An Analysis of the Factors Affecting the Accuracy of the Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure

An Analysis of the Factors Affecting the Accuracy
of the Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure
Ian Casey
BEng. in Civil Engineering
C09398716
2014
Mentor: Dervilla Niall

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Declaration
I certify that this thesis which I now submit for examination for the award of BEng in Civil
Engineering is entirely my own work and has not been taken from the work of others save and to
the extent that such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work.
I certify that the primary research undertaken as part of this thesis is entirely my own work.
This thesis was prepared according to the regulations of the Dublin Institute of Technology and
has not been submitted in whole or in part for an award in any other Institute or University.
The Institute has permission to keep, to lend or to copy this thesis in whole or in part, on condition
that any such use of the material of the thesis is duly acknowledged.
Signed: _____________________________ Date: _____________________

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Acknowledgements
Firstly, I would like to thank Dervilla for all her help, support and guidance throughout the last
year.
I would also like to thank my family especially my mother and father for supporting me
throughout the last four years of college. Thank you to my mother for always having a lovely
dinner ready for me when I got home late! I don’t think I would have got very far without you
both and I really appreciate it. I would like to thank my sister Janice in Australia for always being
at the end of the phone whenever I needed her. I would also like to thank my brothers Mark and
Karl for supplying me with necessary data for use in my project.
I thank Des Murphy and Tadhg O’Broin for their assistance over the duration of my project and
were never far away if a query arose.
Finally I would like to thank Kim for her help, support and most of all encouragement through the
duration of this project.

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Abstract
Ireland is currently committed, under the second phase of the Kyoto Protocol, to a 20% reduction
in Final Energy Consumption. The residential sector in Ireland recorded the second largest energy
consumption per sector in 2013. From the literature reviewed it has been discovered that there is a
large amount of legislation in place to drive the implementation of the Building Energy Rating
scheme and similar scheme in other countries such as the Standard Assessment Procedure in the
UK.
The first section of analysis contained within this project assesses the accuracy of the alternative
methods used to calculate a dwellings value for airtightness as part of the Dwellings Energy
Assessment Procedure. Currently for existing dwellings it is possible to calculate the dwellings
value for airtightness either by way of an air pressurisation test result or via the structural air
tightness section of DEAP which uses a simple algorithm based on factor such as the number of
chimneys or trickle vents within the dwelling. The results obtained, yield similar conclusion to
that stated by the Building Research Establishment in the UK, that “it is impossible to make a
realistic estimate of the airtightness of a dwelling, newly build or otherwise, by simple inspection
alone.” (Building Research Establishment, 1998)
The second section of analysis assessed the comparison between the calculated delivered energy
values for dwellings with Building Energy Ratings and the actual energy that these dwellings
consume.
The conclusion of the results obtained for the first analysis gives way to the overruling
recommendation resulting from this project. It is recommended that air permeability testing as
part of the BER assessment become compulsory for existing dwellings in the same way as
currently is the case for new dwellings being tested.

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Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 2
2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Current Climatic Situation....................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 What is meant by the term Climate Change?..................................................................5
2.1.2 How is climate change effecting our environment?.........................................................8
2.1.3 Emission effecting factors ................................................................................................12
2.1.4 Current Action..................................................................................................................13
2.2 Legislation................................................................................................................................ 23
2.2.1 Energy Performance of Buildings Directive and Statutory Instruments....................23
2.2.2 Building Regulations and Technical Guidance Documents, Part L ............................25
2.3 Implementation and Procedure ............................................................................................. 29
2.3.1 A Guide to DEAP Software .............................................................................................29
2.3.2 The Evolution of DEAP....................................................................................................36
2.4 Previous Research ................................................................................................................... 37
2.5 Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 37
3.1 Primary Analytical Objective................................................................................................. 39
3.2 Outline of First Analysis .....................................................................................................39
3.2.1Air Permeability Test ........................................................................................................39
3.2.2The Structural Airtightness Section within DEAP.........................................................40
4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 47
4.1 Structural Airtightness ........................................................................................................... 47
4.1.1 What is structural airtightness?......................................................................................47
4.1.2 Indoor Air Quality............................................................................................................47
4.1.3 Determination of a dwellings structural airtightness value..........................................48
4.1.4 The Air Pressurisation Test.............................................................................................48
4.1.5 Determining the location of air leakage..........................................................................49

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4.1.6 Smoke Test ........................................................................................................................49
4.1.7 Thermal Imaging ..............................................................................................................50
4.2 Data Sources ............................................................................................................................ 53
4.2.1 BER Research Tool ..........................................................................................................53
4.2.2 Building Research Establishment (BRE) Database.......................................................53
4.3 Presentational format of data................................................................................................. 55
4.3.1 Subdividing data...............................................................................................................55
4.4 Results of analysis.................................................................................................................... 56
4.4.1 Dwellings constructed Pre 1900.......................................................................................57
4.4.2 Dwellings constructed between 1900 and 1909 ..............................................................58
4.4.10 Dwellings constructed between 1995 and 2004 ............................................................66
4.4.11 Dwellings constructed from 2005 onwards ..................................................................67
4.5 Discussion of ACR Results...................................................................................................... 70
4.5.1 Percentage Error of Alternative Calculation Methods .................................................71
5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 99
5.0.1 Aim of this Analysis..........................................................................................................99
5.1 Quantifying the effect of assumptions made by DEAP....................................................99
5.2 Primary Energy and Delivered Energy Values .................................................................... 99
5.3 Data Collection ...................................................................................................................... 100
5.4 Analytical Process.................................................................................................................. 101

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5.5 Results of Analysis................................................................................................................. 102
5.6 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 106
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 108
6.2 Project Conclusions............................................................................................................... 108
6.2.1 Review of Previous Literature.......................................................................................108
6.2.2 Analysing the effect that the airtightness of a dwelling has on the BER obtained...108
6.2.3 An analysis of the “performance gap” of the BER scheme ........................................109
6.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 109
6.3.1 Implementation of Compulsory Air Permeability testing for existing dwellings .....109
6.3.2 Recommendations for further study.............................................................................109
References .................................................................................................................................... 111
Appendix A .................................................................................................................................. 115
Appendix B................................................................................................................................... 136
Appendix C .................................................................................................................................. 138

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Table of Figures
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of “The Greenhouse Effect”.........................................................6
Figure 2: Extent of Arctic July-August-September (summer) average sea ice .........................8
Figure 3: Extent of Northern Hemisphere March-April (spring) average snow cover............9
Figure 4: Global mean sea level ...................................................................................................10
Figure 5: Change in global mean Upper Ocean (0–700 m) .......................................................11
Figure 6: Residential sector energy balance 2011 ......................................................................13
Figure 7: Sample Building Energy Rating Certificate...............................................................31
Figure 8: Key Concepts of DEAP ................................................................................................33
Figure 9: DEAP User Interface....................................................................................................34
Figure 10: Function of tabs contained within DEAP.................................................................35
Figure 11: The Evolution of DEAP..............................................................................................36
Figure 12: TGD L Table 4-Number of pressure tests per dwelling type..................................43
Figure 13: "Blower Door" fan installation .................................................................................48
Figure 14a&b: Smoke Pencil........................................................................................................50
Figure 15a&b: Thermal Bridging................................................................................................51
Figure 16a,b&c: Air Leakage Thermal Imaging........................................................................51
Figure 17: Effect of Dwelling age on air leakage rates in UK dwellings..................................54
Figure 18: ACR Values for Dwellings constructed Pre 1900 ....................................................57
Figure 19: ACR Values for Dwellings constructed between 1900 and 1909............................58
Figure 28: ACR Values for Dwellings constructed from 2005 onwards ..................................68
Figure 31: Mean Effective ACR based on year of construction................................................80
Figure 32: Energy Values of all dwellings...................................................................................82

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List of Tables
Table 1: Ventilation Rates ............................................................................................................40
Table 2: Dwelling Age Bands .......................................................................................................55
Table 3: ACR Values for Dwellings constructed Pre 1900........................................................57
Table 4: ACR Values for Dwellings constructed between 1900 and 1909 ...............................58
Table 10: ACR Values for Dwellings constructed between 1980 and 1989 .............................64
Table 11: ACR Values for Dwellings constructed between 1990 and 1994 .............................65
Table 12: : ACR Values for Dwellings constructed between 1995 and 2004 ...........................66
Table 13: ACR Values for Dwellings constructed from 2005 onwards....................................67

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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction

