Empowering Girls Through Education in Uganda

Abstract: In Uganda, education is becoming more widespread and school enrollment rates are
increasing, especially for girls; however, simply assessing the girls’ enrollment or graduation
rates is not necessarily the most all-encompassing measurement for success. Female students
often face issues relating to hegemonic masculinity, gendered discipline patterns, sexual
harassment, and compulsory heterosexuality. However, there are many benefits of girls’
education, not only for individuals, but also for communities and the nation as a whole. Higher
rates of female education can lead to lower fertility rates, which in turn lead to lower population
growth and lower levels of poverty. It also reduces the dependency burden and increases
savings rates in the economy, which can lead to increased growth. Some might argue that the
pros are outweighed by the cons in this situation and that girls should be kept from getting an
education for their own protection; however, I argue that this cycle can be broken.

1
Introduction
An African proverb states, “If you educate a man you educate an individual, but if you educate
a woman you educate a nation.” Uganda is beginning to honor this proverb, as higher numbers of
children—particularly girls—are enrolling in school. However, we cannot simply assess girls’
enrollment or graduation rates as measurements for success. Girls often face a multitude of obstacles
in school post-enrollment, such as harassment, discrimination, and gender-discipline patterns.
Therefore, it needs to be determined whether or not it is advantageous for Ugandan girls to attend
school. There are many reasons why it is ostensibly advantageous for girls to enroll in the Ugandan
education system. For example, Kofi Annan once said, “To educate girls is to reduce poverty.” While
educating girls in order to alleviate poverty sounds promising, I pose the question: Is it worth it?
Although this concern is not the highest priority for development organizations at the moment, simply
educating girls is a high priority. The Millennium Development Goals are a set of eight goals created
in 2000 by the United Nations in order to establish peace and a healthy global economy. The second
goal was to achieve universal primary education, and the third goal was to promote gender equality and
empower women. Some indicators used to determine the achievement of these goals include: net
enrollment ratio in primary education; ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary
education; share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector; and the proportion of
seats held by women in national parliament.1
Based on the stated goals and the indicators used to
measure their success, we can contend that a large focus of the Millennium Development Goals is to
establish equal opportunity education for girls and boys. However, in Uganda, the quality of education
for boys and girls is far from equal. Despite the obstacles facing girls in the Ugandan education system,
this article will argue that implementing educational reforms will lead to worthwhile benefits for
women and Ugandan society as a whole.
This article will take a closer look at female education in Uganda. I am attempting to answer
the question: How does the Ugandan education system empower2
girls? This article will analyze
whether girls’ education in Uganda creates advantages and fosters opportunities, or if it leaves girls
more disenfranchised due to the disempowering effects of the Ugandan education system. The first
section of this article will provide an overview of the issues women in Uganda face, and how these
1
"Millennium Development Goals Indicators." United Nations Statistics Division. January 15, 2008. Accessed November 8,
2014. http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/host.aspx?Content=indicators/officiallist.htm.
2
In this context, the word empowerment is being used to refer to the concept that girls who attend school may be
encouraged to remain in school and succeed based on the way they are treated (empowerment); however, they may also be
pushed out of school or simply left to think they cannot succeed due to the way they are treated by the school administration
as well as their peers (disempowerment).

2
issues relate to education. The second section will explore the Ugandan education system and how it
functions. The third section will analyze the literature on girls’ schooling in Uganda by assessing the
advantages girls can attain from attending school. The fourth section of this article will delve into
gender issues in Ugandan schools and how they affect girls’ education. I will then conclude by
assessing whether or not it is beneficial for Ugandan girls to attend school, and offer recommendations
for how the Ministry of Education and Sports can make schooling more advantageous for girls.
Overview of Women's Issues in Uganda
Women’s issues are often related to gender inequity in the education system. Some women’s
issues are caused by inequality in education, while other endemic issues lead to inequalities in
women’s education. Therefore, a general overview of women’s issues in Uganda is integral to
examining education’s affects on female empowerment.
As seen below, Table 1 consists of Uganda’s scores and rankings for the Gender Development
Index (GDI), Gender Inequality Index (GII), and Gender Gap Measurement. Table 2 illustrates the
four sub-categories that comprise the Gender Gap Measurement. Women’s societal status in Uganda in
comparison to men, as seen in the indices below, is low in contrast to other countries.3
Uganda was ranked highly among other low income countries in the overall ranking of the
Gender Gap Measurement in 2013, indicating that it has one of the smallest overall gender gaps in
comparison to other low income countries. However, this does not necessarily indicate that Uganda is
making significant strides towards gender equality. In Uganda, women suffer from larger inequalities
in educational attainment than any other category within the Gender Gap Measurement. 4
3
Malik, Khalid. The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World. New York: United Nations Development
Programme, 2013.
4
The Global Gender Gap Report: 2013. Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2013.

