Communication skills

1. WRITING SKILLS
BY CATHERINE
MUDAALA
LMMU

2. WHAT ABOUT ACADEMIC
WRITING
Writing
1. to provide clear evidence, being open-
minded, and disciplined in study.
2. with the dominance of reason over
emotions or sensual perception.
3. to an imagined reader who is coolly
rational, reading for information, and
intending to formulate a reasoned response.

3. ACADEMIC WRITING IS
IMPERSONAL:
E.g It could be argued that…….(correct)
Instead of
I can argue that………….. (wrong)
The writer looks at the issue………(wrong)
The writer examines the issue……..(right)

4. ESSAYS
DEFINITION
A piece of writing written to convince someone of
something or to simply inform the reader about a
particular topic

5. TYPES OF ESSAYS
Narrative- telling a story
Descriptive- painting a picture
Expository- requires the student to investigate, evaluate
evidence, expound and set forth an argument
Persuasive- convincing

6. FORMAT/STRUCTURE
Short Essay
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Caution: need for flexibility depending on topic or
assignment.

7. Long Essays
Introduction
Main body
Literature review
Case study
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Appendices

8. LENGTH OF ESSAYS
Usually between1,000 and 5,000 words.
You must keep to this limit, although
deviations of 5 per cent more or less are
generally acceptable.
At planning stage
you need to consider what proportion of the
essay to allocate to each part of the question.

9. As a basic guide, 20 per cent is usually
sufficient for the introduction and
conclusion together (references are not
included in the word count).
Therefore, in a 2,000 word essay the main
body would have 1,600 words.

10. Introduction – 10%
Main body - 80%
Conclusion - 10%

11. OUTLINING AN ESSAY
Depends on the key words in the
question.
Example: ‘Describe the typical social,
cultural and environmental impacts
experienced by tourist destinations in
developing countries.’ ‘How can
harmful impacts be reduced or
avoided?’

12. KEY WORDS
1. Social impacts
• increase in variety of jobs available
• price inflation
• new range of business opportunities
2. Cultural impacts
• new patterns of dress and behaviour may
cause problems
• market for traditional crafts and/or rituals
grows

13. KEY WORDS
3. Environmental impacts
• increased pressure on limited resources,
e.g. water
• loss of natural habitat to building projects
• provision of new infrastructure, e.g. roads

14. IDENTIFY THE KEY WORDS
‘How can harmful impacts be reduced or
avoided?’

15. INTRODUCTION
Its your response to the essay question
Written to attract reading
It states the purpose and goals of the writing
Gives background information on the issue
or question addressed
it clearly outlines the answer or position,
contention, thesis or main argument

16. 1.broad overview of
topic
2. background
3. Thesis (argument
towards end of
introduction)
4. relevant
information
5.Try to avoid
clichés.
6. Don’t feel
pressured to write
your intro first
7. Make it
interesting
8. Show Outline

17. MAIN BODY
The Key words lead to the breakdown of the
main body into paragraphs
This depends on the subtitles under the key
words
Create an outline of the main body guided by
key words and subtitles
Estimate the number of words per segment

18. EXAMPLE
Number of words
Social Impact 300
Cultural impact 200
Environmental Impact 350
Reducing harmful social impacts 250
Reducing harmful cultural
impacts
250
Reducing harmful environmental
impacts
250

19. ORGANISING PARAGRAPHS
Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of
academic writing.
Well-structured paragraphs help the reader
understand the topic more easily by dividing
up the argument into convenient sections.

20. We will look at:
• the components of paragraphs
• the way the components are linked together
• the linkage between paragraphs in the
overall text

21. (a) A paragraph:-
a group of sentences that deal with a
single topic.
(b) The length of paragraph- no less than
four or five sentences.
(c) First sentence introduces the topic.
Other sentences may give
definitions, examples, information, reasons,
restatements and summaries.

22. PARAGRAPHS
A paragraph is a mini essay with a three-
part structure:
1.topic sentence (also known as
introductory sentence)
2. body of the paragraph
3. concluding sentence (necessary for
long paragraphs but otherwise optional).

23. TOPIC SENTENCE
The topic sentence introduces a general
overview of the topic and the purpose of the
paragraph.
The topic sentence answers the question
'what's the paragraph about?'.

24. BODY OF THE PARAGRAPH
The body of the paragraph develops this
topic.
It may elaborate directly on the topic
sentence by giving definitions,
classifications, explanations, contrasts,
examples and evidence.

25. CONCLUDING SENTENCE
The final sentence in many, but not all,
paragraphs is the concluding sentence.
It does not present new information, but
often either summarises or comments on the
paragraph content.

