schultz10e_ch08.ppt

Schultz & Schultz 10e 1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
Psychology and Work Today
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:
any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;
preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images;
any rental, lease, or lending of the program

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain the content theories of motivation, including
achievement, needs hierarchy, motivator-hygiene, and job-
characteristics theories
• Explain the process theories of motivation, including
expectancy, equity, and goal-setting theories
• Understand job satisfaction, its measurement, its
relationship to job performance, and the mediating effect of
personal characteristics
• Describe the personal impact of job loss
• Apply motivation theories to predict the effect of pay equity
issues, merit pay, and wage-incentive systems
• Compare and contrast job involvement and job
commitment

What is Motivation?
• From the Latin word movere – to move
• Motivation is the desire to do something and
continue to work toward its accomplishment
• Motivation is dependent upon the answers to
the following questions:
• What do you want to do? (direction)
• How important is it to you? (intensity)
• Will you continue despite obstacles? (persistence)
• Motivation is a major problem facing
contemporary organizations

Theories of Motivation
• Content theories
• Focus on the importance of work itself, dealing
with the specific needs that motivate and direct
behavior
• Process theories
• Deal with the cognitive processes we use in
making decisions and choices about our work

Content Theories of Motivation
• Achievement motivation theory
• Needs-hierarchy theory
• Motivator-hygiene (two-factor) theory
• Job characteristics theory

Achievement Motivation Theory
McClelland (1961)
• Emphasizes the need to accomplish something, to
do a good job, and to be the best
• Three major characteristics of those with high need
for achievement
• Want to assume responsibility for solving problems
• Tend to take calculated risks and set moderate, attainable
goals
• Need continuing recognition and feedback so they will
know how well they are doing

Needs Hierarchy Theory
Maslow (1970)
• Human needs are arranged in a strict
hierarchy of importance
• Once we satisfy our lower-order needs, we
can pay attention to our higher-level needs
• Physiological
• Safety
• Belonging and love
• Esteem
• Self-actualization

Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Herzberg (1966)
• Often referred to as the two-factor theory
• Explains work motivation and job satisfaction in
terms of job duties and features of the workplace
• Meeting Motivator needs produces satisfaction
• Failure to meet Hygiene needs produces
dissatisfaction
• Job enrichment is an effort to expand jobs to
increase the opportunity to satisfy motivator
needs

Herzberg (1966)
• Motivator needs are internal to the work
and include responsibility, achievement,
recognition, advancement, career
development, and growth
• Challenging work leads to satisfaction, but its
absence does not necessarily lead to job
dissatisfaction

Herzberg (1966)
• Hygiene needs are external to the job tasks and
involve features of the work environment: company
policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working
conditions and salary
• When hygiene needs are not met, the result is
dissatisfaction; when they are met, the result is an
absence of dissatisfaction
• Job enrichment is an effort to expand the scope of
the job to give employees a greater role in
planning, performing, and evaluating their work

Herzberg (1966)
• Job Enrichment
• Remove some management controls and make people
accountable and responsible for their work
• Create complete work units where possible
• Provide regular and continuous feedback
• Encourage employees to take on new tasks or become
experts in old ones
• The goals of job enrichment are to increase
personal growth, fulfill needs for achievement and
responsibility, and provide recognition

Job Characteristics Theory
Hackman & Oldham (1976)
• Links specific job characteristics with psychological
conditions that lead to greater motivation,
performance, and satisfaction for employees who
have a high growth need
• Core job characteristics:
• Skill variety
• Task identity
• Task significance
• Autonomy
• Feedback
• Motivation
• Performance
• Satisfaction
High growth
need

• Elements of Job Redesign
• Form larger work units from smaller, specialized tasks
• Arrange tasks in meaningful work units to make the
worker responsible for an identifiable unit
• Give workers responsibility for direct contact with clients
and end users
• Give workers control over tasks
• Arrange for workers to regularly learn how well they are
performing on the job

• Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS)
• A self-report inventory that measures three
aspects of the Job Characteristics theory:
• Employee’s perceptions of job characteristics
• Employee’s level of growth need
• Employee’s satisfaction
• Should also consider cognitive demand and
production responsibility
• A revised version of the JDS has been found to
be more valid than original

Process Theories of Motivation
• Valence-instrumentality-expectancy
theory (VIE)
• Equity theory
• Goal-setting theory