3
Table 1: Gender Measurements from 2013
Measurement Name
Organization
Measurement was
Created by
Uganda's
Score
Uganda's
Rank
Gender Development Index
(GDI)5
United Nation's
Development Program
(UNDP)6
0.896
164 out of
187
Gender Inequality index (GII)7
United Nation's
Development Program
(UNDP)8
0.529
164 out of
187
Gender Gap Measurement9
World Economic Forum10
0.709
46 out of
136
5
The GDI is a composite index on a scale of 0-1.00 that measures the gender gap in human development achievements in
three basic dimensions of human development: health; education; and command over economic resources.
6
Malik, Op. Cit.
7
The GII is a composite index on a scale of 0-1.00 that measures gender inequalities in three important aspects of human
development—reproductive health; empowerment; and economic status.
8
Malik, Op. Cit.
9
The Gender Gap Measurement is a composite index on a scale of 0-1.00 which comprises four categories: economic
participation and opportunity; education; health and survival; and political empowerment.
10
World Economic Forum, Op. Cit.

4
Table 2: Sub-Categories of the Gender Gap Measurement from 2013
Measurement Name
Organization
Measurement was
Created by
Uganda's
Score
Uganda's
Rank
Economic Participation11
0.729
37 out of
136
Educational Attainment13
0.843
123 out of
136
Health and Survival15
0.98
1 out of
136
Political Empowerment17
0.284
28 out of
136
The female labor force participation rate for women between the ages of 15 and 64 was 76.7
percent in 2012, while the male labor force participation rate of the same age group was 79.3 percent.19
Employment in the agricultural sector comprises about 80 percent of all employment in Uganda, with
about 60 percent of women working in crop production. As education is not necessary for crop
production work, women often lack leverage to request wage increases. Women in the labor force in
Uganda are also often negatively affected by discrimination in recruitment practices, sexual harassment
in the workplace, and lack of maternity leave and pay.20
This article will explore how educating
women leads to an increase in female income as well as a host of other benefits that can be achieved
due to this increased income.
11
A composite index on a scale of 0-1.00 that is comprised of the ratio of female to male labor force participation; wage
equality between women and men for similar work; the ratio of female to male estimated earned income; the ratio of female
to male legislators, senior officials and managers; and the ratio of female to male professional and technical workers.
12
13
A composite index on a scale of 0-1.00 that is comprised of the ratio of female to male literacy rates; the ratio of female
to male net primary enrolment rates; the ratio of female to male net secondary enrolment rates; and the ratio of female to
male gross tertiary enrolment ratios.
14
15
A composite index on a scale of 0-1.00 that is comprised of sex ratio at birth and the ratio of female to male healthy life
expectancy.
16
17
An composite index on a scale of 0-1.00 that is comprised of the ratio of females to male with seats in parliament; the
ratio of females to males at ministerial level; the ratio of the number of years of a female head of state (in the last 50 years)
to a male head of state.
18
19
"World Development Indicators." The World Bank. November 6, 2014. Accessed November 8, 2014.
http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators.
20
Ellis, Amanda, Claire Manuel, and C. Mark Blackden. Gender and Economic Growth in Uganda: Unleashing the Power
of Women. Washington: World Bank, 2006.

5
Family welfare is often split along gender lines in Ugandan households, with women
responsible for daily nutrition of household members as well as childcare. Women are often expected
to tend to farms, prepare food, clean, collect firewood and water, and care for children. Men are often
responsible for the payment of school fees and other educational costs, but women often bear the brunt
of these costs when men do not fulfill their obligations.21
It is also common for Ugandan women to be
the heads of households and bear the entire responsibility of household maintenance. Female-headed
households comprised 29.5 percent of all households in Uganda in 2011.22
A lack of adequate healthcare is a major issue for women in Uganda, but women’s healthcare
has seen improvements in recent years. Uganda has one of the highest fertility rates in the world, at a
rate of 5.96 births per woman in 2012. However, this number has decreased in recent years. Later, this
article will analyze how better educating women can lead to lower fertility rates, and how the benefits
of lower fertility rates are advantageous for individuals as well as the economy. Women in Uganda are
also more likely to contract HIV than men, with 4.2 percent of Ugandan women living with HIV in
2013 compared to 2.4 percent of men. This is often due to polygamy and infidelity within marriages. 23
As in many other countries, certain cultural practices in many areas in Uganda negatively affect
how women function in society. Payment of bride price24
is often still practiced in Uganda. There is
also a prevalence of domestic violence, which disempowers women and can have negative effects on
women’s health and productivity. Many Ugandans also practice widow inheritance,25
which can lead
to the dispossession of women’s property. Polygamy is another common practice in Uganda, which
often leads to female-headed households when a woman’s husband goes to live with another wife. It
also increases the national fertility rate, which can lead to greater overall poverty.26
In 2013, it was
reported that 22 percent of women between the ages of 15 and 19 were married, with a fertility rate of
131 births per 1000 girls in that age group.27
There are issues specific to women in Northern Uganda due to the civil unrest caused by the
Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) between 1988 and 2006. When the LRA dominated Northern Uganda,
26 percent of female youth in the affected regions were abducted, and 27 percent of all abducted
21
Aspaas, Helen Ruth. "AIDS and Orphans in Uganda: Geographical and Gender Interpretations of Household
Resources." The Social Science Journal 36, no. 2 (1999). Accessed November 8, 2014.
http://www.sciencedirect.com.proxyau.wrlc.org/science/article/pii/S0362331999000099.
22
The World Bank, Op. Cit.
23
Ibid
24
Bride price is a sum of money or quantity of goods given to a bride's family by that of the groom. In Uganda, bride price
is often measured in the number of cows a man is willing to pay for his bride.
25
Widow inheritance is a practice where a widow is required to marry a kinsman of her late husband, often his brother.
26
Ellis, et.al, Op. Cit.
27

