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- 1. Schultz & Schultz 10e 1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Psychology and Work Today
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- 2. Schultz & Schultz 10e 2
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
• Describe the physiological effects of stress
• Identify the contributions of individual differences in
stress responses
• Understand the nature of work-family conflicts
• Identify the causes and effects of stress in the
workplace
• Describe the various approaches to treating stress
in the workplace
- 3. Schultz & Schultz 10e 3
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
What is Stress?
• Stress is physiological and psychological
responses to excessive and usually unpleasant
stimulation and to threatening events in the
environment
• Stress effects all levels of employees
• Stress is costly to employers and correlates
positively with health care claims and costs
• Up to half of all physician visits are precipitated by
stress
• Many physical complaints may be psychosomatic (i.e.,
physical disorders associated with emotional factors)
- 4. Schultz & Schultz 10e 4
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Stress-Related Physical Problems
• High blood pressure
• Ulcers
• Colitis
• Heart disease
• Arthritis
• Skin diseases
• Allergies
• Headaches
• Neck and lower back pain
• Cancer
• Increase in infectious diseases
- 5. Schultz & Schultz 10e 5
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Occupational Health Psychology
• The field of study dealing with the health effects
of job stress and other aspects of well-being
• Focus group in the Organizational Behavior
Division of the Academy of Management
• APA launched formal development of the field
with NIOSH
• Started Journal of Occupational Health Psychology
- 6. Schultz & Schultz 10e 6
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Physiological Effects of Stress
• Adrenaline is released, blood pressure rises, heart
rate increases, extra sugar is discharged into the
bloodstream
• Males and females respond differently to stress
• Male - fight-or-flight response
• Female - tend-and-befriend response
• Tending – nurturing activities designed to protect self
and offspring from stress
• Befriending – development of social groups or
networks that help defend against stress
- 7. Schultz & Schultz 10e 7
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Physiological Effects of Stress
• Few people regularly face extreme emergencies on
the job (e.g., firefighters and police)
• Most job stress is emotional (e.g., arguments with the
boss)
• Prolonged exposure to stress leads to physical and
psychosomatic illness
• These illnesses can contribute to stress
• Stress doesn’t affect everyone the same way
• Air traffic controllers are prone to hypertension but are no
more likely to have stroke or heart attack than rest of
population
- 8. Schultz & Schultz 10e 8
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Job Satisfaction and Control
• Those with high job satisfaction suffer few harmful effects
of stress
• Those with high levels of job dissatisfaction show
considerable stress-related effects
• Challenge-related stress includes time pressure and high
levels of responsibility
• Leads to fulfillment and achievement
• Hindrance-related stress includes excessive job demands
and constraints
• Leads to frustration and low satisfaction
• Top executives seem to handle stress better than middle
managers – have 40% fewer heart attacks
- 9. Schultz & Schultz 10e 9
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Coping with Stress
• High job satisfaction and control over working
conditions reduce a person’s susceptibility stress
• Culturally bound – e.g., lack of autonomy and control not
a major source of stress for Chinese workers (Liu,
Spector, & Shi, 2007)
• Social support helps coping with stress and a lack
of social support correlates with heart disease
• Employees with high levels of skills and abilities are
more resistant to stress
• Those in good general physical health suffer fewer
negative effects from stressful working conditions
- 10. Schultz & Schultz 10e 10
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Differences in Stress Responses
• Hardiness
• Self-efficacy
• Locus of control
• Organization-Based Self-esteem
• Self Control
• Negative affectivity
• Type of occupation
• Gender Differences
- 11. Schultz & Schultz 10e 11
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Hardiness
• Hardiness is a personality variable based on the
idea of control that may explain individual
differences in vulnerability to stress.
• Components (Kobasa, 1979, 1982):
• Control
• Commitment
• Challenge
• Hardy persons develop fewer physical
complaints under highly stressful conditions than
those who are not hardy
• How does this differ from locus of control?