Expectancy Theory
Vroom (1964)
• Valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory
(VIE) states that people make choices based
on their expectations that certain rewards will
follow from certain behaviors
• Employees will perform at the level that gives
the greatest payoff or benefit
• The worth of the reward varies individually
• Effort = expectancy x instrumentality x
valence

Expectancy Theory
Vroom (1964)
• Expectancy
• Employees must decide whether they expect job
behaviors to have a high probability of leading to a
particular outcome
• Instrumentality
• Employees must determine whether that outcome will be
instrumental in leading to other outcomes
• Valence
• Employees must decide whether those outcomes have
sufficient psychological value to motivate them to behave
in a certain way

Equity Theory
Adams (1965)
• Work motivation is influenced by our perceptions
of fairness of treatment
• We calculate the ratio of our outcome to input and
compare it with what we believe is the ratio of a
comparison other (ex., co-worker, self in previous
job, classmate)
• Experience inequity if we get more/less than
others
• In presence of inequity, we are motivated to do
something to reestablish balance

Equity Theory
Adams (1965)
Three response patterns to inequity
• Benevolent
• Satisfied when they are under-rewarded
compared with co-workers
• Equity sensitive
• Believe everyone should be fairly rewarded
• Entitled
• People believe that everything they receive is
their just due

Goal-Setting Theory
Locke (1968)
• Level of motivation on the job is determined by
individual desire to achieve a particular goal
• Goal represents what we intend to do at given time
in the future
• Setting specific and challenging goals can motivate
our behavior
• Warning: Difficult goals may stimulate our
motivation to achieve at the expense of other
behaviors, such as helping our colleagues

Goal-Setting Theory
Locke (1968)
• Individual goal commitment
• the strength of our determination to reach our goal
• Goal commitment is influenced by
• External factors: authority, peer influence, and external
rewards
• Interactive factors: competition and the opportunity to
participate in setting goals
• Internal factors: self-administered rewards, expectations
of success, need for achievement, type-A behavior, self-
esteem, internal locus of control

Job Satisfaction
• Positive and negative feelings and attitudes about our job
• Most frequently studied IV in I-O Psychology
• In a survey of police, Carlan (2007) found satisfaction to be
related to:
• Opportunity to make a contribution to society
• Good pay
• Adventure and excitement
• Autonomy on the job
• Respect from peers
• Job security
• Job satisfaction influences psychological well-being both
before and after retirement (Wang, 2007)
• There is a positive and reciprocal relationship between job
and life satisfaction – but which direction?

Measures of Job Satisfaction
• Two popular attitude surveys:
• Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
• Measures pay, promotion, supervision, nature of
the work, and characteristics of co-workers
• Can be completed in 15 minutes
• Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)
• Covers 20 job facets, including advancement,
independence, recognition, social status, and
working conditions
• Requires 30 minutes to complete -10 minute
version is available

Gallup Poll of Job Satisfaction
• A single measure of job satisfaction does not
identify those areas of specific satisfaction or
dissatisfaction
• Need to examine what questions are asked and to
which population
• Satisfaction varies with specific job facets (e.g.,
promotion policy vs. interest in work)
• Only 10 to 13 percent of workers say they are
dissatisfied with their jobs
• Satisfaction varies with industry and type of job
• Organizations with more satisfied workers appear
to perform better

Types of Jobs and Satisfaction
J. Bryner, 2007, “Survey reveals most satisfying jobs,” www.livescience.com/health/070417_job_satisfaction.html
<http://www.livescience.com/health/070417_job_satisfaction.html>

Characteristics & Job Satisfaction
• Age – positive relationship
• Sex – no clear difference
• Race – whites generally more satisfied than minorities
• Cognitive ability – depends on education and challenge
• Job experience – positive relationship
• Use of skills – increase with use of more skills
• Job congruence – positive relationship
• Organizational justice – positive relationship
• Personality – varies with different Big 5 factors
• Job control – positive relationship
• Occupational level – positive relationship

Losing Your Job
• No job satisfaction without a job
• Job loss is stressful….Japanese refer to layoffs
as kubi kiri - beheading
• Those losing higher level jobs suffer more from
unemployment
• Many feel personal sense of betrayal
• Job loss after 50 doubles chance of stroke or
heart attack
• Decrease in organizational commitment among
survivors