6
females were forced to marry one of their abductors. After the LRA was pushed out of Northern
Uganda, many of the abducted women returned home. A study by Annan, et al. (2011) assessed the
impact this had on women compared to men who had been abducted. It was reported that females were
less likely to return to school because they were less likely to attend school before the abduction
occurred, and they often had children as a result of their forced marriages. Girls who returned without
children returned to school 80 percent of the time compared to 90 percent of boys. These women
reported a multitude of other issues due to their abductions, including being ostracized by their families
and suffering from emotional distress.28
Background of the Ugandan Education System
Uganda’s constitution, which was established in 1995, states that education for Ugandan
children is a human right and children are entitled to a basic education by the state and their parents.
Uganda’s educational system is based on the British system, which was adopted during British colonial
rule. Primary school, which is the first level of schooling for most children, is comprised of seven
years of school. Primary school is compulsory for all children, and it is paid for by the state based on
the Universal Primary Education (UPE) program established in 1997.29
Primary school is then
followed by six years of secondary school. This level of education is also provided by the state based
on the Universal Secondary Education (USE) program, which was established in 2006.30
According the World Bank’s World Development Indicators, the overall net primary school
enrollment rate31
in 2011 was 91 percent of school age children. Disaggregating this by gender, 92.2
percent of school age females were enrolled, while only 89.8 percent of school age males were enrolled
in 2011. Unfortunately, there does not appear to be recent data on the enrollment rates of secondary
school students. In 2011, it was reported that 50.12 percent of pupils in primary schools were female.
In 2009, the ratio of girls to boys in primary schools was 101 to 100 and in secondary it was 83 to
100.32
These numbers illustrate that male and female primary school enrollment is nearly the same, but
28
Annan, Jeannie, Christopher Blattman, Dyan Mazurana, and Khristopher Carlson."Civil War, Reintegration, and
Gender in Northern Uganda." Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2011, 877-908. Accessed November 8,
2014.http://jcr.sagepub.com.proxyau.wrlc.org/content/55/6/877.full.pdf html.
29
Muhwezi, Doris Kakuru. "General Sensitive Educational Policy and Practice: A Uganda Case Study." Gender and
Education for All: The Leap to Equality, 2003. Accessed November 7, 2014. http://library.unesco-iicba.org/English/Girls
Education/All Articles/General/Gender Sensitive Policy.Uganda.pdf.
30
Chapman, David W., Lisa Burton, and Jessica Werner. "Universal Secondary Education In Uganda: The Head Teachers’
Dilemma." International Journal of Educational Development30, no. 1 (2009). Accessed November 8, 2014.
31
The total net primary enrollment rate is the ratio of children of the official primary school age who are enrolled in primary
school compared to the total population of the official primary school age.
32
The World Bank, Op. Cit.

7
females still lag behind males in secondary school enrollment. These enrollment rates also do not
necessarily mean that all these children are attending school; it simply means they are enrolled in
school. As seen in Table 3, Uganda has also seen an increase in literacy rates in recent years among
adolescents between the ages of 15 and 24. The literacy rate gap between females and males is closing
among those of the younger generation, which is most likely due to the increase in school enrollment
for girls.
Table 3: Literacy Rates for 201033
Male Female
Age 15 and above 82.63% 64.59%
Age Between 15 and
24 89.64% 85.47%
However, girls are more likely to be kept out of school than boys in order to assist in household
chores and subsistence work. For example, Björkman-Nyqvist (2013) analyzes the impact of rainfall
shocks34
on primary school enrollment rates in Uganda. Rainfall is a particularly useful measure for
income shocks in Uganda because such a large portion of the economy is agricultural. Björkman-
Nyqvist found that after school fees were eliminated in primary schools (after UPE was established), a
rainfall shock34
had an even larger negative effect on female enrollment, while male enrollment
remained the same. Although this study only examines how decreased rainfall leads to income shocks,
it implies that income is an important variable for determining school enrollment, especially for girls.
Households appear to use girls for consumption smoothing35
in periods of negative income shocks.36
Since President Museveni took office in 1986, his party, the National Resistance Movement
(NRM), has advocated for women’s rights and promoted female education. In 1989, Museveni
publicly recognized that women’s education was lagging because societal norms often led women to
marry early and drop out of school. In 1990, the government enacted an affirmative action incentive
33
Ibid
34
A rainfall shock is a negative deviation in rainfall from the long-term mean.
35
Consumption smoothing is the ways in which people try to optimize their lifetime standard of living by ensuring a proper
balance of spending and saving during the different phases of their life. In the context of this study, it is referring to the use
of girls’ labor for additional income allowing families to maintain the same level of consumption during a period of income
shock as they enjoyed before such a shock.
36
Björkman-Nyqvist, Martina. "Income Shocks and Gender Gaps in Education: Evidence from Uganda." Journal of
Development Economics, 2013. Accessed November 8, 2014.
http://search.proquest.com.proxyau.wrlc.org/docview/1496902774?pq-origsite=summon.