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1.0 Introduction
The Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure (DEAP) is the official Irish method for calculating
the energy performance of dwellings. This measurement of a dwellings energy performance is
provided to the homeowner by way of a Building Energy Rating (BER) certificate. The BER
accounts for the energy used for space heating, hot water heating, ventilation and lighting which is
calculated based on an assumed standard occupancy.
A BER is required for all dwellings being offered for sale or rent as well as new dwellings which
are being occupied for the first time.
The purpose of this thesis was to identify areas of DEAP that may lead to inaccuracies in the
determination of a dwellings energy performance.
The aim of this these was to examine the area of structural airtightness within the DEAP
methodology and assess both the impact that the age of the dwelling has on its airtightness as well
as the effect that the airtightness value has on the BER achieved by a dwelling.
The objective of this research is to:
 Review the literature for the issue of climate change on a global scale. The focus will then
switch to the residential sector in particular and measures taken, namely the BER scheme,
to reduce energy consumption in this sector
 Examine the influences that the structural air tightness of a dwelling has on the BER
achieved
 Examine the “performance gap” between the delivered energy usage, calculated following
a BER assessment, and the actual energy consumption of that dwelling for the same end
uses
 Provide recommendations to improve the accuracy of the Dwellings Energy Assessment
Procedure
This project contains six chapters in total.
Chapter one provides the introduction to the project.
Chapter two reviews the literature with respect to energy consumption overall and in the
residential sector specifically. An examination of the methodology behind the Dwellings Energy
Assessment Procedure is then undertaken. The chapter highlights the need for a reduction in
energy consumption and the legal obligations of Ireland to succeed with reducing the overall

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energy consumption. The chapter then concludes with an insight into some previous research
which relates to the areas of analysis undertaken as part of this project.
Chapter three presents the methodology behind the areas of analysis. It introduces the origin of the
data used and what was intended to do with that data.
Chapter four presents the first section of analysis. Within this section the values of air tightness
obtained for a number of dwellings will be analysed as well as the effect that the varying
airtightness values have on the Building Energy Rating achieved.
Chapter five contains the second section of analysis. Within this section the accuracy of the
designated energy values are assessed by comparing then to the actual energy used within those
dwellings for the same end uses.
Chapter 6 presents a set of conclusion determined following the two sections of analysis as well as
some recommendations with respect to both DEAP and future study.
The next chapter to be presented is a literature review.

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CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review

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2.0 Introduction
The objective of this chapter is to introduce the concept of Building Energy Ratings to the reader
who may not be aware that such a scheme exists.
The chapter contains a general overview of the effects that our energy consumption is having on
our climate. It discusses the various intergovernmental measures which have been put in place to
combat the effects of excessive energy consumption.
The chapter progresses to discuss specifically residential energy consumption and the various
pieces of legislation in place to aid the reduction of energy consumption within this sector.
The chapter then concludes with a description of the Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure and
the methodology behind how it works.
2.1 Current Climatic Situation
2.1.1 What is meant by the term Climate Change?
A report on climate change published in 2012 by the European Commission states that in the long
term, climate change threatens to cause serious damage to our economies and the environment we
depend on therefore putting the lives of millions of people in danger and risking the extinction of
many animal and plant species. Human activities are resulting in excessive amounts of greenhouse
gases being omitted into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases obtain their name due to the process
they perform of trapping the sun’s heat in the atmosphere in a similar way to which the glass in a
greenhouse retains heat (European Commission, 2012).

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Figure 1: Schematic diagram of “The Greenhouse Effect”
(Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)
The rise in temperature resulting from the greenhouse effect contributes to man-made climate
change. In the latest contribution, by Working Group 1 of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, to the fifth assessment report it is stated:
“Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed
changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed,
the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentrations of
greenhouse gases have increased”. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2013)
Listed below are the seven core greenhouse gases responsible for causing the greenhouse effect;
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - is the most significant of all greenhouse gases due to its abundance
within the atmosphere. It is emitted by the combustion of fossil fuels, wood or any other materials
which contain carbon. Fossil fuels are fuels which have formed from the decomposition of dead
plant and animal remains. Processes such as running our cars or heating our homes are likely to
involve the burning of fossil fuels thus the production of greenhouse gases, in particular carbon
dioxide. However carbon dioxide is also absorbed by plants and trees. Therefore the problem of
deforestation is having an adverse effect on the reduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
(European Commission, 2012)

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Methane (CH4) – releases of methane are a result of a range of both human activities and from
natural sources. Contributors include the production of fossil fuels, livestock husbandry, rice
cultivation and waste management. (European Commission, 2012)
Nitrous oxide (N2O) – sources of emissions include the burning of fossil fuels, fertiliser
production and industrial chemical production using nitrogen. (European Commission, 2012)
The remaining four gases are a selection of fluorinated gases which were specifically designed for
industrial applications. They are as follows: Hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons
(PFCs), Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3). (European Commission, 2012)
The atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased to
levels unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years. Carbon dioxide concentrations have
increased by 40% since pre-industrial times, primarily from fossil fuel emissions and secondarily
from net land use change emissions. (European Commission, 2012)

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2.1.2 How is climate change effecting our environment?
As stated previously, the man made warming of our climate is causing discernible climatic and
environmental changes. Some current and future impacts of climate change include:
Over the past two decades, ice sheets around the globe have been losing mass. According to the
IPCC, which brings together thousands of the world’s leading climate scientists, the average rate
of ice loss from the Greenland ice sheet significantly increased from 34Gt/year over the period
1992-2001 to 215Gt/year over the time period 2002-2011 while the average rate of ice loss from
the Antarctic ice sheet also increased from 30Gt/year to 147Gt/year over identical time periods.
A decrease in Arctic sea ice has been observed to range from 3.5-4.1% over the period of 1979
to 2012. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2013)
Figure 2: Extent of Arctic July-August-September (summer) average sea ice
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2013)

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Rising temperatures have also resulted in a decrease of snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere
as well as a considerable reduction in permafrost thickness and its areal extent in regions such as
Northern Alaska and Russian European North (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
2013)
Figure 3: Extent of Northern Hemisphere March-April (spring) average snow cover

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Since the early 1970s, glacier mass loss and ocean thermal expansion from warming together
explain about 75% of the observed global mean sea level rise. Over the period 1901 to 2010,
global mean sea level rose by an average of 0.19m. Sea level rise threatens the existence of low-
lying island states and coastal communities. The melting of glaciers is putting millions of people
at risk of floods and will eventually deprive them of fresh water resources. (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, 2013)
Figure 4: Global mean sea level

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Climate change is exacerbating other human pressures on nature. Some 20 to 30% of plant and
animal species may be at increased risk of extinction if the global average temperature increases
by more than 1.5-2.5°C above the levels at the end of the 20th century. Coral reefs, which are
crucial nurseries for fish and other marine life, are already suffering extensive damage at current
levels of warming. (European Commission, 2012)
Figure 5: Change in global mean Upper Ocean (0–700 m)
Extreme weather events such as floods, droughts and heat waves are becoming more frequent or
more severe and more costly in some parts of the world. Their impacts include reduced water
availability and crop yields, jeopardising food production. Developing countries are particularly
vulnerable. (European Commission, 2012)
Climate change has direct impacts on human health. For instance, the summer 2003 heat wave in
southern Europe contributed to the premature deaths of as many as 70 000 people. Global
warming may encourage the spread of tropical diseases such as malaria and dengue. (European
Commission, 2012)
By 2012, the average global surface temperature was 0.85°C higher than in 1880. Scientific
evidence suggests that an average world temperature rise of more than 2°C above the pre-
industrial level equivalent will greatly increase the risk of large-scale, irreversible changes in the
global environment. The EU has therefore long argued in favour of keeping global warming
below 2°C. The need to do so is now recognised by the international community. (European
Commission, 2012)

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2.1.3 Emission effecting factors
The interrelationship between greenhouse gas emissions and increasing global temperatures is
clearly evident. The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal or oil, for energy results in the emission
of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. (European Commission, 2012) During the United
Nations Climate Change Conference entitled COP19, which took place in Warsaw and concluded
on Saturday 23rd
of November 2013, a set of decisions were made which will help developing
countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and the degradation of
forests, which account for around one fifth of all human-generated emissions. In a statement made
by Marcin Korolec, President of the COP19 conference, he said, “I am proud of this concrete
accomplishment. We are all aware of the central role that forests play as carbon sinks, climate
stabilizers and biodiversity havens. Through our negotiations we have made a significant
contribution to forest preservation and sustainable use which will benefit the people who live in
and around them and humanity and the planet as a whole.” (UNFCCC, 2013)
A 2013 report published by the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI), entitled Energy
in the Residential Sector, states that in 2011, the second largest energy using sector in Ireland of
all the primary energy consumed was the residential sector at 27%. The residential sector, second
only to the transport sector, was responsible for 10.5 million tonnes of energy related CO2
emissions in Ireland in 2011 with the principle sources of energy supply in this sector being oil,
electricity and gas. In Ireland, during the period of 1990-2011, the number of permanently
occupied dwellings grew by 64% to reach 1.65 million while the average floor area per dwelling
grew by 19%. Energy use in the residential sector includes energy used for heating, hot water,
cooking, cleaning, washing, drying, lighting, cooling and entertainment. In 2011, the average
dwelling was accountable for emitting 6.4 tonnes of energy-related CO2 emissions. Of the 6.4
tonnes, 3.9 tonnes of CO2 (61%) came from direct fuel use and the remaining 2.5 tonnes (39%)
arose indirectly from electricity use. The figure below shows Ireland’s residential sector energy
balance for 2011 as an energy flow diagram. The fuel inputs, totalling 3,688ktoe, include the fuel
used to generate the electricity consumed by the sector. The energy transformation losses
amounted to 852ktoe, thus the final energy consumption of the sector in 2011 being 2,836ktoe.
This represents a quarter (25%) of Ireland’s Total Final Consumption (TFC), and is the amount of
energy for which households within the sector are billed directly. The significant dependence on
oil (36% of residential sector TFC) and electricity (25%) is noticeable, accounting for more than
60% of the total residential consumption. (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)

