Guide to developing academic style in writing

1. Aaagrhh…sometimes it can be hard to know exactly
how to develop the ‘academic style’ in your written
work that your tutors are after!
•
•
•
•
Expressing ideas and constructing arguments
Logical, concise and specific
Finding the perfect word
Having a conversation with your reader

2. David Crystal on whether the English language is so varied in
different parts of the world that it will eventually fragment into
distinctive separate languages.
Crystal, D. (2009) The future of language: The Routledge David Crystal Lectures.
London: Routledge, pp.45-6.

3. At the most colloquial level, there will certainly be
considerable mutual unintelligibility, especially if a great
deal of local language mixing takes place. The sentence You
wanted to beli some barang-barang is an example from a
conversation between two Malaysians: they are speaking
English, but they have put some Malay words into it (the
meaning is to ‘buy some things’). This kind of mixing is
perfectly normal linguistic development, expressing the
identity of a community, and it will be increasingly heard in
multicultural settings everywhere, whether in
Malaysia, Ghana, Zimbabwe – or Wales. Language is a major
index of identity, and wherever English is spoken it is not
surprising to find it being adapted to help express a local
sense of belonging.

4. At the most colloquial level, there will certainly be
considerable mutual unintelligibility, especially if a great
deal of local language mixing takes place. The sentence You
wanted to beli some barang-barang is an example from a
conversation between two Malaysians: they are speaking
English, but they have put some Malay words into it (the
meaning is to ‘buy some things’). This kind of mixing is
perfectly normal linguistic development, expressing the
identity of a community, and it will be increasingly heard in
multicultural settings everywhere, whether in
Malaysia, Ghana, Zimbabwe – or Wales. Language is a major
index of identity, and wherever English is spoken it is not
surprising to find it being adapted to help express a local
sense of belonging.
Topic sentence
to start the
paragraph
with an
emphasis at
the end
Very precise use of language. This could have been written as “a lot of misunderstanding
on both sides” but “a lot” doesn’t imply significance , “misunderstanding” suggests there
is wrong understanding rather than none at all, and “on both sides” is longwinded.

5. At the most colloquial level, there will certainly be
considerable mutual unintelligibility, especially if a great
deal of local language mixing takes place. The sentence You
wanted to beli some barang-barang is an example from a
conversation between two Malaysians: they are speaking
English, but they have put some Malay words into it (the
meaning is to ‘buy some things’). This kind of mixing is
perfectly normal linguistic development, expressing the
identity of a community, and it will be increasingly heard
in multicultural settings everywhere, whether in
Malaysia, Ghana, Zimbabwe – or Wales. Language is a
major index of identity, and wherever English is spoken it
is not surprising to find it being adapted to help express a
local sense of belonging.
An intriguing
example to
progress from
the topic
sentence with
the translation
not given until
the end making
the reader
continue.
Crystal then widens the example to show its application in other settings and the last
sentence highlights that the suggestion is reasonable.

6. Crystal then continues with this paragraph:
On the other hand, there are several centralizing forces at work in the
world which foster mutual intelligibility. Standard English is the chief
force, existing as an international reality in print, and available as a tool
for national and international communication by people from all these
countries. Anyone with a reasonable level of education will be able to
read it. Many will be able to speak it. Certainly, everyone will be under
some pressure to learn it. There are too many centralizing factors
keeping Standard English in the forefront of world attention for the old
Latin scenario to obtain. And its position is being reinforced by new
technologies. Satellite television is beaming Standard English down into
previously unreachable parts of the world, thereby fostering greater
levels of mutual intelligibility. And the English language we see on the
World Wide Web is predominantly the standard variety.”

7. The first phrase highlights to the reader that there will now be consideration of a
counter argument. The end of the sentence links with the previous paragraph by
using the same terms.
On the other hand, there are several centralizing forces at work in the
world which foster mutual intelligibility. Standard English is the chief
force, existing as an international reality in print, and available as a tool
for national and international communication by people from all these
countries. Anyone with a reasonable level of education will be able to
read it. Many will be able to speak it. Certainly, everyone will be under
some pressure to learn it. There are too many centralizing factors
keeping Standard English in the forefront of world attention for the old
Latin scenario to obtain. And its position is being reinforced by new
technologies. Satellite television is beaming Standard English down into
previously unreachable parts of the world, thereby fostering greater
levels of mutual intelligibility. And the English language we see on the
World Wide Web is predominantly the standard variety.”

