1. CONTEMPORARY ISSUES FOR PEOPLE OF COLOR:
SURVIVING AND THRIVING IN THE U.S. TODAY
Food Deserts
Introduction:
Food deserts are found in a variety of geographic locations such as large urban neighborhoods
or small rural communities. However, a food desert is located in a place where there is a
scarcity or limited access to affordable nutrient dense foods. Moreover, what we know about
the underlying structure of how food deserts have developed and are maintained helps to
explain the interplay among social structure, social behavior and health. This essay will explore
the relationships among race, social class, behavior and the structures that allow for the
formation of food deserts.
Description:
Whether food deserts are located in rural or urban areas there are two characteristics that
remain consistent, regardless of place. The first characteristic of a food desert is that there is a
lack of healthy food choices, which would be foods that are low in calories and high in nutrients
such as fruits, vegetables and foods made of whole grains. Lack of healthy choices would also
include a lack in variety of foods or variety of locations in which to shop for food purchases. The
second characteristic of a food desert is the distance a person must travel to obtain health
promoting food choices. Foods higher in salts, sugars, and high caloric content are not
considered health promoting. Research has found that the longer a person must travel to
obtain healthy food choices the less likely they are to purchase healthier foods and will opt for
the closer, less health enhancing alternatives. While the presence of a nearby supermarket is
not a guarantee of healthy eating habits, studies indicate that a grocery store in a
neighborhood increases the daily intake of fresh fruits and vegetables. Thus, location and
distance to stores with high nutrient food assists in hindering or helping healthy lifestyles
choices.
Research indicates that the majority of food desserts located in the U.S. are found in geographic
areas with a high proportion of low-income individuals and a high proportion of racial and
ethnic minorities. Low socio-economic status (SES) not only affects where people live, but SES is
highly correlated to health outcomes. Lower SES populations suffer from chronic diseases at
higher rates than their wealthier counterparts, such as heart disease and diabetes, with African
Americans having the highest rates of diabetes of all racial or ethnic groups in the U.S..
Additionally, lower SES individuals are also found to live in areas where wages are lower, areas
of high unemployment and areas where land prices are also low. Food deserts can be found in
areas where whites reside, but the interplay between race and social class is often conflated
because studies indicate that that SES is highly correlated with race. Not all racial and ethnic

2. minorities are poor, but there is a higher percentage of racial and ethnic minorities living in
poverty.
Race, Poverty and Diet
Poverty rates in the United States for Blacks are around twenty-five percent and Hispanics
around twenty-two percent. The poverty rate for Asians is around eleven percent and for non-
Hispanic whites is around eight and a half percent. In the U.S., race and ethnicity influence life
chances. Skin color is a better predictor of income than parental socioeconomic status. Poverty
rates that are associated with certain ethnic groups are linked to social phenomena such as
violence and illegal drug use. Class and race combine to produce the highest rates of
victimization among poor members of all racial and ethnic groups. Historically race has been
represented and said to reflect the creation of social, economic and political disadvantages;
some of these disadvantages are well-being, such as health, and education.
Racial and ethnic minorities generally live shorter lives with more years of chronic illness caused
by socioeconomic conditions, not health risk behaviors. Poor communities are usually located
near pollution coming from commercial or manufacturing sites, landfills, and highways. People
of lower-income and of color in the south are subjected to an unhealthy amount of air pollution
from conditions such as coal mining. Racial and ethnic minorities are often caught in a cycle of
under-funded schools in poor neighborhoods. Disadvantages from childhood may carry into
adulthood, cumulatively, even when the adult is maintaining a middle-class lifestyle.
Daily millions of children in the United States do not get enough to eat and go to bed a night
hungry. A balanced diet in childhood and adolescence shows a reduction in the risk of
immediate and long-term health problems. Poorer quality in diet has shown to have a social
disadvantage for all racial and ethnic groups. Food deficiency or insecurity is the inability to
provide a balanced diet, which has an impact on health. Malnourishment in early years of life
can lead to several different health risks. Those who experience food insecurity have a poorer
diet, which means children will consume less vegetables, fruits, wheat, and grains and consume
more junk food and fast food. Studies indicate that those who report food insecurity skip
breakfast more frequently, which affects their self-esteem, mental health and life satisfaction.
Children who suffer from malnutrition also have a tendency to develop lifelong learning
disabilities as well as compromising their immune systems. Compromised immune systems
leave children vulnerable to many illnesses.
Poverty and obesity are highly correlated in the U.S. Food deserts are located in poorer areas of
the nation and the lack of healthy food choices and unhealthy fatty foods being more
affordable and available in turn, affects the weight and health of the poor. Childhood obesity
rates are increasing every year. An excess of calories and lack of exercise causes obesity in the
U.S. Protein deficiency in children leads to higher risk in abdominal fat and higher rates of
obesity in adults. Obesity leads to illness such as hypertension, stroke, and diabetes and an
increase in certain cancers in adulthood, such as colon cancer. Obese populations are often
malnourished. Malnourishment does not only come from the lack of quantity of food but