8
for females to enter universities by awarding them an extra 1.5 bonus points on their secondary school
scores. Due to this policy, more girls stayed in secondary school and went on to pursue a university
education.37
The UPE program was partly intended to encourage more girls to enroll in primary schools.
The NRM-led government promotes the notion that educating girls is the first step in the process of
educating the entire nation.38
The government even promotes programs such as the Girls’ Education
Movement (GEM), which encourages girls to attend school.39
GEM is a UNICEF-backed movement
that helps girls “prepare themselves for an active, fulfilling life and has reintegrated many into the
educational systems.”40
Advantages of Girls’ Education
There are many benefits of girls’ education, not only for individuals, but also for communities
and the nation as a whole. Educating girls yields a higher rate of return than any other investment
available in developing countries. Higher rates of female education can lead to lower fertility rates,
which lead to lower population growth and lower levels of poverty. According to the United Nations
Foundation, “When a girl in the developing world receives seven or more years of education, she
marries four years later and has two fewer children.”41
Women who have a higher educational level
are more aware of their family planning options, therefore producing only the number of children they
want to have. In Uganda, high fertility rates are largely attributed to teenage pregnancy and poverty,
which lead to a rapidly growing population. Faster population growth rates negatively affect the
environment and quickly lead to exhausted natural resources.42
Therefore, when women marry later
and have fewer children, it leads to increasing per capita income, higher savings, and more rapid
economic growth.43
There have been several studies on cross-country growth analysis in sub-Saharan Africa, which
reveal the affect gender inequalities in education have on growth. A study by Ellis, et al. found that
37
Kyomuhendo, Grace Bantebya, and Marjorie Keniston Mcintosh. Women, Work and Domestic Virtue in Uganda. Athens:
Ohio University Press, 2006.
38
Ibid
39
"Roundup: Uganda's Population Growth Threatens Poverty Reduction." Xinhua News Agency, January 31, 2006. Accessed
November 10, 2014. http://search.proquest.com.proxyau.wrlc.org/docview/452607454?pq-origsite=summon.
40
Capdevila, Gustavo. "Education: More Girls in School Benefits Everyone, Says UNICEF." Global Information Network,
December 12, 2003. Accessed November 10, 2014. http://search.proquest.com.proxyau.wrlc.org/docview/457559106?pq-
origsite=summon.
41
"Why Invest in Adolescent Girls." United Nations Foundation, 1. Accessed November 14, 2014.
http://www.clintonglobalinitiative.org/ourmeetings/PDF/actionareas/Why_Invest_in_Adolescent_girls.pdf.
42
Xinhua News Agency, Op. Cit., 1.
43
United Nations Foundation, Op. Cit.

9
“between 1960 and 1992, the limited education and employment opportunities for women in sub-
Saharan Africa reduced annual per capita growth by 0.8 percentage points.”44
An increase of this much
would have doubled economic growth over 30 years, indicating that this is a significant loss due to
gender inequality. By projecting this type of model on Uganda, it suggests that Uganda could have
gained up to 2 percentage points of GDP growth each year by minimizing gender inequalities in
education and formal employment.45
Education also increases women’s knowledge of health care practices and reduces the average
number of pregnancies, which, in turn, reduces the risk of maternal mortality.46
In addition to lower
maternal mortality, increased education for women leads to lower infant mortality rates. The United
Nations Foundation states, “In selected countries, the mortality rate of children under five is highest
among those whose mothers had no education. It is lower if the mother has had some primary
schooling, and lower still if she has benefited from secondary education.”47
Using examples from
Kenya and Nigeria, Naila Kabeer describes how educating women leads to better health outcomes:
“In Kenya, it was found that women with at least four years of schooling were able to correctly
understand instructions for administering oral rehydration salts; but those with at least
secondary education were able to explain the environmental causes of diarrhea. In Nigeria, less
educated women were as likely as educated ones to have their children immunized; educated
women were more likely than uneducated ones to know about family planning; but only
secondary-schooled women revealed an in-depth understanding about disease and
prevention.”48
Education also leads to more economic opportunities for women, where they can enjoy
increased earnings. Men and women have fairly similar rates of return for additional years of
schooling. Wages increase between 10 and 20 percent for each additional year of primary education,
and the impact of secondary education is even greater, at between 15 and 25 percent wage increases.49
44
Ellis, et.al, Op. Cit., 36.
45
Ibid
46
Summers, Lawrence H. Investing in All the People Educating Women in Developing Countries. Washington, D.C.: World
Bank, 1994.
47
United Nations Foundation, Op. Cit., 1.
48
Kabeer, Naila. "Gender Equality And Women's Empowerment: A Critical Analysis Of The Third Millennium
Development Goal 1." Gender & Development, 2010, 16. Accessed November 20, 2014.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13552070512331332273.
49
United Nations Foundation, Op. Cit.