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Figure 6: Residential sector energy balance 2011
2.1.4 Current Action
In 1992 the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) attempted to
prevent the dangerous man-made interference with climate change by introducing voluntary
measures for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. This approach however, unsurprisingly,
was unsuccessful as it was not legally binding. Extending from this failed attempt, the Kyoto
Protocol was first introduced in 1997. (European Commission, 2012) With 195 Parties, the
UNFCCC has near universal membership and is the parent treaty of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. The
Kyoto Protocol has been ratified by 192 of the UNFCCC Parties. (UNFCCC, 2013)
The Kyoto Protocol, which entered into force in 2005, is a first step towards reversing the global
trend of rising emissions. In its first phase, from 2008 to 2012, the Protocol set legally binding
targets for industrialised countries to reduce their GHG emissions by an average of 5% compared
to a chosen base year (1990 in most cases). The 15 countries which were EU Member States
(‘EU-15’) when the Protocol was adopted went further and committed to cut their collective
emissions to 8% below the level in their base year. (European Commission, 2012)

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The Marrakech Accords are the detailed legal decisions required for the operation of the Kyoto
Protocol and are aimed at turning the targets for greenhouse gas reductions and limitations agreed
at Kyoto into a basis for real action. (Department of the Environment, Community and Local
Government, 2013)
The Accords provide an international regulatory framework that includes operational rules for the
Kyoto Protocol's flexible mechanisms, which are aimed at achieving emissions reductions as cost-
effectively as possible. In addition, agreement on detailed monitoring and reporting obligations
for Parties will allow transparency and certainty for the operation of the mechanisms. A strong
compliance system was also established to facilitate, promote and enforce compliance with the
commitments under the Protocol, including agreement on stringent non-compliance consequences
to underpin its environmental integrity. (Department of the Environment, Community and Local
Government, 2013)
Failure to have achieved compliance during the first Kyoto commitment period would have
resulted in more stringent post-2012 targets, which would have significantly driven up compliance
costs for the party concerned. Parties which did not achieve compliance in the first commitment
period (2008-2012) and whom were found to have exceeded their emissions target were forced
carry the excess plus a 30% loading into the second commitment period, and have their emissions
trading rights under Article 17 of the Protocol suspended for all or part of the second commitment
period (i.e. a party can buy but not sell emissions). (Department of the Environment, Community
and Local Government, 2013)
The Kyoto Protocol provides for three mechanisms from which allowances or credits can be used
for compliance purposes:
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to attract investments in greenhouse gas emissions
reduction projects in developing countries i.e. countries without Kyoto targets. (Department
of the Environment, Community and Local Government, 2013)
• Joint Implementation (JI) to allow investments in greenhouse gas emissions reduction
projects in countries with Kyoto targets. This is principally aimed at countries with
economies in the process of moving to a full market based economy. (Department of the
Environment, Community and Local Government, 2013)

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• International Emissions Trading System to allow countries that have succeeded in reducing
their emissions below their Kyoto Protocol target to sell excess allowances to countries that
face a shortfall in meeting their targets. (Department of the Environment, Community and
Local Government, 2013)
Each of the Kyoto targets corresponds to an emission budget (corresponding to a quantity of
'Kyoto units') for the first commitment period (2008–2012) of the Kyoto Protocol. To achieve
their Kyoto targets, countries must balance their emissions with the amount of Kyoto units they
are holding. Such a balance can be achieved by limiting or reducing their domestic emissions and
by increasing their emission budget through the contribution of Land Use, Land-Use Change and
Forestry (LULUCF) activities, such as forest management, as well as the use of the Kyoto
Protocol's flexible mechanisms whereby they can acquire Kyoto units from other countries.
(European Environment Agency, 2013)
The keystone of the EU’s climate strategy is the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS),
launched in 2005. The world’s first and biggest international GHG emissions trading system, the
EU ETS has made climate change a boardroom issue for companies by putting a price on their
carbon emissions. (European Commission, 2012)
A 2013 report published by the EEA states, the EU ETS was introduced to help Member States
achieve their Kyoto targets and to achieve cost-efficient emission reductions at the sources of
pollution themselves (so-called 'point sources') across the EU. Through the allocation of
allowances linked to Kyoto units for the trading period 2008–2012, each national Kyoto target
was split into an emission budget for the ETS sectors and another emission budget for the sectors
not covered by the ETS. These non ETS sectors include, inter alia, road transport, buildings,
agriculture and waste. Member States were themselves able to set the proportion of the emission
budgets allocated to the EU ETS and to the non EU ETS sectors.
Participants in the EU ETS are legally bound to match their emissions with an equivalent number
of allowances. Participants with a deficit of allowances are permitted to purchase from those with
a surplus operating within the ETS or make use of, to a limited extent, international credits under
the Kyoto Protocol. To achieve their Kyoto targets, governments must therefore ensure that
emissions in the non ETS sectors are limited or reduced below their own non ETS emission
budget. They can also make use of international credits under the Kyoto Protocol as long as this
supplements domestic action. (European Environment Agency, 2013)

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In the EU 15, the overall EU ETS cap (i.e. the maximum amount of emissions allowed) for the
period 2008–2012 was 9 % below 2005 levels while the non ETS sectors had an emission budget
of 4 % below their 2005 levels. In Austria, Denmark, Italy, Luxembourg, Spain and Liechtenstein,
non ETS reduction needs were higher than 15 % compared to 2005 non ETS emissions levels. For
all these countries, the non ETS emission targets for 2008–2012 were relatively more demanding
than in the ETS sectors. (European Environment Agency, 2013)
According to this report published by the EEA, entitled “Trends and projections in Europe 2013 -
Tracking progress towards Europe's climate and energy targets until 2020”, the EU-15 over
achieved its reduction target of 8%, compared to base levels under the first phase of the Kyoto
protocol. The overall average emissions of the EU-15 in the 2008–2012 period declined by 12.2
%. (European Environment Agency, 2013) Most of the 12 countries that joined the EU in 2004
and 2007 had national reduction targets of 6 or 8% while Croatia, which became an EU member
in 2013, had a target to cut by 5%. (European Commission, 2012) Overall, the combined
performance of all EU 15 Member States is equivalent to an overachievement of approximately
236 Mt CO2 equivalents per year (5.5 % of the EU 15's base year emissions). (European
Environment Agency, 2013) This information is backed up by a 2013 report published by the
European Commission on climate change. (European Commission, 2012)
Non-ETS emissions in the EU-15 during the period from 2008 to 2012 were lower than the
relevant emission budget by 95 Mt CO2-equivalent per year, which represents an
overachievement equivalent to 2.2 % of total EU-15 base-year emissions.
So-called 'carbon sink' activities (such as when carbon is absorbed by forest growth with any net
benefit then being accounted for) are expected to contribute towards an additional emission
reduction of 64 Mt CO2-equivalent per year (1.5 % of EU-15 base-year emissions), based on data
for the period 2008–2011. (European Environment Agency, 2013)
The UNFCCC 16th
Conference of Parties (COP16) took place at the end of 2010 in Cancun,
Mexico. The objective of COP16 was to re-establish the credibility of the UNFCCC following the
perceived failure of the agreements instilled during the COP15 conference in Copenhagen in
2009. The main outcome from COP16 was the Cancun Agreements. According to the report
published by the Department of Environment, Community and Local Government entitled Review
of the National Climate Change Policy 2011 (Department of the Environment, Community and
Local Government, 2011), some of the key agreements reached at COP16 in Cancun included:

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 Reconfirmation of the strength of the multilateral process to find global solutions to global
problems.
 A shared long-term vision, including a goal to limit average global temperature increase to
below 2°C in comparison to pre-industrial levels and recognition of the need to strengthen
this goal, based on scientific advancements, and to consider a 1.5°C goal at a future date.
 The anchoring of pledges made under the Copenhagen Accord.
 Formalising the commitment made by developed countries in Copenhagen to mobilise
$100 billion a year by 2020 to address the mitigation and adaptation needs of developing
countries and establishment of a Green Climate Fund to manage this support.
 An overall agreement to continue working on the modalities for the inclusion of land use,
land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) activities in the period post 2012.
(Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government, 2011)
A roadmap towards a new legal framework by 2015, applicable to all parties to the UN climate
convention, was adopted at the 17th
Conference of Parties (COP17) which took place in Durban,
South Africa in December 2011. At the time the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action foresaw
the second agreement period of the Kyoto Protocol which began in 2013. (European Environment
Agency, 2013). The 18th
Conference of Parties which took place in Doha in December 2012
provided the opportunity for parties to the Kyoto Protocol to adopt the amendment to the Protocol,
thus establishing the second commitment period. (UNFCCC, 2013)
The EU commitments under the second period of the Kyoto protocol are set out under the
European Union energy and climate change package which was agreed by the European council
in December 2008 and bound by the European Union Energy Efficiency Directive (2012). The
policy package sets out a series of demanding climate and energy targets to be met by 2020. These
commitments commonly known as the “20-20-20” targets are as follows:
 Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels.
 Reduce primary energy use by 20% compared with projected levels (to be achieved by
improving energy efficiency).
 Achieve a 20% level of EU energy consumption from renewable sources.