3. stems from the lack of essential vitamins and minerals, which are lacking in many prepackaged
snack foods. However, what prepackaged food lack in nutrients they make up for in sugars and
sodium. High amounts of sodium leads to hypertension, which is the leading cardiovascular
disorder. Besides the higher risk of diabetes and heart disease, high blood pressure is linked to
kidney failure.
Behavior and Structure:
Location and distance of supermarket placements are influenced by greater structures of the
economy and business practices. Changes in the demographics and neighborhood formation
have contributed to economic segregation. This shift of population density has influenced the
closing of smaller neighborhood grocery stores, which in turn have been replaced by larger
superstores. Larger superstores are often located in more suburban areas, leaving urban
neighborhoods with smaller corner convenience stores or fast food restaurants that often do
not carry items such as fruits and vegetables or higher nutritional food choices. Studies show
that grocery retailers with high market power, where consumers have limited choices, have
higher priced food items and lower quantities of more nutrient dense foods. Lower quantities
of foods along with fixed costs of transportation can lead supermarkets to have greater spatial
distribution for consumers and a higher market power for themselves.
Rural areas are known for having food deserts, but nevertheless the rural food environment has
been found to have a wider variety of food stores and or foodservice places. Grocery stores in
rural location were found to have less retail selling space; conversely, rural areas have more
grocery stores per capita than their urban counterparts. Rural areas also had fewer chain
stores, but were more apt to have larger independent stores and more green grocers per
capital. Although rural areas might have greater access, in some areas, to better sources of
fruits and vegetables, the retail food industry in rural environments demographic is also
changing as populations move to places with better economic opportunities. This changing
population is forcing the consolidation of rural grocers and retailers are opening larger box
stores that are geographically further in distance. These box stores generally carry less variety
and quantity of fresh produce and meat, the costs to shopping increases as gas prices are
inflated, and the increase in driving distance occurs.
Overall, national data has found that poor and minority neighborhoods contain less chain
grocery stores. Poor urban areas are found to have about half as many grocery stores as middle
class suburban areas and about three times the convenience stores. Poorer neighborhoods are
more likely to also have other nontraditional food sources such as gas stations and pharmacies,
where food costs on average are higher and healthy foods or fresh fruits and vegetables may
not be provided. Poorer people who use food stamps to purchase their foods will consume
more fruits and vegetables when there is a variety of food and locations in which to shop. Food
stamps are often used to supplement healthier food choices such as proteins and whole grains
when the consumer has the availability of nutrient dense foods. Those with lower SES who do
not receive food stamps are more likely to invest their limited resources to highly dense caloric

4. foods. Some studies indicate that African Americans are more likely than whites to eat more
proteins such as fish and chicken, when there is availability to supplement their income with
food stamps. Food pantries also have positive outcomes on healthy food choices. Families who
received food donations are more likely to report eating fish and diary. Studies suggest that
environmental factors play a greater role in eating behavior and diet than race.
In general, income is associated with population health. Healthy eating is not only an attribute
of lifestyle and behavior. Race/ ethnicity are correlated with lower social class, which is also
linked to obesity in the U.S. There is an inverse relationship between SES and health.
Populations with lower SES will have greater amounts of health problems, diseases, and death.
With population shifts and high unemployment rates currently found in the U.S. one could only
hypothesize that food deserts will continue to grow and be a major concern for those who are
working in the area of health and wellbeing in the United States. Policies need to focus on food
insecurity and the structural issues surrounding the formation of food deserts instead of
concentrating on individuals and their behaviors. Studies indicate that most people when given
healthier choices and alternatives will choose the healthier option.