- 12. Schultz & Schultz 10e 12
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Self-Efficacy
• Self-efficacy is our belief in our ability to
accomplish a specific task
• It is our sense of how adequate, efficient, and
competent we feel about coping with life’s
demands
• Two levels of self-efficacy:
• Traditional - individual-focused
• Collective - group-focused
• Those with high levels of self-efficacy feel more
control and are more stress resistant
- 13. Schultz & Schultz 10e 13
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Locus of Control
• Locus of control (LOC) refers to belief about
how much influence individuals have on the forces
and events that shape their lives
• Internal locus of control - Those who believe that
job performance, pay, and promotions are under
their control and dependent on their own behavior
• External locus of control - Those who believe
that life is outside their control
• High Internal LOC correlates with less stress and burnout
(Schmitz, Neumann, & Opperman, 2000)
- 14. Schultz & Schultz 10e 14
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Organization-Based Self-Esteem
• Self-esteem refers to how we feel about
ourselves
• Organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) is a
personality dimension relating to our assessment
of our adequacy and worth with regard to our
place in the employing organization
• High OBSE see themselves as important,
effective and worthwhile
• People low in OBSE are more affected by stress
and are more passive in coping with it
- 15. Schultz & Schultz 10e 15
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Self Control
• Personality characteristic related to the tendency to
restrain behaviors, desires, and emotions that
might interfere with the expectations of others
• Those higher in self control report greater stress
and anxiety
• Two components: impulse control and resisting
distractions (Schmidt & Neubach, 2007)
• Some self control is necessary – low self control
may be less stressed, but may not accomplish task
- 16. Schultz & Schultz 10e 16
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Negative Affectivity
• Negative affectivity (NA) is a “Big 5” personality
dimension characterized by a generalized life and
job dissatisfaction and by a focus on negative
aspects of events
• Closely related to neuroticism
• People high in NA are likely to experience distress
and dissatisfaction in all areas of life
• Research results are mixed as to relationship with
stress
- 17. Schultz & Schultz 10e 17
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Type of Occupation
• High stress jobs include laborer, secretary, clinical
laboratory technician, nurse, first-line supervisor,
restaurant server, machine operator, farm worker, and
miner
• Also stressful: police officer, firefighter, computer
programmer, dental technician, electrician, plumber,
social worker, telephone operator, city bus driver
• University professor is one of the least stressful
• Clerical and blue-collar generally more stressed than
managers and professionals
- 18. Schultz & Schultz 10e 18
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Gender Differences
• Women consistently report higher levels of stress
than men
• More headaches, anxiety, depression, sleep disturbances,
and eating disorders
• More likely to smoke, drink and use drugs in response to
workplace stress
• More likely to use social support networks to cope
• Women in highly stressful jobs more prone to
spontaneous abortion and shorter menstrual cycles
• Women homemakers experience higher levels of
stress than those in paid positions
- 19. Schultz & Schultz 10e 19
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Work-Family Balance
• Both men and women report conflicts, but the
difficulties are usually greater for women
• Stresses of work-family conflict are independent of
type of job and working conditions
• Employed women enjoy better health than those
who stay at home
• More than 60% of women in US with children
under 6 work outside home
• They remain responsible for the bulk of child
and elder care – it’s like having two jobs
- 20. Schultz & Schultz 10e 20
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Organizational Assistance
• Presence of women managers increases
organizational responsiveness to work-family
conflicts:
• Reducing hours, flexible scheduling and telecommuting
• Supportive supervisors
• Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) absence
• Maternity leave
• However, highly paid women may be penalized for
taking extensive leave
• Companies with work-family conflict reduction
programs had higher stock prices (Arthur, 2003)
- 21. Schultz & Schultz 10e 21
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Are Family-Friendly Practices Fair?
• Family-friendly practices allow parents with
dependent children to have a flexible
schedule and avoid overtime
• What about those who don’t have children?
• There is a growing sense among childless
workers that they are being exploited
• They receive fewer benefits than parents
• Is it fair?
• What factors should be considered?