10
Women are more likely to use these increased wages to invest in their families and send their children
to school, thereby breaking the intergenerational chain of poverty. As reported by the United Nations
Foundation, “In many countries each additional year of formal education completed by a mother
translates into her children remaining in school for up to an additional one-half year.”50
Educating women can also help prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS. Educated women are more
likely to enter into stable marriages and monogamous relationships, while also being informed about
safe-sex practices. They are also less likely to become prostitutes due to more employment
opportunities.51
In a study done by Dollar and Gatti (1999) of more than 100 countries over three decades, it
was found that an increase of 1 percentage point in the share of adult women with secondary education
results in an increase in per capita income growth of up to 0.3 percentage points.52
Klasen (2002) had
similar findings to that of Dollar and Gatti (1999). Assuming that boys and girls have similar innate
abilities and children with greater learning abilities will be sent to school, Klasen hypothesizes that
inequality in education lowers the level of human capital in the economy and therefore slows economic
growth. This is a result of girls with high learning potential being kept out of school in favor of boys
who are less capable. He also concludes that this could reduce the investment rate and indirectly
reduce growth, as lower human capital leads to lower returns on investment.53
A study by Summers (1994) attempted to calculate the return on investment for girls based on
the cost of educating an additional 1,000 women in both India and Kenya, while also calculating the
return this provided to both individuals and the nation. Due to comparable economic and social
systems, it can be assumed the case of Kenya is quite similar to the situation in Uganda. Summers
(1994) found that the benefits of educating girls were more than enough to cover the costs. In fact, this
study did not even consider that educated mothers are more likely to send their daughters to school,
which yields additional returns to society. Therefore, this study fully exemplifies that the monetary
return from girls’ education far outweighs the expense.54
50
Ibid, 2.
51
Summers, Op. Cit.
52
Dollar, David, and Roberta Gatti. Gender Inequality, Income, and Growth-Are Good Times Good for Women? World
Bank, 1999.
53
Klasen, Stephan. "Low Schooling for Girls, Slower Growth for All? Cross-Country Evidence on the Effect of Gender
Inequality in Education on Economic Development." The World Bank Economic Review 16, no. 3 (2002): 345-73. Accessed
November 14, 2014. http://www.jstor.org.proxyau.wrlc.org/stable/10.2307/3990191?origin=api&.
54
Summers, Op. Cit.

11
Gender Issues in Ugandan Schools
Despite the prevalence of female school enrollment in Uganda, female students still face a
multitude of issues in school that hinder their success. A study by Mirembe and Davies (2001)
illustrates that female students often face issues relating to hegemonic masculinity, gendered discipline
patterns, sexual harassment, and compulsory heterosexuality. This study was conducted at a
coeducational school about 15 kilometers outside of Kampala and was then corroborated by data
collected from 21 other secondary schools in different parts of the country.55
As reported in Mirembe and Davies’ study, schoolgirls are forced to tolerate patriarchal norms
and hegemonic masculinity, as do grown women in Ugandan communities. Leadership in mixed-sex
schools, as in the rest of Ugandan society, is patriarchal. Male students dominate all leadership roles
which reflects traditional conceptions of power. Female students and teachers are subject to
harassment by their male counterparts, which is usually considered by the school administration to be a
female limitation as opposed to an ethical issue. Hegemonic masculinity was not only seen among the
student population; male teachers also saw the female teachers as weaker and less capable both in the
classroom and in disciplining students. According to Mirembe and Davies, this has become so
ingrained in the school population that many females themselves believe it. One female teacher stated:
“the concept of authority lies in a cane and this frightens off the female teachers.”56
With leadership
most commonly defined as male, the gap between males and females widens, thereby promoting the
idea of female incompetence.57
Gendered discipline is also an issue in Ugandan schools. Girls are typically disciplined more
frequently than boys. There are stricter rules for girls “for their protection” that boys do not have to
adhere to, such as dress code and study hours. For example, girls are not allowed to study past a
certain time yet, boys do not have to abide by such rules. This could lead to higher performance for
boys than girls; however, girls are still held to the same performance standard as boys. Girls are also
often only defined by their relationships with boys. One female student interviewed for the Mirembe
and Davies study described it as such:
55
Mirembe, Robina, and Lynn Davies. "Is Schooling A Risk? Gender, Power Relations, And School Culture In
Uganda." Gender and Education 13, no. 4 (2001): 401-16. Accessed November 8, 2014.
http://uv9mj9tn8l.search.serialssolutions.com/directLink?&atitle=Is Schooling a Risk? Gender, Power Relations, and
School Culture in Uganda&author=Mirembe, Robina;Davies, Lynn&issn=09540253&title=Gender and
Education&volume=13&issue=4&date=2001-12-
01&spage=401&id=doi:10.1080/09540250120081751&sid=ProQ_ss&genre=article.
56
Ibid, 406.
57
Ibid