Losing Your Job
• Finding a new position helps counteract the
negative effects unless there is dissatisfaction
with the new job
• Job insecurity results in lower organizational
commitment, increased stress and health
issues, particularly for those with high job
involvement
• Blacks insecure about their job were 4 times
more likely to report depression than similar
Whites (Swanbow, 2006)

Impact on Job Behaviors
• There is a significant positive relationship between
job satisfaction and productivity
• High job satisfaction is related to prosocial
behavior, that is, helpful behaviors directed at
customers, co-workers, and supervisors
• Several studies link prosocial behavior to high job
performance and productivity (Grant, 2008)
• Counterproductive behavior is related to
dissatisfaction in workers over 30

Impact on Job Behaviors
• Up to 20% of workforce is absent any given day
• Job satisfaction is negatively related to
absenteeism and turnover
• There is less absenteeism and turnover in jobs that
require a high level of creativity, challenge,
complexity, and autonomy
• Turnover is not always harmful
• Functional turnover occurs when poor employees quit
their jobs
• Dysfunctional turnover occurs when good employees
quit their jobs

Perceived Pay Equity
• Perceived equity or fairness of pay may be more
important than the amount
• Higher pay satisfaction related to better performance
(Williams, McDaniel, & Nguyen, 2006)
• We tend to develop personal standards of comparison
based on the minimum salary we consider acceptable
• Research indicates that own pay satisfaction decreases
with perceived increase in pay of co-workers (Harris,
Anseel, & Lievens, 2008)
• Women and minorities generally earn significantly less
than white men

Merit Pay
• Merit pay systems pay higher performing workers
more than less productive workers
• Widespread disagreement among managers about the
behaviors that should be important in making
decisions about pay
• Supervisors who themselves receive ample pay raises
tend to recommend higher raises for subordinates
• However, supervisors low in self-esteem may also provide high
raises for fear of retribution
• Merit pay seems to work better for those lower in
positive affect and for those in poorer countries

Wage-Incentive Systems
• The primary pay system for production
workers
• The more units produced, the higher the wage
• Seldom works in practice
• Many work groups establish their own production
norms, regardless of the wage-incentive
• Most workers prefer a straight hourly system

Job Involvement
• Job involvement is the intensity of a person’s
psychological identification with the job
• The higher the identification, the greater is one’s
satisfaction
• Job involvement is related to personal
characteristics, job characteristics and social factors
• Older workers and employees who work in teams
are more involved
• Those workers with growth needs are more
involved with enriched jobs
• High job involvement related to higher job
satisfaction and lower turnover and absenteeism

Organizational Commitment
• Organizational commitment (OC) is the degree of
psychological identification with or attachment to
the company
• Components of OC:
• Acceptance of organization’s values and goals
• Willingness to exert effort for the organization
• Strong desire to remain affiliated with the organization
• Longer tenured employees have stronger
correlation between OC and job performance
• Taking steps to improve OC in new employees
could lead to better job performance

Organizational Commitment
• Organizational factors related to commitment
include job enrichment, autonomy, opportunity to
use skills, and positive attitudes toward the work
group
• There is reciprocity of perceived commitment from
the organization; also with organizational equity
and justice
• The more women in the organization, the less the
commitment among men

Types of OC
• Affective or attitudinal
• The employee identifies with the organization, accepts its
values, and complies with its demands
• Correlates with perceived managerial potential
• Continuance or behavioral
• Employee is bound by extrinsic factors such as pensions
and seniority
• Normative
• Involves a sense of obligation to the employer

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
• OCBs involve putting forth extra effort, doing more
than the minimum requirements for a job
• Include
• Taking additional assignments
• Voluntarily assisting others
• Keeping up with professional development
• Following company rules when not being watched
• Promoting and protecting the organization
• Keeping a positive attitude and tolerating inconveniences
• Those who display OCBs tend to be high in
conscientiousness, extraversion, optimism and
altruism

Key Terms
• Achievement
motivation theory
• Equity theory
• Goal-setting theory
• Job-characteristics
theory
• Job congruence
• Job enrichment
• Job satisfaction
• Merit pay
• Motivator-hygiene (two
factor) theory
• Needs hierarchy theory
• Organizational
citizenship behaviors
• Prosocial behavior
• Valence-
Instrumentality-
Expectancy theory
• Wage-incentive system

schultz10e_ch08.ppt

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to schultz10e_ch08.ppt

Similar to schultz10e_ch08.ppt (20)

More from JoshuaLau29

More from JoshuaLau29 (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

schultz10e_ch08.ppt