5. Works Cited
Aber, J. L., Bennett, N. G., Conley, D. C., & Li, J. (1997). The effects of poverty on child health
and development. Annual review of public health, 18(1), 463-483.
A.D. Liese, K.E. Weis, D. Pluto. 2007.”Food store types, availability and cost of foods in a rural
environment”. Journal of American Diet Association, 107, pp. 1916–1923.
B.D. Bustillos, Sharkey, J.R., J. McIntosh Anding, A .2009. “Availability of healthier food
alternatives in traditional, convenience, and nontraditional types of food stores in two rural
Texas counties”. Journal of American Diet Association, 109 (5) pp.
B.A. Laraia, A.M. Siega-Riz, J.S. Kaufman, S.J. Jones.2004.Proximity of supermarkets is
positivelassociated with diet quality index for pregnancy”. Preventive Medicine, 39 pp. 869–
875.
Bitter and Haider. 2010. “An Economic View of Food Deserts in the United States”. Economic
Journal of Policy and Management.Vol. 30, No. 1 pp. 153-176
Beaulac J , Kristjansson E., and Steven Cummuns. 2009. “A Systematic Review of Food Deserts
1996-2007”. Public Health Research, Practice, and Policy Vol. 6. No. 3. July.
Coveney, J. and L. A. O’Dwyer. “Effects of mobility and location on food access”.
Health & Place. Volume 15, Issue 1, March 2009, Pages 45–55.
Eisenhauer. E. 2001. “In poor health: Supermarket redlining and Urban nutrition”. Geojournal.
53:1 pp 125-133.
Fitzpatrick, Kevin, & Lagory, Mark .2000. Unhealthy Places: The Ecology of Risk in the Urban
Landscape. New York, NY: Routledge.
Gordon, Cynthia, Purciel-Hill Marnie, R. Ghai Nirupa , Kaufman Leslie , Graham Regina and
Gretchen Van Wye. “Measuring food deserts in New York City's low-income neighborhoods”
Health & Place. Volume 17, Issue 2, March 2011, Pages 696–700
Kirkpatrick, S. I., Dodd, K. W,. Reedy J .and S., M. Krebs-Smith. “Income and Race/Ethnicity Are
Associated with Adherence to Food-Based Dietary Guidance among US Adults and Children”.
Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Volume 112, Issue 5, May 2012, Pages 624–
635.

6. Molcho, M., Gabhainn, S. N., Kelly, C., Friel, S., & Kelleher, C. (2007). Food poverty and health
among schoolchildren in Ireland: findings from the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children
(HBSC) study. Public health nutrition, 10(4), 364-370.
Morland K., S. Filomena.2007. “Disparities in the availability of fruits and vegetables between
racially segregated urban neighborhoods” Public Health Nutrition, Volume 10, Issue 12,
December 2007, Pages 1481-1489
Naa Oyo and A. Kwate. “Fried chicken and fresh apples: Racial segregation as a fundamental
cause of fast food density in black neighborhoods”. Health & Place
Volume 14, Issue 1, March 2008, Pages 32–44.
Rose D., Richards R. 2004. “Food store access and household fruit and vegetable use among
participants in the U.S. Food Stamp Program”Public Health Nutrition, 7, pp. 1081–1088.
Short A., Guthman J. and Samuel Raskin.”Food Deserts, Oases, or Mirages?: Small Markets and
Community Food Security in the San Francisco Bay Area”. Journal of Planning Education and
Research 2007 26: 352.
Sharkey R. J. 2009. “Measuring Potential Access to Food Stores and Food Service places in Rural
Areas in the U.S. “ 36 (4S).
Stephens, Carolyn. The urban environment, poverty and health in developing countries. Issue 2.
10. Oxford Journals, 1995.
Sturm R. “Disparities in the food environment surrounding US middle and high schools”
Public Health. Volume 122, Issue 7, July 2008, Pages 681–690.
Talih, M., & Fricker, R. D.2002. “ Effects of neighbourhood demographic shifts on findings of
environmental injustice: a New York City case-study”. Journal of The Royal Statistical Society
Series A-statistics in Society , 165 (2), 375-397.
WalkerRenee E., Keane Christopher R. and Jessica G. Burke.” Disparities and access to healthy
food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature. Health & Place . Volume 16, Issue
5, September 2010, Pages 876–884
Wigg D. K., and C. Smith. 2010. Race, Homelessness and the Environmental Factors Associated
with the Food Purchasing Behavior of Low income Women”. Journal of American Diet
Association. 110:1351-1356.
Wermuth, Laurie (2003). Global Inequality and Human Needs: Health and Illness in an
Increasingly Unequal World. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

7. Williams, D. R. (1997). Race and health: basic questions, emerging directions. Annals of
epidemiology, 7(5), 322-333.
Zenk S.N., Schulz A.J., Israel B.A., James S.A., Bao S., M.L. Wilson.2005
“Neighborhood racial composition, neighborhood poverty, and the spatial accessibility of
supermarkets in metropolitan Detroit”. American Journal of Public Health, 95 pp. 660–667.
Zernk, S N.., Schultz, A., Kannan S. Lochance L.L, Mentz G. and Wi Ridella. 2009. “Neighborhood
Retail Food Environment and Fruits and Vegetable Intake in a Multi Ethnic Urban Population”.
American Journal of Health Promotion 23(4) 255-264.
Zernk S. N., Schulz Amy J., Kannan Srimathi, Lachance Laurie L., ,Graciela Mentz and William
Ridella. “Neighborhood Retail Food Environment and Fruit and Vegetable Intake in a
Multiethnic Urban Population” American Journal of Health Promotion. Mar-Apr; 23(4): 255–
264.