12
“If a girl performs poorly in class, teachers, especially female teachers, think it is because of
boys. This is written on your report. Many girls have been falsely accused of pairing up with
boys.”58
Girls are also held to different standards than boys when it comes to having sex and getting pregnant.
When girls become pregnant—even due to rape—they are often not allowed back in school; however,
boys are typically not seen to be at fault.59
Sexual harassment is overlooked in most Ugandan schools. Teachers sometimes refer to it as
“playing” or “boys and girls getting used to each other.” It is rarely seen as a problem that needs to be
addressed. Sexual harassment of girls in school undermines the little power these girls have and
ensures that they will remain subordinate. Mirembe and Davies report:
“The focus group reports included mention of graffiti on walls, girls being touched on all parts
of their bodies, and being talked to about sex. There was flirting, and also boys showing their
naked chests to the girls, writing love letters or abusive letters (if a girl turned down a boy’s
proposal), girls being forced to dance and even to have sex.”60
Female teachers, especially young female teachers, also experienced this type of sexual harassment. In
Mirembe and Davies’ study, some female teachers reported that they avoided passing the boys’
dormitories because the harassment was unbearable. Despite such harassment, female teachers often
prefer to teach male students because they are more responsive in class, which further sanctions sexual
harassment because there are no consequences when boys harass female teachers.61
Furthermore, girls and boys are socialized into only pursuing heterosexual relationships in
school, often due to the extremely negative sentiments regarding homosexuals and homosexual activity
in Uganda. In February 2014, Uganda passed a law that any citizen who is openly homosexual will be
incarcerated. The law, which has since been appealed, even applied to those who supported
homosexuals. President Museveni stated in an interview with CNN that being gay was unnatural and
qualified homosexuals as “disgusting.”62
This is similar to a statement that he made in 2002, where he
58
Ibid, 408.
59
Kyomuhendo, et. al, Op. Cit.
60
Mirembe, et.al, Op. Cit., 409
61
Ibid
62
"A Sad Day for Uganda." University Wire, March 17, 2014. Accessed November 10, 2014.

13
stated, “We don’t have homosexuals in Uganda.”63
Boys in schools try to be “manly” and powerful
because they fear that if they struggle to get a girl that they will be considered a “homo.” Girls usually
conform to this behavior. If they do not agree to be with a boy, they are often harassed until they do.
Girls and boys in schools fulfill the expectations of Ugandan society to be heterosexual; however, this
is often at the detriment of girls who are unwilling to submit to the accepted norm, especially at a
young age.64
Also, female students often lack female role models in school. The percentage of female
teachers in primary schools in 2013 was only 41 percent, and in secondary schools it was 25 percent.
There is a dearth of female teachers, despite the fact that the female population makes up more than
half of all primary school students and almost half in secondary schools.65
There are also many research studies on gender and education that show that gender
socialization is significantly impacted by textbooks. A study by Barton and Sakwa (2012) revealed
that there is a dominance of male characters in many Ugandan textbooks, particularly English
textbooks. The way textbooks are designed in Uganda could contribute to the development of
subconscious sexist attitudes. The study by Barton and Sakwa is based on a framework that analyzes
four categories: omission in the text; occupational visibility; masculine generic construction; and
adjectives.66
It was found that within the textbook that was analyzed, English in Use, there were far fewer
female characters than male characters, which does not reflect the male-to-female ratio within the
community. Even when women are present in the textbook, they are shown in stereotypical ways.
Men hold most of the jobs represented in the text and are portrayed as having high-status jobs such as
judges or doctors. Textbooks also have a tendency to use male pronouns when referring to people in
general or when the sex is unknown. Instructions that are addressed to students also use the masculine
form. The adjectives used in the textbook to describe women are usually emotive in context, while
words used to describe men often make them appear justified or rational.67
The study by Barton and Sakwa proves that male dominance is taught from an early age, and
that schooling can disempower girls who attend. Subconsciously, girls are made to think that they do
63
"No Homosexuals Here, Uganda's Leader Says." The Globe and Mail, March 4, 2002. Accessed November 10, 2014.
64
Mirembe, et.al, Op. Cit.
65
66
Barton, Amanda, and Lydia Namatende Sakwa. "The Representation of Gender in English Textbooks in
Uganda." Pedagogy, Culture & Society 20, no. 2 (2012). Accessed November 8, 2014. http://www-tandfonline-
com.proxyau.wrlc.org/doi/full/10.1080/14681366.2012.669394#.VF1x8t-c3C8.
67
Ibid