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The core of the package comprises four pieces of complementary legislation.
 Revision and strengthening of the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS): a single EU-wide
cap on emission allowances from 2013 onwards, with a linear annual reduction until 2020
and beyond; the progressive replacement of free allocation of allowances by auctioning;
and an expansion of the system to new sectors and gases.
 An "Effort Sharing Decision" for emissions from sectors not covered by the EU ETS, e.g.
transport, housing, agriculture and waste. Each Member State will have to achieve a
binding national emissions limitation target for 2020. Overall, these national targets will
cut the EU’s emissions from the non-ETS sectors by 10 % by 2020 compared with 2005
levels.
 Binding national targets for renewable energy: this will help reduce EU’s dependence on
imported energy as well as bring down GHG emissions.
 A legal framework to promote the development and safe use of carbon capture and storage
(CCS).
(European Environment Agency, 2013)
According to a Policy Advisory Report published by the Irish Academy of Engineering (IAE) in
June 2013, Ireland’s commitments under the second phase of the Kyoto Protocol are as follows:
 A 20% reduction in final energy consumption (FEC), as compared to average energy use,
in the period 2001-2005.
 A 20% reduction in GHG emissions from 2005 levels in the non-ETS sector.
 An increase in the contribution of renewables to FEC to 16% by 2020, with an increase in
the overall share of energy from renewable sources in transport to 10%.
(Irish Academy of Engineering, 2013)
Various pieces of legislation behind the implementation of measures taken to meet these
commitments are describes in the 2013 SEAI report entitled Energy in the Residential Sector.
These targets set out by the European Union resulted in the production of two specific pieces of
Greenhouse Gas emissions legislation in Ireland, being the Directive 2009/29/EC which requires
emissions trading scheme (ETS) companies to reduce their emissions by 21% below 2005 levels
by 2020 and the Decision 2009/406/EC which requires Ireland to reduce non-ETS emissions by
20% below 2005 levels by 2020. The renewable energy target of a 16% share of renewable energy

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in gross final consumption by 2020 is provided under the European Renewable Energy Directive
(2009/28/EC). (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)
The EU Energy Services Directive (ESD) laid out an indicative target of a 1% improvement in
energy efficiency per annum for Member States, resulting in a cumulative target of a 9%
improvement in energy efficiency by 2016. The ESD is an overarching directive seeking to
promote cost-effective energy efficiency in the EU member states through various promotional,
awareness and support measures and through the removal of institutional, financial and legal
barriers. Unlike the 2020 energy-efficiency target, the ESD target excludes energy used by
enterprises involved in the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) and also international aviation.
In order to fulfil its requirements under the ESD, Ireland submitted its first National Energy
Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP) to the European Commission in September 2007, its second in
2011 and it is due to be revised for a third time in 2014 to further detail Ireland’s progress toward
the ESD target of 9% savings by 2016. A complete list of all the existing and committed-to
measures that will contribute towards meeting Ireland energy-efficiency targets is contained in the
NEEAP. These commitments for the residential sector include amending the Building Regulations
to improve energy efficiency in new homes and the use of standardised measurement technology
in the domestic sector to measure and calculate progress of energy suppliers towards their annual
targets. (Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources, 2012)
A new Energy Efficiency Plan (EEP) was introduced by the European Commission on the 8th
of
March 2011 setting out measures to achieve further savings in energy supply and use. The EU
Energy Efficiency Directive, published in October 2012, superseded the ESD and transformed
certain aspects of the EEP into binding measures developing the foundations for the commitments
under the second phase of the Kyoto Protocol. (European Union, 2012)
The report mentioned previously, produced by the IAE and entitled ‘Achieving Ireland’s Energy
and CO2 Reduction Targets – An Alternative Approach’, identified that a different approach was
necessary in order to tackle the somewhat neglected energy and emissions reduction target in the
non-ETS sectors, particularly in the residential, commercial, smaller industrial and public service
sectors. The academy does this through the compilation of a range of insights from various
disciplines, including experts in electricity and gas utilities, energy consultants, equipment
suppliers, retrofitting practitioners and academia, and publishing the final recommendations in this
report. (Irish Academy of Engineering, 2013)

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The report states that there has been an overriding focus on Irelands renewable energy target with
a staggering €8 billion invested in supply side projects, mainly in renewable energy and the
upgrading of electricity transmission, while a fractional €1 billion has been invested in demand-
side initiatives towards achieving the FEC and non-ETS carbon dioxide (CO2) reduction targets.
In an attempt to combat this problem the IAE contain within this report a number of
recommendations, the majority of which can be privately funded, therefore creating opportunities
in employment and enterprise, they have short payback periods, make national economic sense
and provide better living conditions, resulting in the reduction of national healthcare costs. (Irish
Academy of Engineering, 2013)
A selection of these recommendations is outlined below:
 Mainly rebalancing of investment from supply-side renewable and associated
transmission, to a focus on demand-side energy and CO2 reduction.
 Provision of better practical advice to householders on the merits of the various retrofitting
insulation and ventilation options available.
 Providing incentives for the retro-fitting installation of highly efficient heat pumps in over
400,000 rural dwellings.
According to the 2012 report published by the European Commission on climate change, the
Kyoto Protocol is an incomplete response that will not sufficiently deal with the problem of
climate change. While the first phase of the protocol effectively lead the way to combatting
climate change by addressing approximately 30% of the global greenhouse gas emissions, the
second phase projects to be far less effective covering less than half of that proportion. The report
states that the two main reasons behind the reduction in the effectiveness of the protocol’s second
phase are:
 The incompliance of Russia, Japan and New Zealand with the Kyoto Protocol and the
withdrawal of Canada entirely from the protocol, aligning itself with the United States
whom never ratified the protocol.

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 The Kyoto Protocol does not have the requirement for developing countries to take part
and limit or reduce their emissions, despite the fact that it is developing countries that
account for over half of the global emissions and projected that this will rise to two thirds
by 2020.
As mentioned previously a new set of agreements were formed during the 17th
Conference of
Parties in Durban, South Africa in 2011 which were applicable to all parties of the UN climate
convention. The agreement is to be adopted by the end of 2015 and implemented from 2020. The
latest conference of parties, COP19, which took place in Warsaw, witnessed the passing of a large
milestone after 48 of the world’s poorest countries finalized a comprehensive set of plans to deal
with the inevitable impacts of climate change. (UNFCCC, 2013)
The Durban conference, COP17, also realised that commitments at that time, to cut emissions by
2020, fell short of insuring that the global warming limit of 2°C was not reached. To keep the 2°C
ceiling within reach, scientific studies show that global GHG emissions need to peak by 2020 at
the latest, be at least halved from 1990 levels by 2050 and continue to decline thereafter.
A recent publication by the European Commission on the 22nd
of January 2014 states the newly
announced emission reduction measures proposed by the EC in the attempt to meet targets set out
for 2050. A press release published by the European Commission entitled “2030 climate and
energy goals for a competitive, secure and low-carbon EU economy”, reads as follows:
“The key elements of the 2030 policy framework set out by the Commission are as follows:
 A binding greenhouse gas reduction target: A centre piece of the EU’s energy and climate
policy for 2030, the target of a 40% emissions reduction below the 1990 level would be
met through domestic measures alone. The annual reduction in the ‘cap’ on emissions
from EU ETS sectors would be increased from 1.74% now to 2.2% after 2020. Emissions
from sectors outside the EU ETS would need to be cut by 30% below the 2005 level, and
this effort would be shared equitably between the Member States. The Commission invites
the Council and the European Parliament to agree by the end of 2014 that the EU should
pledge the 40% reduction in early 2015 as part of the international negotiations on a new
global climate agreement due to be concluded in Paris at the end of 2015.

