1. Learning by Consequence
Part I
Higher National Diploma in Psychology
Module Code GP003
Kumari Karandawala
BA Psycology (Hons) (US)
MSc.(MSSW) In Social Enterprise Management
and International Social Work / Development
2. Contents:
• Instrumental Learning (Thorndike)
• Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
• Acquisition and Shaping
• Extinction
• Stimulus Control
• Discrimination
• Delayed Reinforcement
• Schedules of Reinforcement
• Negative and Positive Reinforcement
• Escape
• Avoidance
4. Social Learning Theory
• Social learning theory emphasizes the importance
of observing and modeling the behaviors,
attitudes, and emotional reactions of others
5. Social Learning Theory
• It focuses on learning by observation and modeling.
• The theory originally evolved from behaviorism but now
includes many of the ideas that cognitivists also hold; as a
result it is some times called social cognitive learning
• Social learning theory talks about how both environmental
and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and
behavior. It focuses on the learning that occurs within a social
context. It considers that people learn from one another,
including such concepts as observational learning, imitation,
and modeling (Abbott, 2007)
• Source:
http://www.southalabama.edu/oll/mobile/theory_workbook/social_learning_theory.htm
7. Reciprocal Causation
According to Bandura, behavior can also influence
both the environment and the person.
Each of the three variables: environment, person,
behavior influence each other. (p, be, e)
RECIPROCAL CAUSATION
8. Self efficacy:
Self regulation:
Modeling: (Live model, symbolic model, and imitation model.)
Imitation:
Vicarious reinforcement – behavior is acceptable
Vicarious punishment – behavior is unacceptable
TERMINOLOGY TO KNOW
9. Social Learning Theory and Abnormal
or Deviant Behavior
• Abnormal or Deviant behavior in Social learning is best summarized
by its leading proponent, Ronald L. Akers (1998):
• “The probability that persons will engage in criminal and
deviant behavior is increased and the probability of their
conforming to the norm is decreased when they differentially
associate with others who commit criminal behavior and
espouse definitions favorable to it,
• … they are relatively more exposed in-person or symbolically
to salient criminal/deviant models, define it as desirable or
justified in a situation discriminative for the behavior,
• … and they have received in the past and anticipate in the
current or future situation relatively greater reward than
punishment for the behavior (50).
• Source:
http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/topics/youthandthelaw/roots/volu
10. Important concepts:
• Differential Association
• Definitions
• Differential Reinforcement
• Imitation
Characteristics:
-Low self-control
-Peer Group Associations**
Role of Family
Role of Peers
11. A Study Abnormal Behavior
Social Learning and Deviant Behavior: A Specific Test of a General
Theory - Akers , Krohn et al. (Study conducted in 1979)
Abstract:
A social learning theory of deviant behavior is tested with
survey data on adolescent drinking and drug behavior.
The theory is strongly supported. The major explanatory
variables from that theory, differential association,
differential reinforcement, definitions, and imitation
combine to account for 68% of the variance in marijuana use
(39% of abuse) and 55% of the variance in alcohol use (32%
of abuse) by adolescents.
12. Learning by Consequence
Basic example:
• A child goes up to a hot pan and the mother tells
the child that the pan is hot to stay away, but the
child doesn't listen and touches the pan. The
child is burned because of his/her actions and in
the process learns that hot things will burn you.
• That child just learned something new. Piaget
would call this assimilation and accommodation
of what just happened.
13. Learning by Consequence
• People do this everyday in many ways and a
great deal of learning is the consequence of
experience.
14. Instrumental Learning
– Edward L. Thorndike (1874 – 1949) founded
instrumental learning at the same time as Pavlov’s
research on classical conditioning.
– Thorndike’s research was based on his dissertation.
– His research was influential: showed that animals can
form new associations and described innovative
apparatus for the observation of animal learning.
He demonstrated the use of such apparatus in
systematic laboratory research.
Thorndike’s research: Cats and puzzle boxes.
15. Classical conditioning Vs. Instrumental
Learning
• Thorndike’s method shows that the type of
learning demonstrated by the cats is similar
to, but also different from, classical
conditioning
• The most important similarity is that, in both
classical conditioning and instrumental
learning, subjects learn to associate paired
events.