14
not belong in school, or perhaps in society at all, due to the lack of female characters in their textbooks.
These textbooks reiterate to both female and male students that they are living in a patriarchal society,
where women are emotional, subservient, and generally less important than men.68
Another issue that affects girls’ access to school and their quality of education is their lack of
access to sanitary pads. One pack of sanitary pads can cost $2.50, which is a significant amount of
money for girls in school who have little to no income. Due to their lack of resources, girls often use
pieces of paper or banana leaves instead of sanitary pads when they are menstruating, but these are not
always effective, causing other students to tease them. In addition, there is often a lack of separate
toilet facilities for girls. These issues often cause girls to drop out of school.69
How Gender Issues in Ugandan Schools Affects Girls
All of these inequities can take a toll on girls both psychologically and physically. Issues such
as hegemonic masculinity, sexual harassment, and gender-based discipline frequently cause girls to
drop out of school. When girls do not drop out, they are often still scarred by the treatment they
receive in school from teachers and fellow students alike.
Ayenew and Gebremeskal (2014) conducted a study that analyzed sexual harassment, self-
esteem, and academic engagement in relationship to academic performance in Ethiopia. This case
study in Ethiopia is comparable to the situation in Uganda because these two countries share similar
economic and social characteristics. Ayenew and Gebremeskal (2014) found that “females that have
been sexually harassed have reported experiencing embarrassment, feeling self-conscious, feeling less
sure or less confident of themselves following sexual harassment.”70
This study concluded that girls
who are sexually harassed have lower self-esteem than girls who are not sexually harassed.
Furthermore, girls with low self-esteem demonstrate lower academic success than girls with high self-
esteem. Therefore, it can be concluded that girls who are sexually harassed usually perform worse in
school than girls who are not.71
Despite the differences between the developing and the developed world, worthwhile
comparisons can often be made between vastly different countries. In an article in Computer Weekly, a
68
Ibid
69
"UGANDA: Sanitary Pads Keep Girls in School." IRIN Africa English Service, July 21, 2011. Accessed November 10,
2014. http://search.proquest.com.proxyau.wrlc.org/docview/398819120?pq-origsite=summon.
70
Ayenew, Baye Mekuriaw, and Tilahun Gidey Gebremeskal. "Sexual Harassment, Self Esteem and Academic Engagement
as Predictors of Academic Success of Female Secondary School Students." Science, Technology and Arts Research
Journal 3, no. 2 (2014), 230. Accessed November 14, 2014. http://www.ajol.info/index.php/star/article/view/106904.
71
Ibid

15
British magazine, the idea of female role models is explored in the context of the Information
Technology (IT) field in developed countries. The article states, “As awareness increases, female role
models in technology will emerge.”72
This article drew conclusions that are relevant to the idea of
female role models in schools in Uganda. An analogy can be drawn by comparing women in the IT
field in developed countries to female teachers in Uganda. As increased awareness of women in the IT
field can lead to more women pursuing IT jobs, an increased number of female teachers can lead to
greater benefits for female students in Uganda’s education system. This article leads us to posit that if
the images of educated people in Uganda are men, many girls will not think that they are capable of
becoming educated to the same extent men are.73
This is in line with the rationale that most schoolgirls
in Uganda believe that they will not succeed in math and science classes because there are few female
teachers that teach those subjects. Ultimately, educating girls creates more future teachers who will
serve as role models for schoolgirls, encouraging them to go to school and succeed.
A study by Nixon and Robinson (1999) produced similar findings. The study analyzed high
school students in the United States and whether or not having role models of the same sex led to
higher performance. They concluded that “educational attainment of female students is positively and
significantly correlated with the percentage of faculty and professional staff at their high school who
are female, although the magnitude of the effect is relatively small.”74
If a similar study was conducted
in a developing country, such as Uganda, these results would most likely be even more noticeable due
to higher levels of gender inequality.
Despite the negative effects these gender issues can have on girls, the outlook is not completely
bleak. Today, more girls are attending and finishing both primary and secondary school than in the
past. In addition, more women are becoming teachers and therefore providing role models for girls
who attend school. As female education becomes more commonplace in Uganda, the issues that girls
currently experience in school will become less acute.
Conclusion
What education means for women in Uganda can change drastically depending on whom you
ask or where you are. Are women being educated in a way that only allows them to get married and
manage a household, or are they being educated to be equal members of society in the same way men
72
Thomson, Rebecca. "Female Role Models in IT." Computer Weekly, March 24, 2009, 1.
73
Thompson, Op. Cit.
74
Nixon, Lucia A., and Michael D. Robinson. "The Educational Attainment of Young Women: Role Model Effects of
Female High School Faculty." Demography 36, no. 2 (1999): 192. Accessed November 16, 2014.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/2648107?origin=api.

