your Level 5 Political Research module
and you must be very careful not to fall foul of the Academic
Standards assessment rules on “double-counting” (aka self-
plagiarism).
In particular, in the literature review, you will be expected to
demonstrate that you have:

1. identified your research question beyond a general ‘topic’ of
choice. The question will need to be clearly stated in the
assignment.
2. researched the relevant literature beyond what was required
in your proposal. In particular, your literature review should
show evidence that you are familiar with at least 20 sources.
3. found ways to categorise and characterize the types of
research and literature available and relevant to your work
4. expanded the bibliography to reflect your research into the
literature beyond what was required in your proposal in last
year’s module Political Research module (5PIRS018W). In
particular, your bibliography should contain at least 20 sources,
most or all of which should be research-based (usually
academic) books and journal articles. (NB: the bibliography
does not count towards the word limit).
Your literature review will be assessed according to the
following criteria:
· Breadth of the literature discussed.
· Coherence of the themes and structure of the review.
· Fit between literature review and research question.
· Clarity of writing style.
· Presentation, including academic conventions.
Further guidance on the function, content and purpose of the
literature review will be given in Workshops 2 and 3.
You will receive your mark and written feedback on your first
submission via Blackboard by Monday 12 December 2022.
1
Research Proposal: Impact of European Union (EU) Cooperation

in the Environmental Field
Nayef Alkhalifa
University Of Westminster
04-04-2022
The European Union has been one of the major champions of
environmental changes globally and they have spearheaded the
efforts to revert climatic change to create a better environment.
The EU and its member states play a major role in the global
environmental field through the formulation of policies and
standards that help countries navigate the impacts that climatic
change has had on the world.
Rationale
The topic is critical not only to member’s states by to every
state, country and territory globally. Climatic change and
environmental degradation has a huge impact on the living
conditions and the nature of human life on earth. It is thus
necessary to take the environmental issues as a major concern
that is affecting human beings. Currently, the world faces
major issues that affect the wellbeing and overall health of the
planet. Pollution is a major environmental concern. It affects
water, air and soil and caused by human activities. Pollution has
led to millions of tones of plastics being dumped into the oceans
thus affecting marine life. It has also led to hard metal such as
nitrates that are caused by toxins released from factories and
fossil fuel combustion.
Global warming is as an effect of the greenhouse gases that are
released into the atmosphere through human activities such as
industrialization. It is a major problem that has seen the earth’s

temperature rise higher than it ever has in the last century.
Global warming leads to the melting of ancient glaciers leading
to a rise in sea levels. It also leads to a release of pathogens
frozen in time such as bacteria affecting the global ecosystem.
Waste disposal and loss of biodiversity also affects human
beings in that there is increased food shortage, fertility of land
and increased desertification in once fertile lands.
All the above environmental issues show the necessity of
studying the impact that a trade block such as the EU has on the
environment. It is important to understand the role that policies
and standards play in ensuring the conservation of the global
environment. The main argument of the paper will be that the
EU plays a strategic role in promoting environmental
conservation and encouraging the same thr0ough strict
standards and policies to their member countries. The EU acts
as a benchmark to other trade unions to increase the levels of
environmental awareness and conservation. The main aims of
the research topic are to create a better understanding of the EU
and its role in global environmental politics.
My interest in the topic is geared by the increasing negative
impacts of the environmental degradation on the globe. The
world has had some of its hottest years and sea levels are
constantly rising. NOAA’s 2020 Climate Report shows that the
combined oceanic and earth temperature has increased by 0.13
degrees Fahrenheit on average (per decade) since 1880 (Lindsey
& Dahlman, 2020). The increase since 1981 is however
astonishing as it has been more than twice the rate in less than
five decades. Global warming is likely to increase at a rate of
1.5 degrees Celsius if human beings do not change their current
ways of environmental pollutions and degradation. It is thus
important to understand the strategies that are employed by the
EU, and apply the same globally to hasten the environmental
change reform.
Objectives
The following are the objectives for the research:
· To identify the role that EU has in conserving global

environment and encouraging member states to conserve the
environment
· To identify the impact of the EU efforts in environmental
conservation on reduction of pollution, global warming and
environmental degradation
· To evaluate the impact of the EU on other trade blocks
globally in the fight for global environmental conservation
· To design a benchmark model that other nations and unions
globally could use to increase environmental conservation and
reduce the negative impacts of environmental degradation
· To create awareness of the roles that global bodies have in the
process of environmental conservation
· To identify and increase the participation of EU member states
in the process of environmental conservation
Literature Search and Summary
Researchers have tried to understand the impact that the
European Union and its stringent policies have had on the
environment. The trade block is known to have policies that
ensure environmental conservation. The following are few of
the sources that will provide a historical analysis of the
environmental conservation efforts put in place by the European
Union.
Heinelt (2018) is one of the authors that discuss the EU and its
environmental policies. The book title was first published in
2001 and continues to be updated year after year on the new
information that arises in relation to the EU and the
environment. The source analyses the impact of the EU policy
on the political, institutional and domestic environment. The
source analyses how the forms of governance in the European
Union impact the environmental processes and how countries
introduce environmental management systems. The source
concentrates on three countries in the EU which are Germany,
Greece and Great Britain and how their introduction of
voluntary environmental management systems impacts the
nation.
The resource is important to the research as it helps answer the