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 An EU-wide binding renewable energy target: Renewable energy will play a key role in
the transition towards a competitive, secure and sustainable energy system. Driven by a
more market-oriented approach with enabling conditions for emerging technologies, an
EU-wide binding target for renewable energy of at least 27% in 2030 comes with
significant benefits in terms of energy trade balances, reliance on indigenous energy
sources, jobs and growth. An EU-level target for renewable energy is necessary to drive
continued investment in the sector. However, it would not be translated into national
targets through EU legislation, thus leaving flexibility for Member States to transform the
energy system in a way that is adapted to national preferences and circumstances.
Attainment of the EU renewables target would be ensured by the new governance system
based on national energy plans.
 Energy efficiency: Improved energy efficiency will contribute to all objectives of EU
energy policy and no transition towards a competitive, secure and sustainable energy
system is possible without it. The role of energy efficiency in the 2030 framework will be
further considered in a review of the Energy Efficiency Directive due to be concluded later
this year. The Commission will consider the potential need for amendments to the directive
once the review has been completed. Member States’ national energy plans will also have
to cover energy efficiency.
 Reform of EU ETS: The Commission proposes to establish a market stability reserve at the
beginning of the next ETS trading period in 2021. The reserve would both address the
surplus of emission allowances that has built up in recent years and improve the system's
resilience to major shocks by automatically adjusting the supply of allowances to be
auctioned. The creation of such a reserve - in addition to the recently agreed delay in the
auctioning of 900 million allowances until 2019-2020 ('back-loading') - is supported by a
broad spectrum of stakeholders. Under the legislation, proposed today, the reserve would
operate entirely according to pre-defined rules which would leave no discretion to the
Commission or Member States in its implementation.”

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2.2 Legislation
The European Union Deputy Secretary of State for Spatial Planning and Construction, Dr. Péter
Szaló, provides an opening statement contained within a report entitled “Implementing the Energy
Performance of Buildings Directive” published by the European Union in 2011, which features
progression reports provided by each member state from 2010. The statement claims that
buildings are central to the European Union’s prosperity and play a vital role in achieving the
EU’s energy saving targets. With a large amount of, until recently, undiscovered energy saving
potential lying unexploited in buildings, and in particular in the residential sector, unearthing that
potential could provide us with more energy efficient dwellings, better living conditions, financial
benefits and sustainable jobs. (European Union, 2011)
According to the 2013 SEAI report on energy in the residential sector, Irish residential energy
policy is enclosed in the context of European legal obligations outlined in a number of Directives
and Regulations such as the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD), as well as other
national and international targets. As mentioned previously, the report states that in 2011 the
residential sector was responsible for 28% of all energy related CO2 emissions and 45% of non-
Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) emissions. As a result, there is a clear motive for policy makers
to put in place programmes and measures which reduce the sector’s demand for energy in Ireland.
2.2.1 Energy Performance of Buildings Directive and Statutory Instruments
The original Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (Directive 2002/91/EC) was
implemented in December 2002. The directive was an all-encompassing, cross sectorial measure
which dealt with energy in the built environment as a whole. The directive highlighted the need
for a common methodology between EU member states that could be used to calculate the
integrated energy performance of buildings. Included within the directive were minimum
standards for the energy performance of new and existing buildings that were subject to major
renovations and a common system of energy certification. The original directive also stated the
requirement for all member states to review their mandatory energy performance requirements for
buildings at least every five years. (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)
The aforementioned report published by the EU in 2011, concerning the implementation of the
EPBD, feature individual country reports which present the measure to which the EPBD (2002)
was implemented from the perspective of each member state up to the end of 2010. The Irish

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report, compiled by Kevin O’Rourke, Chris Hughes and Clare Taylor of the SEAI, states that
article 9 of the EPBD (2002), which concerns air conditioning energy efficiency inspections, was
transposed in to Irish legislation by mean of the Statutory Instrument SI 346 of 2006. The article
sets out the obligations for system owners and qualified technicians. This legislation has been
backed up in 2008 by the publication of an air conditioning inspection manual which contains
procedures to be followed by qualified technicians. (European Union, 2011)
The EPBD (2002) was transposed in to Irish Legislation via the Statutory Instrument, SI 666
(2006). This statutory instrument introduced the mandatory requirement for Building Energy
Ratings (BER’s) in Ireland. DEAP was initially developed to meet this requirement set out in SI
666 and has evolved through a number of revisions since its introduction. (Sustainable Energy
Authority of Ireland, 2013)
The 2002 directive was superseded in May 2010 by the Recast Energy Performance of Buildings
Directive (Directive 2010/31/EU). Article 3 of the recast directive reiterates the requirement of
each member state to adopt a methodology for the calculation of building energy usage.
Introduced in article 12 of the recast EPBD is the requirement that energy performance certificates
be made available by building owners when a building is constructed, sold or rented. (Sustainable
Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)
The 2010 recast directive was transposed into Irish Legislation via the Statutory Instrument, SI
243 (2012). SI 243, of the 2012 European Union (Energy Performance of Buildings) Regulations,
came into effect on the 9th
of January 2013 and contains specific reference to the requirement for
the development of a calculation methodology and software from the issuing authority, the SEAI.
A follow up report by the EU, also entitled Implementing the Energy Performance of Buildings
Directive, was published in 2013 and contains country reports similar to the ones mentioned
although relating to an alternative time frame which extended from the end of the previous report
up until the end of 2012. The Irish country report contained within this document was written by
Kevin O’Rourke and Sadhbh Ni Hogain of the SEAI. Contained within this latest individual
country report it is stated that the implementation of the EPBD in Ireland remains the formal
responsibility of the Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government
(DECLG). The operational responsibility is designated between the DECLG and the national
energy agency, the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI). The oversight and assessment
of co-ordination with the directive is administrated by an EPBD Implementation Group which

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comprises of senior officials from the DECLG, the Department of Communications, Energy and
Natural Resources (DCENR) and the SEAI. The enforcement of both the energy performance
requirements and energy certification are the responsibility of the building control offices within
each of the local authorities. (European Union, 2013)
2.2.2 Building Regulations and Technical Guidance Documents, Part L
The Building Control Act 2007 was passed by both houses of the Oireachtas and accepted by the
president on the 21st
of April 2007. The structure of the building control system is based upon the
foundations of its parent act, the Building Control Act 1990 which is split into three primary
objectives. These objectives include the provision for the making of Building Regulations,
providing for the creating of Building Control Regulations and empowering certain authorities to
enable for the correct enforcement and inspection. (Department of the Environment, Community
The Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government states (DECLG) that the
Building Control Regulations (1997-2014) concerns administrative aspects of the building process
such as commencement notices and fire safety certificates. The original building control
regulations came into force on the 1st
June 1992. These regulations were subsequently superseded
by the 1997 regulations on the 1st
July 1998. The basic purpose of the Building Control
Regulations is to promote the observance of the Building Regulations by supplementing the basic
powers of inspection and enforcement given to the Building Control Authorities by the different
sections of the original Building Control Act, 1990. (Department of the Environment, Community
The Building Regulations on the other hand concern aspects such as building standards,
workmanship, conservation of fuel and energy and access for people with disabilities. According
to the DECLG, the principal focus of the regulations is to provide a healthy and safe environment
for people in and around buildings. (Department of the Environment, Community and Local
Government, 2013)
The DECLG state that the Technical Guidance Documents, which are more commonly known as
TGD’s, are responsible for providing guidance on how a building is to be constructed so that it
complies with the Building Regulations. Adopting an approach different to that if the TGD’s,
while not prohibited, must still meet the requirements of the regulations. In the case that an

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alternative approach is selected, the Building Control Authority may require evidence to ensure
that the building does comply with the regulations set out. It is also important to note that both the
Building Regulations and the Technical Guidance Documents do not promote the use of a
particular product or method of construction. Nor do they favour masonry construction over
timber frame construction. (Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government,
2013)
It is states by the Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government (DECLG)
that while the department administer the continuous review and updating of the Building
Regulations and TGD’s, the primary responsibility for compliance with the requirements of the
regulations is designated with the designers, builders and owners of the buildings. Authorities are
empowered to carry out inspections and undertake, where necessary, enforcement action in order
to ensure compliance. (Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government,
2013)
The Technical Guidance Documents are split into twelve parts, A through to M (excluding I), all
concerning different aspects of the Building Regulations. The Technical Guidance Document Part
L of the Building Regulations 2011 provides guidance in relation to the Conservation of Fuel and
Energy. Part L itself is also divided into two separate versions. One version concerns the
conservation of fuel and energy in dwellings alone, both new and existing, and the other version
concerns all buildings except dwellings. In relation to TGD L-Conservation of Fuel and Energy
for dwellings, it is stated within the document that it should be examined and followed in
conjunction with the latest building regulation, 2011. In general TGD L (2011) applies to works to
new dwellings, where the work has commenced or takes place on or after the 1st
of December
2011. The preceding TGD L (2008) therefore ceases to have effect also from this date. There are
however certain exceptions to this condition. For example where the work, material alteration or
change of use commences or has taken place on or before the 30th
of November 2011 or
alternatively where planning approval or permission has been applied for on or before this date
and substantial work has been completed by the 30th
of November 2013. (Department of the
Technical Guidance Document Part L of the Building Regulations 2011 was last amended in 2011
and transposed to Irish law via the Statutory Instrument, S.I. 259 (2011). (Department of the