8. This time the main theme of the paragraph is not introduced until the second
sentence
On the other hand, there are several centralizing forces at work in the
world which foster mutual intelligibility. Standard English is the chief
force, existing as an international reality in print, and available as a
tool for national and international communication by people from all
these countries. Anyone with a reasonable level of education will be
able to read it. Many will be able to speak it. Certainly, everyone will
be under some pressure to learn it. There are too many centralizing
factors keeping Standard English in the forefront of world attention for
the old Latin scenario to obtain. And its position is being reinforced by
new technologies. Satellite television is beaming Standard English down
into previously unreachable parts of the world, thereby fostering
greater levels of mutual intelligibility. And the English language we see
on the World Wide Web is predominantly the standard variety.”
Notice the use of 3 short sentences to make a series of points and enter into a
persuasive dialogue with the reader.

9. Erin Saltman and Hajnalka Szarvas on global consciousness
in contemporary Hungarian society
Saltman, E. and Szarvas, H. (2012). ‘Global-local-global consciousness in Hungary’
in Global civil society2012: ten years of critical reflection. eds. M. Kaldor, H. L.
Moore and S. Selchow. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, p.16.

10. Hungary at first glance may not seem like a beacon of global
consciousness or community awareness. Many Hungarian NGOs do not
address or involve large segments of the population; nor, on first
examination, do the so-called ‘globally conscious’ movements.
However, a different perspective emerges if Hungary is examined from
its grassroots and localised projects and organisations. The diversity in
Hungarian global, ‘glocal’ and after-global movements, particularly in
those led by youth, shows evidence of citizens engaged in modern and
innovative social networks used to develop knowledge and awareness
of issues impacting local, national, and international society.

11. Hungary at first glance may not seem like a beacon of global
consciousness or community awareness. Many Hungarian NGOs do
not address or involve large segments of the population; nor, on first
examination, do the so-called ‘globally conscious’ movements.
However, a different perspective emerges if Hungary is examined from
its grassroots and localised projects and organisations. The diversity in
Hungarian global, ‘glocal’ and after-global movements, particularly in
those led by youth, shows evidence of citizens engaged in modern and
innovative social networks used to develop knowledge and awareness
of issues impacting local, national, and international society.
Starts the paragraph by stating the commonly held position to build
solidarity with the reader and acknowledge their most likely
opinion.

12. Hungary at first glance may not seem like a beacon of global
consciousness or community awareness. Many Hungarian NGOs do not
address or involve large segments of the population; nor, on first
examination, do the so-called ‘globally conscious’ movements.
However, a different perspective emerges if Hungary is examined from
its grassroots and localised projects and organisations. The diversity in
Hungarian global, ‘glocal’ and after-global movements, particularly in
those led by youth, shows evidence of citizens engaged in modern and
innovative social networks used to develop knowledge and awareness
of issues impacting local, national, and international society.
Leads the reader into their analytical
technique, backing up their argument
and using appropriately specific jargon
to distinguish between closely related
concepts.
Illustrative language allows
the reader to visualise
abstract concepts

13. Saltman and Szarvas continue with this paragraph:
The process of resurrecting civil society in Hungary
began in the 1990s, after decades of communism
throughout Central and Eastern Europe. New
NGOs became a symbol of regenerating social
connective tissues among the people and in the
short period between 1990 and 1993 the number
of NGOs grew from a few hundred to over 30,000
(HSCO 2011). Large economic and political
changes left a gap in certain state functions which
filled, giving them both legitimacy and status.
However, despite this complementary role, NGOs
have remained somehow suspect in the eyes of
those in power – perhaps a leftover sentiment
from the communist era, when they were
considered a potential threat by politicians and
prevented from becoming independent from the
state. Although access into the European Union
has diversified funding options, to the chagrin of
NGO members most organisations remain largely
dependent on state finances.