research question. It helps create an understanding of the steps
of environmental system management that are taken by various
countries in the EU and the impact they have on such countries.
It also creates awareness for the need of environmental
management policies and standards that could help improve the
overall well being of member states and the global community
in general.
The existence of life on earth is based on the balance of its
ecological systems. Angheluta et al. (2019) show the impact
that the environment has on survival of human beings and other
living creatures through their study. They show that
environmental degradation, pollution and events that lead to
pressure exerted on the environment have a negative impact on
the ecosystem. The authors discuss the objectives of the EU and
how they are related to environmental conservation. They carry
out a comparative analysis on matters such as renewable sources
of energy. They show that the EU and its member states have
policies that encourage the use of renewable sources of energy
as a way of conserving the environment. The policies reduce the
carbon foot print and thus better environmental outcomes.
The research is essential for the research as it shows the
cooperation in the EU through the set policies and standards on
matters relating to the environment. The EU has policies
regarding the use of sources of energy and what is considered
too much for the environment. Through such policies and their
acceptance by member states, it is possible to identify the
positive impacts that cooperation has on safeguarding the
environment and improving the ecological systems on which
human life relies.
Gulac et al. (2019) show a further increase in the collaborative
efforts between the EU and other countries such as Ukraine.
Their main focus is on the ecology of the nations and how such
collaboration strengths the fight for a better ecological system.
The authors show that the main problems that impede the
integration between the EU and other nations in relation to the
environmental spheres. The authors also identify the trends in

the environmental conservation integration amongst players in
the EU. They identify the main direction that the environmental
integration should take to ensure sustainable solutions to
environmental related problems.
The research is important to the current research in that it
provides an avenue to understand the impact that policies have
on the development of environmental policies aimed at solving
environmental issues. It also shows the power of collaboration
and how it increases the improvement and solving of
environmental norms and standards that govern environmental
development.
In summary, most of the research shows that collaboration has a
positive outcome when it comes to matters of environmental
conservation. The researchers show that it is through the
cooperation that members of the EU have become an element of
study on policies and standards related to the environment. The
EU members benefit from some of the highest environmental
standards globally. The only way that the union has managed to
achieve such standards is through member state collaboration.
The national governments have set clear goals and guides for
the attainment of the stated goals and vision of the union. The
union also has a policy that goes to 2022and beyond with
dedicated funding and research programs that are associated
with environmental collaboration.
This research will thus help cement the discussions through the
different literature on the positive impact that cooperation
between member states have had on the environment. It has
allowed the block to have some of the strongest policies and
progress when it comes to the conservation of the environment.
Benchmarking the European Union could help other nations and
global blocks understand how cooperation hastens the process
of environmental rejuvenation. It also allows them to
understand the purpose of shared goals and objectives in
relation to the environment.
Methodology
The research will take a historical approach where the main

focus will be on primary and secondary sources of data on the
EU and its impacts on the environment. A literature review will
be the main method of gathering the necessary information
required in the research. The study will review any primary
sources of information in relation to the European Union and its
impacts on the environment. The main sources will be
government archives or the website affiliated to the union and
its environmental objectives.
The research will use major keywords to search for the
appropriate literature to fit the research questions. All research
that fits the criteria will be evaluated to assess reliability and
credibility. The focus will be on sources that are less than 10
years and that have relevant data on the European Union. The
data collected shall be analyzed through thematic sectioning
where each piece will be arranged and groups according to the
themes that are prevalent.
Most of the research materials will be obtained through credible
and scholarly sources. The main focus will be Google Scholar, a
tool that provides peer reviewed information relating to the
research topic. JSTOR and ScienceDirect are other databases
that will come in handy in choosing the appropriate articles to
include in the research. The articles will be reviewed and vetted
by an independent researcher to eliminate any form of bias and
to also ensure that they meet the set criteria.
Research Timeline
Date
Aug ‘22
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan ‘23
Feb
March
Detail

Project definition
Research
Project proposal

Research method design
Literature Search
Data Collection and Analysis
Report writing (findings)

First draft
Review of first draft
Dissertation (writing)

Submission
References
Angheluta, S. P., Burlacu, S., Diaconu, A., & Curea, C. S.
(2019). The Energy from Renewable Sources in the European
Union: Achieving the Goals.
European Journal of Sustainable Development,
8(5), 57-57.
https://doi.org/10.14207/ejsd.2019.v8n5p57
Gulac, O., Dubchak, L., Iarmolenko, I., & Yanchuk, J. (2019).

Cooperation of Ukraine and the European Union in the
ecological sector: directions and prospects.
European Journal of Sustainable Development,
8(1), 22-22.
https://doi.org/10.14207/ejsd.2019.v8n1p22
Heinelt, H. (2018).
European Union environment policy and new forms of
governance: a study of the implementation of the environmental
impact assessment directive and the eco-management and audit
scheme regulation in three member states: a study of the
implementation of the environmental impact assessment
directive and the eco-management and audit scheme regulation
in three member states. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315202730
Lindsey, R., & Dahlman, L. (2020). Climate change: Global
temperature.
Climate. gov,
16.
https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-
climate/climate-change-global-temperature

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