- 22. Schultz & Schultz 10e 22
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Workplace Stressors
• Work overload and work underload
• Organizational change
• Role ambiguity and role conflict
• Other stressors
- 23. Schultz & Schultz 10e 23
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Work Overload and Underload
• Work overload – being overworked
• Quantitative - there is too much work to perform
in the time available
• Qualitative - work that is too difficult for the
employee to perform
• Work underload results from work that is
too simple or insufficiently challenging for
one’s abilities
• Both conditions are positively correlated with
stress
- 24. Schultz & Schultz 10e 24
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Organizational Change
• Organizational change is stressful
• Those who view change as exciting and a
challenge are less vulnerable than those who
resist change or view it as a threat
• Older workers experience increased stress with
the increase in younger workers and ethnic
diversity which brings to the workplace unfamiliar
habits and cultural values
• Introduction of employee participation in decision
making can be stressful for higher-level managers
- 25. Schultz & Schultz 10e 25
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict
• Role ambiguity results when job responsibilities
are unstructured or poorly defined
• Components of role ambiguity
• Performance criteria – uncertainty about performance
standards
• Work method – uncertainty about procedures that lead to
success on the job
• Scheduling – uncertainty about timing and sequencing
• Role conflict results when there is a disparity
between job demands and the employee’s
personal standards
- 26. Schultz & Schultz 10e 26
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Other Stressors
• Supervisors and managers
• Problems of career development
• Taking responsibility for subordinates
• Working under a deadline
• Computer use
• “Stress carriers” – contact with others
experiencing stress
• Physical working conditions (e.g., assembly line)
• Computer-controlled performance monitoring
- 27. Schultz & Schultz 10e 27
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Effects of Workplace Stress
• Research has linked stress to long-term
psychological and behavioral consequences
such as:
• Tension
• Depression and anxiety
• Spousal and child abuse
• Overt hostility and sabotage
• Other effects include:
• Burnout
• Workaholism
- 28. Schultz & Schultz 10e 28
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Burnout
• Burnout is a condition of job stress that results from
overwork
• Burnout victims tend to become rigid about their
work, following rules and procedures compulsively
• Characterized by exhaustion, apathy, depression,
irritation, and boredom; work quality deteriorates but
not necessarily quantity
• Research strongly links physical illnesses (heart
disease in men and musculoskeletal disease in
women) to burnout (Honkonen et al., 2006)
- 29. Schultz & Schultz 10e 29
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Burnout Syndrome
•Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter (2001) identified
three components of Burnout Syndrome
• Emotional exhaustion – feeling drained and empty
• Depersonalization – feeling callous and cynical
• Reduced sense of personal accomplishment – feeling
efforts are wasted and worthless
•The Maslach Burnout Inventory has 4 subscales:
• Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalization, Reduced
sense of personal accomplishment, and Personal
involvement
• High score related to burnout and exhaustion
- 30. Schultz & Schultz 10e 30
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Experiencing Burnout
• Women no more likely than men to experience
burnout
• Single and divorced more likely than married
individuals to experience burnout
• Those under 40 more likely to experience burnout
• Those high in neuroticism more likely to
experience burnout
• Higher among external LOCs and those low in
hardiness and self-esteem
• Prolonged overwork and stress saps energy
leading to physical and psychological problems
- 31. Schultz & Schultz 10e 31
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Workaholism
• Workaholic - an employee addicted to work
• Dysfunctional, or they may really like their job
• 5% of workers are workaholics - most are content
• Healthy workaholics are high in Job Engagement
• High in energy, involvement and efficacy,
vigorous, fully committed to work, seldom
fatigued, persistent, enthusiastic and take pride
in their work
• Unhealthy workaholics are highly involved but
derive little satisfaction from their work
- 32. Schultz & Schultz 10e 32
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Stress Management Programs
• Organizational efforts
• These are a variety of programs designed to
provide employees a sense of control over and
fit in the organization
• Individual efforts
• Exercise – take advantage of employer-
provided fitness programs
• Relaxation training – relax one part of body after
another
• Biofeedback – monitor physiological responses
to stress and use results to control responses
- 33. Schultz & Schultz 10e 33
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Organizational Efforts
• Controlling the organizational climate by allowing
for participation
• Providing control
• Defining employee roles
• Eliminating work overload and underload
• Providing for social support
• Bringing pets to work
• Providing stress-management programs
• Providing fitness programs
- 34. Schultz & Schultz 10e 34
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Key Terms
• Biofeedback
• Burnout
• Hardiness
• Job engagement
• Locus of control
• Negative affectivity
• Occupational health
psychology
• Organization-based
self esteem (OBSE)
• Relaxation training
• Role ambiguity
• Role conflict
• Stress
• Work overload
• Work underload
• Workaholism