Logic and Critical Thinking

1. BRAND BLANSHARD
“The main aim of education
is practical and reflective
judgment, a mind trained to
be critical everywhere in the
use of evidence.”

2. PHASE 11
JUDGEMENT

3. JUDGMENT
Ideas do not suffice to give us
comprehensive knowledge of things
because human intellect can not grasp in
one apprehensive act all the perfections
and implications of an object. The human
mind compartmentalizes things. It
proceeds in a cumulative step-by-step
process, interrelating the ideas
apprehended and pronouncing this reality
of things.

4. JUDGMENT
It is the mental operation
that pronounces the
agreement or disagreement
between two ideas or
terms. This is the second
mental act of the mind.

5. PROCESSES IN JUDGMENT
Apprehension of concepts, the
previous mental act or phase from
which the results are ideas and
terms in the first phase. Ideas in the
mind are placed side by side
(juxtapose) to each other.

6. PROCESSES IN JUDGMENT
Mental comparison of concepts.
This is the stage where the
recognition between ideas, either
identity or non-identity occurs. After
the juxtaposition of ideas;
comparing them to each other
whether they are identical or
different from each other.

7. PROCESSES IN JUDGMENT
Mental Predication is the
pronouncement of the identity or
non-identity of the ideas being
compared. The mental product of
this affirmation or denial of terms is
what we called enunciation.

8. PROCESSES IN JUDGMENT
Written/Oral Predication is the
stage of expressing an enunciation in
a form of a verbal/written
statement or manifestation. The
product of which is called a
proposition.

9. PROCESSES
Apprehension
Mental
Comparison
Mental
Predication
Written/Oral
Predication
Proposition
Enunciation
(Non) identity
Ideas and Terms
PRODUCTS

10. EXAMPLE PROCESS ACTION DONE
Ideas of “apple” and
“fruit”
apprehension juxtaposition
“apple” vs. “fruit” comparison identification
“apple” as “fruit” Identical predication agreement
Apple is a fruit. Written predication assertion

11. If a judgment
coincides with reality,
it is true and if not, it
is false. In the words
of Aristotle, “To say
that what is, is not, or
that what is not, is, is
false; and to say that
what is, is, and what is
not, is not, is true.”

12. PREDICATION: THE PROCESS
Predication is the mental process of
affirmation or denial (agreement or
disagreement) of terms/ideas
producing an enunciation ( a
mental sentence) or a proposition
(external manifestation).

13. ENUNCIATION: THE PRODUCT
Latin word “enuntiatus”, which
means to report, declare,
pronounce. Enunciation is the
pronouncement of the identity or
non-identity of the compared ideas
(terms), showing the agreement or
disagreement.

14. PROPOSITION: THE
MANIFESTATION
The external manifestation,
linguistic expression or the sensible
sign of the judgment. A proposition
is a sentence. A proposition is a
kind of sentence which affirms or
denies something. However, not all
sentences are considered
proposition.

15. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
PROPOSITIONS AND
GRAMMATICAL SENTENCES
1. Propositions are expressed
indicative mood.
2. Propositions are expressed in
the Present-Tense.
3. Propositions are expressed in a
subject-copula-predicate
pattern.
Propositions are classified into
Categorical (state a fact) and
hypothetical (state a condition).

16. PROPOSITIONS
CATEGORICAL
NON-STANDARD
STANDARD
A, E, I, O
HYPOTHETICAL
CONDITIONAL
CONJUNCTIVE
DISJUNCTIVE

17. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
A simple proposition that gives a
direct and undonditional assertion
of the affirmation or denial of
something. From the point of view
of grammar, a proposition is
defined as a declarative sentence
which is complete in thought and
states a fact.

18. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
ACCORDING TO USE:
1. Declarative (states a fact)
Ex. Matter is any physical entity
that occupies space and has mass.
2. Interrogative (asks a question)
Ex. What is the matter with you?
3. Imperative (expresses a
command or request)
Ex. Please, make it matter.
4. Exclamatory (expresses a strong
sudden emotion)
Ex. As a matter of fact, yes!

19. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
A statement which either affirms or
denies. It is unconditional or
without qualification, hence the
manner of affirmation or denial is
unconditional and without
qualification.
Ex.
1. He is a college student.
2. My mother is an engineer.
3. No cow is a reptile.
4. Not all lawyers are liars.

20. BASIC ELEMENTS OF
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
Each categorical proposition is composed
of three basic elements:
The subject term, predicate term, and the
copula.
Subject Term-the part of the proposition
which is affirmed or denied.
Predicate Term- signifies what is affirmed
or denied of the subject.
Copula- either joins or separates the verb
“to be”. The unifying principle and the
qualifying term in the structure of the
proposition.

21. SUBJECT TERM COPULA PREDICATE TERM
Socrates is a philosopher
All Filipinos are not Americans.
Is that about which
something is affirmed or
denied
Pronounces the agreement
or disagreement between
the subject and the
Is that which is affirmed or
denied of the subject.

22. STANDARD (LOGICAL) FORM
The basic arrangement of the elements or
parts of the standard (logical) form of the
categorical proposition is: SUBJECT-
COPULA- PREDICATE (S-C-P)
Ex.
1. The shoe is made of leather.
2. All humans are created by God.
3. No flowers are animals.
Notice how all subject term appear at the
beginning, the copula at the middle, and
the predicate at the end of the proposition
(S-C-P pattern).

23. NON-STANDARD FORM
Does not follow the standard or logical
form.
Ex.
1. Fishes swim.
2. President Duterte succeeded President
Aquino.
3. Bicolanos like spicy food.
4. Blessed are the poor in spirit.
1-3 are not in the logical form because
they do not have copula. While number 4
is not in logical form because it does not
follow the S-C-P pattern (P-C-S).

24. REDUCTION TO THE STANDARD
FORM
The process of rewording or reformulating
a proposition into the standard form (S-C-
P). This is important so that we can analyze
the arguments.
RULES:
1. Must always be in S-C-P arrangement.
2. The meaning of the original proposition
must not be changed.
3. The copula must always be in the
present tense.

25. REDUCTION TO THE STANDARD
FORM
1. Proposition in the Present Tense
Ex. Fishes swim.
This proposition has two elements, the
subject and the predicate (S-P).
REDUCTION: Fishes swim
COPULA AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE
First Person am Am not
Singular is Is not
Plural are Are not
The fishes are swimming
creatures.
SUBJECT COPULA PREDICATE

26. REDUCTION TO THE STANDARD
FORM
2. Proposition in the Past Tense
Retain the original subject and reformulate
the copula and predicate.
Ex. President Duterte succeeded President
Aquino.
POSSIBLE REDUCTIONS:
1. President Duterte is the man who
succeeded President Aquino.
2. President Duterte is the person who
succeeded President Aquino.

27. REDUCTION TO THE STANDARD
FORM
2. Proposition in the Future Tense
Retain the original subject and the
indication of the time signified by the
future tense will form part of the
predicate.
Ex. Professor Colendres will give a quiz
today.
POSSIBLE REDUCTIONS:
1. Professor Colendres is the one who will
give a quiz today.
2. Professor Colendres is the teacher who
will give a quiz today.