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The requirements regarding conservation of fuel and energy for dwellings are laid out in Part L of
the Second Schedule to the Building Regulations 1997 as amended by Part L Amendment 2011.
The Second Schedule, insofar as it relates to works relating to dwellings, is amended to read as
follows:
L1
A building shall be designed and constructed so as to ensure that the energy performance of the
building is such as to limit the amount of energy required for the operation of the building and the
amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with this energy use insofar as is
reasonably practicable.
L2
For existing dwellings, the requirements of L1 shall be met by:
a) Limiting heat loss and, where appropriate, maximising heat gain through the fabric of the
building;
b) Controlling, as appropriate, the output of the space heating and hot water systems;
c) Limiting the heat loss from pipes, ducts and vessels used for the transport or storage of
heated water or air;
d) Providing that all oil and gas fired boilers installed as replacements in existing dwellings
shall meet a minimum seasonal efficiency of 90% where practicable.
L3
For new dwellings, the requirements of L1 shall be met by:
a) Providing that the energy performance of the dwelling is such as to limit the calculated
primary energy consumption and related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions insofar as is
reasonably practicable, when both energy consumption and carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions are calculated using the Dwelling Energy Assessment Procedure (DEAP)
published by Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland;
b) Providing that, for new dwellings, a reasonable proportion of the energy consumption to
meet the energy performance of a dwelling is provided by renewable energy sources;
c) Limiting heat loss and, where appropriate, availing of heat gain through the fabric of the
building;

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d) Providing and commissioning energy efficient space and water heating systems with
efficient heat sources and effective controls;
e) Providing that all oil and gas fired boilers shall meet a minimum seasonal efficiency of
90%;
f) Providing to the dwelling owner sufficient information about the building, the fixed
building services and their maintenance requirements so that the building can be operated
in such a manner as to use no more fuel and energy than is reasonable.
Part L of the Technical Guidance Document for dwellings is supplied with supplementary
documentation in the form of Acceptable Construction Details (ACD’s). These ACD’s provide
information on how to protect a building against thermal bridging and improve its airtightness
thus improving the houses BER. The ACD’s are divided into seven separate parts, each providing
indicative detail drawings of thermal insulation and airtightness provisions for specific
construction interfaces. The ACDs are reviewed in the light of experience to ensure they will
continue to reflect effective and widespread contemporary approaches. (Department of the
According to the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, Dwellings Energy Assessment
Procedure (DEAP) Version 3.2.1 Manual, DEAP is used to demonstrate compliance with both the
EPBD in Ireland and elements of the Irish Building Regulations Part L 2005, 2008 and 2011.
With respect to the Building Regulations 2005 TGD L, the DEAP software calculates the Carbon
Dioxide Emission Rate (CDER) and the corresponding Maximum Permitted Carbon Dioxide
Emission Rate (MPCDER), assessing the dwellings compliance. DEAP compares the dwelling’s
Energy Performance Coefficient (EPC) and Carbon Performance Coefficient (CPC) to the
Maximum Permitted Energy Performance Coefficient (MPEPC) and Maximum Permitted Carbon
Performance Coefficient (MPCPC) for Building Regulations 2008 and 2011 TGD L. DEAP also
determines if the Building Regulations 2008 and 2011 TGD L renewables requirement is satisfied
as well as confirming that the fabric heat loss is limited as defined in the 2005, 2008 and 2011
Building Regulations TGD L. DEAP ensures that the building air permeability is limited as
defined in the Building Regulations 2008 and 2011 TGD L documents. DEAP flags the lack of an
air permeability test as non-compliance where a test result is not specified. The permeability test
result specified in DEAP should follow the guidance and sampling regimes outlined in the
applicable TGD L documents. (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)

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Through the implementation of the various limits and compliance checks, DEAP ensures that the
regulations laid out in the Technical Guidance Documents are adhered to for all aspects of the
construction of dwellings.
2.3 Implementation and Procedure
The Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure (DEAP) Manual for the most recent version of the
software, 3.2.1, which was brought into use in July 2012 states that DEAP is the outcome of a
development study completed for the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) by a project
team from the UCD Energy Research Group, National Energy Services Ltd., Rickaby Thompson
Associates Ltd. and Emerald Energy. A large amount of the calculation procedure upon which
DEAP is based, the accompanying tabulated data and documentation such as the manual referred
to have been adapted from the UK Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) for Energy Rating of
Dwellings. (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)
2.3.1 A Guide to DEAP Software
The SEAI, the authority delegated with the issuing of the Dwellings Energy Assessment
Procedure, declare that DEAP is the official Irish methodology for calculating the energy
performance and associated carbon dioxide emissions for the provision of space heating,
ventilation, water heating and lighting, minus savings from energy generation technologies in
dwellings. The annual delivered energy consumption, primary energy consumption and carbon
dioxide emission are calculated based on standardised occupancy. (Sustainable Energy Authority
of Ireland, 2013)
It is stated by the SEAI that the key functions of DEAP are as follows:
 As mentioned DEAP models expected energy consumption and associated CO2 emissions
for the dwelling under standardised operating conditions
 DEAP provides the means for the publication of a Building Energy Rating (BER)
certificate displayed in the figure below. The BER certificate displays a rating scale based
upon the dwellings energy consumption per unit area and is accompanied by an advisory
report outlining potential improvements for the dwelling

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 Administered BER certificates are stored on SEAI’s National Administration System
(NAS). Summary information from these published BER certificates are available online
and may be accessed using the dwelling’s BER number or Meter Point Reference Number
(MPRN)
 Dwelling specific, aggregated data for all BER’s is available to the public for download
online via the SEAI National BER Research Tool
 DEAP allows prospective buyers or tenants to objectively compare the energy
performance of different dwellings on a like for like basis
 As discussed in the previous section DEAP performs compliance checking calculations for
Part L of the Building Regulations and generates a conformance report summarising the
relevant information for the purposes of building control
 DEAP enables the dwelling designer to identify likely areas of high energy usage in the
dwelling. The designer can determine the relative impacts of various design changes using
DEAP
Displayed below is an exemplary Building Energy Rating Certificate accompanied by a
description of each individual section of the certificate.

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Figure 7: Sample Building Energy Rating Certificate

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DEAP uses an asset or calculated methodology as the means to obtain an energy rating as opposed
to an operational or measured consumption methodology. Contained within the SEAI report, An
Introduction to DEAP for Professionals, are a selection of advantages and disadvantages for each
method. Some of which have been outlined below:
Calculated Energy Consumption:
 A calculated methodology enables dwellings to be compared on a like for like basis
 The rating obtained is not dependant on current occupier behaviour
 This methodology is ideal for evaluating dwellings with respect to their regulatory
performance
 However disadvantages of this methodology include the requirement of an in depth survey
of the dwelling to determine its appropriate rating
Measured Energy Consumption:
 A measured methodology may be advantageous in some aspects such as not requiring the
undertaking of a survey of the dwelling and its reflection of the actual energy usage
 However disadvantages include its difficulty to compare on a like for like basis as well as
its rather large dependency on occupational behaviour

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Outlined below are the key concepts considered as part of the calculations by DEAP to derive the
total primary energy and CO2 results.
Figure 8: Key Concepts of DEAP

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The DEAP software consists of a number of windows or tabs used to calculate the BER result.
The figure below shows the list of tabs, beginning at “Start” and concluding at “Result”, with the
Building Energy rating displayed on the left side of the screen. While the majority of tabs require
the input of information, some of the optional entries are included to provide useful ancillary
information which relates to the dwelling. (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)
Figure 9: DEAP User Interface
There are strict conventions and guidelines relating to each field set out in the DEAP Manual and
survey guide to avoid incorrect entry of data. The DEAP guidance documents, available on
www.seai.ie/DEAP , provide full detail on all of the DEAP entries and tabs. The BER technical
bulletins provide further detail and worked examples on various sections of DEAP, and users may
obtain guidance from the BER helpdesk where further assistance is needed. (Sustainable Energy

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The figure below, contained within the report entitled “Introduction to DEAP for Professionals”,
provides the reader with a summarisation of the functions behind each of the DEAP tabs.
Figure 10: Function of tabs contained within DEAP