16. Classical conditioning Vs. Instrumental
Learning
One very important difference is:
• in classical conditioning, the learned response (or
conditioned response - the CR) is elicited
involuntarily by a stimulus that comes before it
(the CS)
• in instrumental learning, the learned response
(the instrumental response) is emitted
voluntarily because of its consequence — that is,
because of a stimulus (a reward) that follows it
17. Classical conditioning Vs. Instrumental
Learning
• The degree to which a response is voluntary is best
represented on a continuum:
Involuntary <—————————————–> Voluntary
18. Classical conditioning (CR) Vs.
Instrumental Learning
• A SECOND important difference between classical
conditioning and instrumental learning involves the
nature of the association formed in each:
• in classical conditioning, two stimuli are associated
— the CS is associated with the UCS after they have
been paired repeatedly.
19. Classical conditioning (CR) Vs.
Instrumental Learning
• in instrumental learning, a response is
associated with a stimulus that follows it —
the instrumental response is associated with
the reward after they have been paired
repeatedly.
20. Thorndike
If an action brings a reward, that reward becomes
stamped into the mind. Eg. Cat and the puzzle box
the reward is the treat/food placed outside the
puzzle box. (See video at:
http://sccpsy101.com/home/chapter-4/section-
15/)
Behavior changes consequences The Law of
Effect.
21. Operant Conditioning - Skinner
• Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant
Conditioning, but his work was based on
Thorndike’s law of effect.
• Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of
Effect - Reinforcement.
• Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated
(i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not
reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished
(i.e. weakened).
22. Operant Conditioning – Skinner
• More productive to study observable behavior
rather than internal mental events.
• Believed that the best way to understand behavior
is to look at the causes of an action and its
consequences He called this approach operant
conditioning.
• Based on the work of Thorndike’s theory - “The
Law of Effect” basically means…
23. Operant Conditioning – Skinner
If the consequences of a behavior are
pleasant, the behavior will likely increase.
25. Skinner – 3 types of Operant
• Skinner identified three types of responses or operant
that can follow behavior.
• • Neutral operants: responses from the environment
that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a
behavior being repeated.
• • Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that
increase the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• • Punishers: Response from the environment that
decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens behavior.
26. Skinner – 3 types of Operant
• Positive Reinforcement (+): the addition of something
pleasant to increase a behavior. If I want to to study more and
give you chocolate for studying, the chocolate is the positive
reinforcement because it is pleasant and meant to increase
your behavior.
• Negative Reinforcement (-): the removal of something
unpleasant to increase a behavior. If you have a headache
and I want you to study, I may give you a panadol. The
panadol is the negative reinforcement because it is removal
something unpleasant (headache) and increasing your
behavior (studying).
27. Skinner – 3 types of Operant
• Positive Punishment: the addition of something
unpleasant to make a behavior less likely. I want
you to stop talking in class, so I flick you with a
rubber band every time you open your mouth.
• Omission Training (or negative punishment): the
removal of something pleasant to decrease a
behavior. Your Mom does not let you watch
Gray's Anatomy because you swore at the dinner
table.
28. Reinforces and Punishers
• Watch pigeon video at
http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-
conditioning.html
29. Acquisition and Shaping
• Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning
something.
• In operant conditioning, acquisition is the formation of a
new response tendency.
• Procedures used to establish a habit or tendency to emit
a voluntary operant response are different from those
used to create a reflexive conditioned response.
Operant responses are typically established through a
gradual process called Shaping.*
• Source: http://www.appsychology.com/Book/Behavior/operant_conditioning.htm
30. Acquisition and Shaping
Shaping Behaviors
• Shaping is the reinforcement of closer and closer
approximations of a desired response.
• It is necessary when an organism does not, on its
own, emit the desired response.
31. REFERENCES
• Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental
Analysis. New York: Appleton-Century.
• Skinner, B. F. (1948). 'Superstition' in the pigeon. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-172.
• Thorndike, E. L. (1905). The elements of psychology. New York: A. G.
Seiler.
• McLeod, S. A. (2007). B.F. Skinner | Operant Conditioning. Retrieved
from http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
• http://www.appsychology.com/Book/Behavior/operant_conditionin
g.htm
• Source:
http://www.southalabama.edu/oll/mobile/theory_workbook/social
_learning_theory.htm
• Weiten, Wayne (2005). Psychology: Themes and Variations – Sixth
Edition.