26. It can also provide a link, by showing how
the paragraph links to the topic sentence of
the next paragraph.
The concluding sentence often answers the
question ‘so what?’, by explaining how this
paragraph relates back to the main topic.

27. COHESION IN PARAGRAPHS
Each new paragraph begins with a phrase
that links it to the previous paragraph, in
order to maintain continuity of argument:

28. EXAMPLES OF PHRASES
Despite this (i.e. the lack of a conclusive link)
All these claims (i.e. arguments in favour of home
ownership)

29. In order to begin a new topic you may use:
Turning to the issue of . . . Rates of infection
must also be examined . . . . . . is another area for
consideration
Paragraphs can also be introduced with adverbs:
Traditionally, few examples were . . .
Finally, the performance of . . .

30. CONCLUSIONS
The conclusion is closely related to the
introduction and is often described as its
‘mirror image’.
This means that if the introduction begins
with general information and ends with
specific information, the conclusion moves in
the opposite direction.

31. A conclusion should provide three main
points of your essay and wrap it up with a
final observation.
Make it interesting to create an impression
on your reader.
Perhaps you may want to end with a
quotation.

32. Never use words like “in conclusion……”
If it’s a research paper, you may indicate the
next topic to be researched on
ends with a more general statement about
how this topic relates to its context.
This may take the form of an evaluation of
the importance of the topic.

33. FINDING SOURCES OF
INFORMATION
Find a suitable source of information
identify relevant sections of text
select the key points that relate to your topic
make notes on them by writing the idea in your own
words.

34. Record the source of your notes
(useful for writing the list of
references).
Notes are written quickly, so keep them
simple.
Keep your notes organised into clear
headings (underlined) and numbering
systems (a, b, c, or 1, 2, 3,).

35. Use symbols (+, >, = ) to save time.
Use abbreviations (e.g. = for example).
You need to make up your own abbreviations for
your subject area.
But do not abbreviate too much, or you may find
your notes hard to understand in the future!

36. SUMMARISING
The notes are then summarised in own
words
summarising aims to reduce information to a
suitable length

37. PARAPHRASING
Paraphrasing means changing the wording of
a text so that it is significantly different from
the original source, without changing the
meaning.
Effective paraphrasing is a key academic skill
needed to avoid the risk of plagiarism:

38. PARAPHRASING
it demonstrates your understanding of a
source.
paraphrasing attempts to restate the relevant
information in own words without losing
meaning

39. LEARNING HOW TO
PARAPHRASE (READ)
Allen (2009) argues that the best explanation
for the British location of the industrial
revolution is found by studying demand
factors.
By the early eighteenth century high wages
and cheap energy were both features of the
British economy.

40. Consequently, the mechanisation of industry
through such inventions as the steam engine
and mechanical spinning was profitable
because employers were able to economise
on labour by spending on coal.
At that time, no other country had this
particular combination of expensive labour
and abundant fuel.

41. PARAPHRASE 1
A focus on demand may help to explain the
UK origin of the industrial revolution. At that
time workers’ pay was high, but energy from
coal was inexpensive. This encouraged the
development of mechanical inventions based
on steam power, which enabled bosses to
save money by mechanising production
(Allen, 2009).

42. PARAPHRASE 2
The reason why Britain was the birthplace of
the industrial revolution can be understood
by analysing demand in the early 1700s,
according to Allen (2009). He maintains
that, uniquely, Britain had the critical
combination of cheap energy from coal and
high labour costs. This encouraged the
adoption of steam power to mechanise
production, thus saving on wages and
increasing profitability.

43. PARAPHRASE 3
Allen (2009) claims that the clearest
explanation for the UK location of the
industrial revolution is seen by examining
demand factors. By the eighteenth century
cheap energy and high wages were both
aspects of the British economy.
As a result, the mechanisation of industry
through inventions such as the steam engine
and mechanical spinning was profitable
because employers were able to save money
on employees by spending on coal. At that

44. FOR EXAMPLE,
the following sentence:
There has been much debate about the
reasons for the industrial revolution
happening in eighteenth-century Britain,
rather than in France or Germany.
could be paraphrased:
Why the industrial revolution occurred in
Britain in the eighteenth century, instead of
on the continent, has been the subject of
considerable discussion.