14. The process of resurrecting civil society in
Hungary began in the 1990s, after decades of
communism throughout Central and Eastern
Europe. New NGOs became a symbol of
regenerating social connective tissues among the
people and in the short period between 1990 and
1993 the number of NGOs grew from a few
hundred to over 30,000 (HSCO 2011). Large
economic and political changes left a gap in
certain state functions which filled, giving them
both legitimacy and status. However, despite this
complementary role, NGOs have remained
somehow suspect in the eyes of those in power –
perhaps a leftover sentiment from the
communist era, when they were considered a
potential threat by politicians and prevented
from becoming independent from the state.
Although access into the European Union has
diversified funding options, to the chagrin of NGO
members most organisations remain largely
dependent on state finances.
This topic sentence
sets the context of
Hungarian political
history generally
Again illustrative
language
Argument backed
up with statistics
Language
becomes more
cautious as the
reasoning
becomes less
concrete

15. Historian Eric Hobsbawm on the French
Revolution
Hobsbawm, E. J. (1962) The age of revolution 1789-1848. London: Penguin Books, p.79.

16. The French Revolution was not made or led by a formed party or
movement in the modern sense, nor by men attempting to carry
out a systematic programme. It hardly even threw up ‘leaders’ of
the kind to which twentieth-century revolutions have accustomed
us, until the post-revolutionary figure of Napoleon. Nevertheless a
striking consensus of general ideas among a fairly coherent social
group gave the revolutionary movement effective unity. The group
was the ‘bourgeoisie’; its ideas were those of classical
liberalism, as formulated by the ‘philosophers’ and ‘economists’
and propagated by free-masonry and in informal associations. To
this extent ‘the philosophers’ can be justly made responsible for
the Revolution. It would have occurred without them; but they
probably made the difference between a mere breakdown of an
old regime and the effective and rapid substitution of a new one.

17. The French Revolution was not made or led by a formed party or
movement in the modern sense, nor by men attempting to carry
out a systematic programme. It hardly even threw up ‘leaders’ of
the kind to which twentieth-century revolutions have accustomed
us, until the post-revolutionary figure of Napoleon. Nevertheless a
striking consensus of general ideas among a fairly coherent social
group gave the revolutionary movement effective unity. The group
was the ‘bourgeoisie’; its ideas were those of classical
liberalism, as formulated by the ‘philosophers’ and ‘economists’
and propagated by free-masonry and in informal associations. To
this extent ‘the philosophers’ can be justly made responsible for
the Revolution. It would have occurred without them; but they
probably made the difference between a mere breakdown of an
old regime and the effective and rapid substitution of a new one.
The topic sentence opens up a dialogue with the reader – telling them
that they might think this but they should question it and the author will
lead you through as to why. This is an authoritative style of writing.

18. The French Revolution was not made or led by a formed party or
movement in the modern sense, nor by men attempting to carry
out a systematic programme. It hardly even threw up ‘leaders’ of
the kind to which twentieth-century revolutions have accustomed
us, until the post-revolutionary figure of Napoleon. Nevertheless a
striking consensus of general ideas among a fairly coherent social
group gave the revolutionary movement effective unity. The
group was the ‘bourgeoisie’; its ideas were those of classical
liberalism, as formulated by the ‘philosophers’ and ‘economists’
and propagated by free-masonry and in informal associations. To
this extent ‘the philosophers’ can be justly made responsible for
the Revolution. It would have occurred without them; but they
probably made the difference between a mere breakdown of an
old regime and the effective and rapid substitution of a new one.
A mixture of caution and significance
statements to push his reasoning to its
conclusion
The answer to the premise introduced
in the topic sentence not revealed until
this point – keeping the reader
following the argument

19. The French Revolution was not made or led by a formed party or
movement in the modern sense, nor by men attempting to carry
out a systematic programme. It hardly even threw up ‘leaders’ of
the kind to which twentieth-century revolutions have accustomed
us, until the post-revolutionary figure of Napoleon. Nevertheless a
striking consensus of general ideas among a fairly coherent social
group gave the revolutionary movement effective unity. The group
was the ‘bourgeoisie’; its ideas were those of classical
liberalism, as formulated by the ‘philosophers’ and ‘economists’
and propagated by free-masonry and in informal associations. To
this extent ‘the philosophers’ can be justly made responsible for
the Revolution. It would have occurred without them; but they
probably made the difference between a mere breakdown of an
old regime and the effective and rapid substitution of a new one.
The end of the paragraph clarifies how far the argument can be pushed
and invites the reader to disagree. Hobsbawm has imagined what the
possible outcomes might have been and been decisive in his reasoning.
Stylistically he uses concise sentence structures to help the reader
understand complex /controversial ideas.