16
are? The opinion on this topic often varies from community to community and school to school.
Many single-sex girls’ schools are actually encouraging girls to succeed. Despite this positive progress,
many coeducational schools still segregate girls and boys by teaching them different subjects and
encouraging boys to grow up to be the breadwinners. This type of education does not empower girls.
Due to the immense amount of issues girls often face in Ugandan schools, it may be posited that
separating girls and boys into different schools may be the answer. Jimenez and Lockheed (1989)
conducted a study on students’ performance in single-sex schools in Thailand and how they compared
to students’ performance in coeducational schools. This study found that there was a significant
increase in the academic performance of girls when they were taught in single-sex schools. At the
same time, boys performed better academically when taught in a coeducational environment.75
A
similar study by Lee and Lockheed (1990), which focused on the advantages of single-sex schools in
Nigeria, found similar results. Lee and Lockheed also went further in discussing some potential
explanations for these findings. They observed that in their sample, all math teachers in the single-sex
schools were female, which provided girls with female role models for a subject at which girls are not
normally expected to excel. In contrast, in the coeducational schools, most math teachers were male,
which suggests that boys performed better in coeducational schools because they were taught by
teachers of the same gender.76
Educating girls is a difficult trade-off between providing girls with opportunities they would not
otherwise have and subjecting them to physically and psychologically detrimental environments.
Some might argue that the pros are outweighed by the cons in this situation and that girls should be
kept from getting an education for their own protection. However, I argue that this cycle can be broken.
Despite rampant gender inequality in Ugandan schools, more and more girls are attending school. As
more girls become educated, Uganda will have a larger base of female teachers because there will be
more women who are capable of serving in this occupation. With a greater presence of female
teachers, girls will be more protected and encouraged, and the discrimination faced by schoolgirls will
begin to subside. Generally, women are gaining greater equality in Ugandan society, which is
beginning to positively affect education.
There are several steps that can be taken to get to the point where a country is investing in all
75
Jimenez, Emmanual, and Marlaine E. Lockheed. "Enhancing Girls' Learning Through Single-Sex Education: Evidence
and a Policy Conundrum." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 11, no. 2 (1989): 117-42. Accessed November 19,
2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1163780?origin=api.
76
Lee, Valerie E., and Marlaine E. Lockheed. "The Effects of Single-Sex Schooling on Achievement and Attitudes in
Nigeria." Comparative Education Review 34, no. 2 (1990). Accessed November 19, 2014.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1187954?origin=api.

17
people without bias towards gender. First, girls simply need to be provided with the opportunity to
attend school, which Uganda has done through their Universal Primary Education and Universal
Secondary Education programs. Second, girls’ education needs to be made more economically
advantageous. This can be done through reducing discrimination in the labor market as well as
reducing the opportunity cost that parents have in sending their daughters to school. If girls know that
they will not earn the same wage as boys— even if they are educated— they may choose to work in
lieu of going to school, as this allows them to earn a wage immediately and contribute to their families.
Wage discrimination in the labor force is one of the main reasons sons are sent to school over
daughters, as they are thought to have a greater return on investment. The economic benefits of
sending girls to school need to be more apparent to both girls and their families. One obvious way of
doing this would be to minimize gender wage discrimination in the labor force. Lastly, schooling
needs to provide all students with an equal education. Schools need proper sanitation facilities for girls,
as well as an adequate number of female teachers. Sexual harassment needs to be addressed, not just
among students, but also among teachers who are supposed to be role models for their students. These
types of changes will help to empower girls and allow them to stay in school and excel. As already
stated, Uganda has accomplished the first step in this process; however, the country needs to work
toward the second two steps in this process if they want to provide a safe, nurturing learning
environment for all children in the country.
Beyond the research analyzed here, further research could be conducted in several areas. More
quantitative research could be completed on the effects of gender-related discrimination in Uganda,
including more analysis on how these disadvantageous environments in schools affect girls in the long
run. While I have analyzed whether or not the typical school environment in Uganda is more
detrimental or advantageous to girls based on the current literature, there is currently no specific
research on this topic. In addition, a cost-benefit analysis could be conducted on female education in
Uganda, similar to the study completed by Summers (1994) that focused on India and Kenya. Finally,
Uganda could be further compared to other developing countries both in Africa and elsewhere. I
examined several studies that analyze gender issues in education in countries outside of Uganda, yet
there is no direct link between the analyses conducted on these countries and analyses on the Ugandan
educational system. Therefore, further research on this topic could assist Uganda’s government in
further assessing gender inequality in its education system and help them implement reforms that will
empower female students.

Empowering Girls Through Education in Uganda

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Empowering Girls Through Education in Uganda

Similar to Empowering Girls Through Education in Uganda (20)

Empowering Girls Through Education in Uganda