45. Note that an effective paraphrase usually: •
has a different structure to the original
• has mainly different vocabulary
• retains the same meaning
• keeps some phrases from the original that
are in common use e.g. ‘industrial revolution’
or ‘eighteenth century’

46. TECHNIQUES FOR
PARAPHRASING
(a) Changing vocabulary by using synonyms:
argues > claims
eighteenth century > 1700s
wages > labour costs
economise > saving.
Do not attempt to paraphrase every word, since
some have no true synonyms, e.g. demand,
economy, energy

47. (b) Changing word class:
explanation (n.) > explain (v.)
mechanical (adj.) > mechanise (v.)
profitable (adj.) > profitability (n.)
(c) Changing word order: . . . the best
explanation for the British location of the
industrial revolution is found by studying
demand factors. > A focus on demand may help
explain the UK origin of the industrial
revolution.

48. EXERCISE
FOUR WHEELS GOOD
The growth of the car industry parallels the development
of modern capitalism. It began in France and Germany,
but took off in the United States. There Henry Ford
adapted the moving production line from the Chicago
meat industry to motor manufacturing, thus inventing
mass production. In the 1920s Alfred Sloan’s
management theories helped General Motors to become
the world’s dominant car company.

49. After the second world war the car makers focused on
the styling of their products to encourage more frequent
model changes. From the 1970s there was criticism of
the industry due to the inefficiency of most vehicles,
which used petrol wastefully. At the same time, trades
unions became increasingly militant in defence of their
members’ jobs. Today the industry owns some of the
most famous brands in the world. However, many car
makers are currently threatened by increased
competition and saturated markets

50. FIND SYNONYMS FOR THE
WORDS UNDERLINED
(a). (i) The growth of the car industry parallels the
development of modern capitalism.
Example: The rise of the automobile industry matches
the progress of contemporary capitalism. (ii) It began in
France and Germany, but took off in the United States.
(iii) There Henry Ford adapted the moving production
line from the Chicago meat industry to motor
manufacturing, thus inventing mass production.

51. WRITING STYLES
Writing clearly & persuasively
is a valuable skill
 Descriptive: Portrayal of the
main features: “Describe…………..”
 Critical/Analytical: A synonym might be “interpretive”
Stating a point, providing evidence, contrasting this
with other evidence, drawing logical conclusions.
“Analyse and discuss…………”

52. DESCRIPTIVE WRITING
Descriptive writing is characterized with
descriptions of objects, places, persons,
emotions, experiences, situations, and so on.
You’re asked to analyze something and
paint a picture in words.

53. DESCRIPTIVE WRITING
The important thing to remember is that
you’re not writing for the sake of giving
descriptions.
You’re supposed to convey a deeper meaning
through this type of academic writing.

54. FOR EXAMPLE
Here is a scene from War and Peace, where
Tolstoy used descriptive writing style:
“Down below, the little town could be seen
with its white, red-roofed houses, its
cathedral, and its bridge, on both sides of
which streamed jostling masses of Russian
troops.”

55. MY ADDITION
Myriads of screaming voices could be heard as machine
guns erupted one after another. Rubble surmounted into
uneven hills as storey buildings fell in response to
quaking sounds of grenades.

56. EXPOSITORY ESSAY
Most common type of essays
Aims at explaining, informing, or describing
Introduction
Say what you are going to say
Body- evidence based
Say it
Conclusion
Say what you said

57. ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
Presents arguments on both sides of an issue.
Structure
1. Introduction
2.Body
3.Counter argument
An argument to refute earlier arguments and give weight
to your actual position
Conclusion

58. CRITICAL ESSAY
The main objective of a critical essay
is to analyze, interpret, and evaluate a
subject from multiple sources to
develop an argument.
It starts by the author expressing his
claims and validating them by
providing citations from primary and
secondary sources.
It is an argument, persuasion essay
that in its broadest sense MAKES A
POINT and SUPPORTS IT.

59. criticizing an object or a text for a
critical essay only means that you
are taking the topic limb by limb to
be able to study its many unique
aspects which can only lead to
thorough understanding.

60. Critical essay can also open novel
ways on how to approach the topic
which can lead to further
appreciation of it.
It doesn’t seek to judge the
content or the quality of the topic
under study, but it assesses it
instead to give way to interpreting
its meaning and grasping its
significance

61. DESCRIPTIVE VERSUS
CRITICAL WRITING
Descriptive writing Critical writing
Reports what happened Evaluates the importance
Hypothesizes why something
happened
Outlines what something is
like
Evaluates the strengths and
weaknesses of something
States evidence Argues using evidence
Explains what a theory says Determines why a theory is
relevant
Quotes, summarizes or
paraphrases
Compares and contrasts views
Considers the relevance or
validity of information from
different writers