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2.3.2 The Evolution of DEAP
The following diagram was taken from the SEAI report previously mentioned, entitled
“Introduction to DEAP for professionals”. It can be determined from this diagram that DEAP,
which was first introduced in 2006, has undergone a number of revisions in an attempt to meet the
ever changing need of regulations, customers, users and industry. As DEAP evolves, it will
continue to maintain alignment with forthcoming Irish policies and Building Regulations,
particularly Irish transposition of EPBD Recast, associated IS and EN standards and Part L of the
Building Regulations. (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)
Figure 11: The Evolution of DEAP

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2.4 Previous Research
According to Menezes (2011) with the increasing demand for more energy efficient buildings, the
construction industry is faced with the challenge to ensure that the energy performance predicted
during the design stage is achieved once a building is in use. (Anna Carolina Menezes, 2011). The
report, written by Menezes (2011) and entitled Predicted vs. actual energy performance of non-
domestic buildings: Using post-occupancy evaluation data to reduce the performance gap,
discusses the underlying causes of discrepancies between energy modelling predictions and in-use
performance of occupied buildings. Menezes (2011) accounts this observed performance gap to
unrealistic input parameters such as occupancy behaviour. Within this report, Menezes (2011)
analyses a high density office building with respect to its electrical consumption and combining
monitoring data with predictive energy modelling increases the accuracy of the model to within
3% of actual electricity consumption values.
2.5 Conclusion
A broad overview of the current climatic situation was provided within this section. A
examination of the relevant past and present protocol with respect to a reduction in energy
consumption also took place.
Firstly the worldwide contribution was considered with respect to the reduction in energy
consumption and Carbon Dioxide emission. This was then succeeded by a closer look at European
protocols both past and present such as the Kyoto Protocol discussed and their implications on
Ireland.
The examination then became more focussed by looking more closely at energy consumption in
the residential sector in particular. The SEAI state that the residential sector has the second largest
energy consumption in Ireland. From this it can be concluded that in the attempt to meet target set
to reduce energy consumption figures, such as those set out by the Kyoto Protocol, then a
reduction in the energy consumption of the residential sector is truly required.
The increasing implementation of the Building Energy Rating schemes both in Ireland and abroad
will assist greatly with this required reduction in energy usage for the residential sector.

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CHAPTER THREE
Research Methodology

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3.1 Primary Analytical Objective
This project aims to assess the methodology behind the calculation of Building Energy Ratings for
residential buildings using the Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure (DEAP). The project has
been divided into two primary sections of analysis. The aim of both these sections is to examine,
not only the results which are yielded from the calculations, but also the method and process
behind the calculations themselves. This analysis is carried out to assess the scope for improving
the accuracy of the Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure.
3.2 Outline of First Analysis
The first section of the analysis examines the calculation of structural air tightness as part of the
Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure. The ventilation air change rate, expressed as air
changes per hour (ac/h), is the rate that air enters or leaves a building. A value for air change rate
is required for DEAP to calculate the ventilation heat loss rate and the effect that this will have on
the buildings heating requirements. The ventilation heat loss rate is affected by factors such as the
permeability of construction materials or inadvertent gaps in the buildings structure. When
undertaking the assessment, the DEAP assessor has the option to calculate the air infiltration rate
using an air permeability test. Alternatively, in the absence of this test, the structural air tightness
section of DEAP is selected to calculate the dwellings structural airtightness. (Sustainable Energy
3.2.1Air Permeability Test
As defined in the Building Regulations 2009 Technical Guidance Documents Part F, air
permeability is a measure of the average volume of air, in cubic meters per hour, that passes
through one square metre of the building envelope when subject to an internal to external pressure
difference of 50 Pascal when measured in accordance with the method defined in IS EN
13829:2000. (Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, 2009)
An air permeability test, or air pressurisation test as it is also known, is completed by installing a
fan in the principle entrance doorway, sealing all fans, flues, chimneys, vents etc. and then
determining the air flow rate required to maintain an excess pressure of 50 Pascal above outdoor
pressure. As mentioned, the permeability test should be completed in accordance with IS EN
13829 and must be done so by an individual or organisation accredited by the NSAI or INAB.
Additional guidance on testing procedure is given in Sections 2 to 4 of the BSRIA Guide
“Airtightness testing for new dwellings” and CIBSE Technical Manual TM 23 “Testing Buildings
for Air leakage” and the ATTMA publication “Measuring air permeability of Building

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Envelopes”. The air permeability measured in this way, q50, expressed in cubic metres per hour
per square metre of envelope area is divided by 20 for use in the DEAP software. The air change
rate (ACR) divisor of 20 was derived from a study, conducted by the SEAI. They discovered that
in order to give an estimate of the air change rate per hour (ac/h) at typical pressure differences
under real operating conditions, a common ACR divisor of 20 was most appropriate. The result of
a pressurisation test remains valid provided dwelling envelope changes (such as area changes or
replacement of exposed elements) have not occurred since the test was performed.
3.2.2The Structural Airtightness Section within DEAP
The method of calculating the structural air tightness using the relevant section of DEAP relies on
the numbers of chimneys, extract fans, open flues, passive vents and flueless combustion room
heaters to determine the contribution to overall air change rate from individual ventilation features
intentionally provided in the dwelling. Ventilation rates for chimneys and flues should be entered
only when they are unrestricted and suitable for use. A restricted chimney is treated as
permanently blocked. Permanent restrictions include brickwork, plasterwork or timber panelling
fixed in place. Where temporary restrictions have been implemented, they may be ignored for this
calculation. (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)
The designated ventilation rates specified for the various ventilation features are given in the table
below.
Table 1: Ventilation Rates
Item Ventilation Rate (m3/hour)
Chimney 40
Open Flue 20
Fan (intermittent) 10
Passive Vent 10
Flueless fixed combustion room heaters 40

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When examining a dwelling as part of the Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure it should be
noted that a chimney is defined as a vertical duct for combustion gases of diameter 200 mm or
more (or a rectangular duct of equivalent size). Alternatively, vertical ducts with diameter less
than 200 mm should be recorded as flues. The following features are also counted as flues:
 A chimney for solid fuel appliances with controlled flow of the air supply
 A chimney with open fireplace and an air supply ducted from outside to a point adjacent to
the fireplace
 A flexible flue liner sealed into a chimney
 A chimney fitted with a damper
 A chimney fitted with an open-flue gas fire where the flue products outlet is sealed to the
chimney
 A blocked up fireplace fitted with ventilators (if ventilator area does not exceed 30,000
mm²)
 Open fireplace fitted with an enclosure or door to control air flow from the room to the
fireplace with minimum open area below the equivalent of a circle of diameter 200mm.
Extract fans, passive stack ventilators, trickle vents or air bricks, and permanent vents are all
accounted for in the “Intermittent Fans and passive vents” section of the Ventilation tab within
DEAP. (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)
The inclusion of a draught lobby is also catered for in the calculation of air tightness by DEAP. A
draught lobby is an area located between two doors that form an airlock on the main entrance to
the dwelling. The area may be heated or unheated and must be sufficiently sized to allow a person
with a push-chair or similar, the ability to close the outer door before opening the inner door. The
following criteria must be satisfied to categorise an enclosed area as a draught lobby to be
included within the DEAP calculations:
 It is located at the main entrance of the dwelling (i.e. the front door)
 It is at least 2 square meters in floor area
 It has a minimum depth of 1.2m and a minimum width of 1.2m
 It opens via a single door into a circulation area (such as a hall, corridor or staircase)
 The space is separated from the remainder of the dwelling by a single inner door, although
it may also have access to a cloakroom along with the single door to the circulation space

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The effect of the number of sheltered sides the building has must also be accounted for. Each
individual side of a building may be considered as sheltered if there are adjacent obstacles, such as
buildings, trees or hedges, obstructing the wind on that side. This criterion is applied at the time of
the assessment or the expected time of dwelling completion for provisional assessments.
The overall ventilation rate must be adjusted based on the type of ventilation that has been
provided, which include:
 Natural ventilation
 Positive input ventilation from loft
 Positive input ventilation from outside
 Whole-house extract ventilation
 Balanced whole-house mechanical ventilation, no heat recovery
 Balanced whole-house mechanical ventilation with heat recovery
Where the pressurisation test has not been undertaken, the ground floor must be specified as solid,
suspended (unsealed) or suspended (sealed). A suspended wooden ground floor is considered
sealed if all joints in the floor (at the edges and the floor itself) are draught sealed using
membranes or adhesives.
In the case of a carpet on a suspended ground floor, while the carpet itself is unlikely to be
airtight, a carpet underlay may or may not be airtight depending on whether it is proven to extend
to the edges of the floor and the material in the underlay is airtight however, when in doubt, it
should be assumed that the suspended ground floor is unsealed.
The provision of air vents below the level of a suspended ground floor should be excluded from
the “intermittent fans and passive vents” section of the ventilation tab as the effect of these vents
has already been accounted for within the structural air-tightness section. Dwellings such as mid-
floor or top floor apartments do not include a suspended wooden ground floor entry as these
dwelling types do not possess a ground floor. (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)
When constructing a new dwelling, compliance with the 2011 Building Regulations is required.
Section 1.5.4 of the 2011 Technical Guidance Documents Part L outlines the requirements for air
permeability pressure testing of new dwellings with respect to the Building Regulations. Section
1.5.4.3 states that permeability testing is not necessary for each individual new dwelling.