20. Susie Orbach concluding her book on our relationship with
our bodies
Orbach, S. (2009). Bodies. London: Profile
Books, pp.142-3

21. This book has argued not only that bodies are made but that they are made in
conditions in which the body of the infant is rendered unstable and precarious. Body
instability is rife. It is not only the dumping ground for emotional anxiety; it is a problem
in its own right which needs addressing. Mostly we don’t see the body’s anxiety as
bodily anxiety. We misread the anxiety, misinterpret the wish to change the body as
aspirational and as psychologically motivated – the outcome of an unfortunate
emotional anxiety, such as lack of control or, more commonly, an inability to digest
upset or conflict which is then visited on the body as a somatic symptom. But body
anxiety is as fundamental as emotional anxiety and we need to recognise this. It is
essential, especially for therapists, if they wish to be of use to those who consult them.
Although clinicians have sometimes been slow to see this, the work of contemporary
artists is directing our gaze to this disturbing phenomenon.
The power of works by Antony Gormley, Richard Serra, Marc Quinn, Orlan, Ron Muerk
and many others lies in the way they address the fragmentation and instability of the
human form in the later twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Gormley makes casts
of his body. In doing so he directs us to lack of integrity that has come to pervade the
human form. He enunciates a whole body among other whole bodies, in vivid contrast
to advertising images and photography’s tendency to represent bodies only in terms of
part objects. He is drawing us into the beauty of the ordinary form, unperfected. His
repetitive use of his own body is a means to show us that we share a common
bodiliness.

22. This book has argued not only that bodies are made but that they are
made in conditions in which the body of the infant is rendered unstable
and precarious. Body instability is rife. It is not only the dumping ground
for emotional anxiety; it is a problem in its own right which needs
addressing. Mostly we don’t see the body’s anxiety as bodily anxiety. We
misread the anxiety, misinterpret the wish to change the body as
aspirational and as psychologically motivated – the outcome of an
unfortunate emotional anxiety, such as lack of control or, more
commonly, an inability to digest upset or conflict which is then visited on
the body as a somatic symptom. But body anxiety is as fundamental as
emotional anxiety and we need to recognise this. It is essential, especially
for therapists, if they wish to be of use to those who consult them.
Although clinicians have sometimes been slow to see this, the work of
contemporary artists is directing our gaze to this disturbing phenomenon.
Topic sentence
succinctly
summarises the
entire book and
starts the concluding
chapter.
Very short sentence
could have been
combined with the next
but the length gives it
punch making the
reader think.
Use of the pronoun ‘we’
builds solidarity with the
reader and opens a dialogue
Changes theme linking to next
paragraph

23. The power of works by Antony
Gormley, Richard Serra, Marc
Quinn, Orlan, Ron Muerk and many
others lies in the way they address the
fragmentation and instability of the
human form in the later twentieth and
early twenty-first centuries. Gormley
makes casts of his body. In doing so he
directs us to lack of integrity that has
come to pervade the human form. He
enunciates a whole body among other
whole bodies, in vivid contrast to
advertising images and photography’s
tendency to represent bodies only in
terms of part objects. He is drawing us
into the beauty of the ordinary
form, unperfected. His repetitive use of
his own body is a means to show us
that we share a common bodiliness.
Topic sentence is contextual helping
the reader to place Gormley within
a group of artists
Again a very short second sentence
acting as a jolt to the narrative
making the reader consider
Gormley’s action
Expands her point by using
illustrative language
Again the use of pronoun ‘we’
brings the reader back to their own
experiences in the concluding
sentence