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They must be tested in accordance with the sample regime defined in Table 4 of section 1.5.4.3in
the guidance documents which is displayed below.
Figure 12: TGD L Table 4-Number of pressure tests per dwelling type
It is stated in section 1.3.4.4 of these guidance documents that a dwelling tested in accordance
with the sampling regime in Table 4 must achieve a performance level of 7 m3/ (h.m2) or better.
It is still possible to produce a BER for a new dwelling without the implementation of an air
permeability test. In this case, the dwelling will then no longer comply with the 2011 Building
Regulations.
In relation to the 2011 Building Regulations, it is currently not a requirement to carry out an air
permeability test when calculating the BER for existing dwellings. A default air leakage for the
dwelling is then assumed by DEAP based upon the previously mentioned algorithm involving the
number of chimneys, vents, etc.
As stated previously, the first section of analysis concerns the calculations behind the structural air
tightness of a dwelling as part of DEAP. For this section, the data was sourced via the BER
Research Tool, administered by the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI). The tool
provides researchers with online access to statistical data from the Building Energy Rating (BER)
scheme. The BER certificate indicates the annual primary energy usage and carbon dioxide
emissions associated with the provision of space heating, water heating, ventilation and lighting to
the dwelling. The research tool contains information regarding all aspects of construction that

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affect the energy performance of dwellings. Any data that would serve to identify individual
dwellings has been removed from the record contained within the research tool.
The analysis was subsequently split in to two parts.
Part one involves assessing the calculation of air tightness using the structural air tightness section
of DEAP. Unlike new dwellings, it is not a requirement to undertake an air pressurisation test on
existing dwellings to ensure compliance with the 2011 Building Regulations. Alternatively the
structural air tightness section within the ventilation tab of DEAP can be used for this calculation.
For this analysis, the dataset was limited to existing dwellings registered within the BER Research
Tool which have had an air permeability test carried out when being assessed for a building
energy rating. From the selected dataset, 50 dwellings are chosen at random to be analysed.
The air pressurisation test results provided for the 50 dwellings were omitted. The air tightness
values were then recalculated using only the structural airtightness section of DEAP. The BER’s
for the 50 dwellings were then re-evaluated using the recalculated values for airtightness.
Part two studies how the age of a dwelling affects the air tightness and therefore the
corresponding Building Energy Rating for that dwelling. Currently a dwellings age or year of
construction is not taken in to account when calculating its structural air tightness within DEAP.
The Building Research Establishment (BRE) in the UK has compiled a database of typical results
from air permeability tests, based on the age of dwellings. Using these air permeability values and
applying them to the dwellings that had been considered in part one, an adjusted structural air
tightness value was calculated. The BER’s for these dwellings were again re-evaluated using the
latest recalculated airtightness values based on the dwellings age.
The analysis is concluded by comparing the originally calculated BER’s with the re-evaluated
BER’s that have been determined using the adjusted air tightness values based on dwelling age
and the values calculated by way of the structural air tightness section of DEAP.
The second analysis in this project aims to assess the accuracy of the delivered energy usage value
supplied by DEAP following the completion of a BER assessment. The section includes a
comparative analysis between the actual measured energy usage of a dwelling and the predicted
delivered energy value provided by DEAP.
The data required for this analysis was collected by way of a survey. The survey was distributed
both manually and electronically to a number of BER assessors located nationwide. A copy of the

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manually distributed survey is contained within Appendix A. The electronic format was both
created and distributed using Survey Monkey and contained in it the same questions as listed on
the manually distributed survey. In order to be eligible to complete the survey, it is a requirement
for each participant to have had a BER assessment carried out on their dwelling. It was selected to
distribute the survey electronically to this audience as they are most likely to have already
undertaken a BER assessment on their own dwelling or to have arranged for one to be obtained.
The contacts information for these individuals was easily available by way of the National
Register of BER Assessors which is available on the SEAI website and contains the necessary
contact information for register assessors across Ireland.
A total of 59 responses were received electronically. From the responses received, dwellings
which had not been provided with a BER were omitted from the analysis as well as responses
which were incomplete or which did not contain sufficient information to analyse effectively. To
create the most accurate analysis, only dwellings whose actual level of occupancy corresponded
with the assumed rate of standard occupancy applied by DEAP, were considered. All other
dwellings with associated nonstandard levels of occupancy were excluded from the analysis. This
resulted in a remainder of seven surveys, that had been obtained electronically, which were
suitable for my analysis. A further three surveys which had been manually gathered brought the
total number of dwellings being analysed in this section to ten.
The surveys were designed in such a way to gather the necessary information from each
respondent regarding numerous factors such as the dwellings assigned BER, its occupancy and its
overall actual energy consumption. All energy consumed that was not included in the DEAP
calculation, such as energy used for cooking or appliances, was calculated using the information
gathered by the surveys and inputting it into the Electric Ireland Appliance Calculator. This
energy was then summed and omitted from the overall energy consumption values. A comparative
analysis then took place between the predicted delivered energy values for the selected dwellings
and the adjusted actual energy consumption values. Both of these values only concern the energy
used for space heating, hot water heating, ventilation and lighting.

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CHAPTER FOUR
Analysis Section 1
Examination of the calculation of a dwellings structural airtightness using DEAP

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4.0 Introduction
This analysis assesses the calculation of structural airtightness via the DEAP software. An
introduction to the concept of structural airtightness is provided below.
4.1 Structural Airtightness
4.1.1 What is structural airtightness?
The Building Research Establishment (BRE) in the UK identifies airtightness as a term which
evaluates the leakiness of a building. The smaller the leakage across the building at a given
pressure difference of typically 50 Pascals, the tighter the building envelope. The requirement to
provide adequate ventilation for dwellings creates significant difficulties when attempting to
improve the airtightness of a structure. This calls for both well-designed and maintained
ventilation systems. (Webb, 2010)
4.1.2 Indoor Air Quality
For dwellings which are more airtight, sources of air pollution can have a greater impact on the
indoor air quality (IAQ) of that dwelling resulting in the possibility of adverse health effects for
its occupants. (Liddament, 1996) The IAQ is primarily reliant on the quantity of air exchange with
outdoor air, i.e. the rate of air changes per hour, amongst other factors such as the quality of the
outdoor air or the emission of contaminants in the form of gases, vapours and particulate matter
from sources within the building (Crump, 1997) (Maroni M, 1995). In the attempt to provide a
comfortable, healthy and energy efficient living environment, it is necessary to abide by the
mantra developed by the BRE which is build tight, ventilate right. (Webb, 2010)
The leakiness of a dwelling refers to the amount of air infiltration and exfiltration taking place
through the dwellings structural envelope. A dwellings envelope area is the boundary or barrier,
given in square meters, separating the interior volume of the building to the outside environment.
It includes certain measurable features such external wall area and roof area. Air exfiltration is
recognised as the uncontrolled leakage of air from the internal volume of the building to the
external environment via cracks, discontinuities and other unintentional openings in the dwellings
envelope. Similarly, air infiltration is recorded as uncontrolled leakage of air in the opposing
direction. However, air leakage is not to be confused with ventilation which is a controlled
exchange of air into and out of the dwelling envelope and is required for the comfort and safety of
occupants. (Webb, 2010)

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4.1.3 Determination of a dwellings structural airtightness value
As discussed in the methodology chapter, with respect to the Dwellings Energy Assessment
Procedure, the value of airtightness for a dwelling may be calculated in two ways, either by means
of an air leakage pressurisation test or via the structural airtightness section of the DEAP software.
The purpose of both approaches is to quantify the uncontrolled flow of air through gaps and
cracks in the fabric of the building. As previously mentioned, in order to be eligible for usage
within the DEAP calculation, the air leakage pressurisation test must follow the procedure
outlined within IS EN 13829. (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, 2013)
4.1.4 The Air Pressurisation Test
Dwellings are typically tested using a single, electrically powered fan which is built in to an
expandable frame that incorporates a canvas blanking panel. Contributing factors such as indoor
and outdoor temperatures, barometric pressure and wind speed are also measured by way of hand
held measuring devices. The fans are typically calibrated to measure air flows between about 200
and 10,000 m³/h. The tester is generally responsible for preparing the dwelling for testing which
involves, amongst other things, closing or sealing ventilation openings. This technique, frequently
used to determine the air tightness of dwellings, is more commonly known as the “Blower Door”
method. (BSRIA, 2013)
Figure 13: "Blower Door" fan installation
(BSRIA, 2013)

An Analysis of the Factors Affecting the Accuracy of the Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure

An Analysis of the Factors Affecting the Accuracy of the Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure

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