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ISTVS Research Grants Program 1st Award Progress Presentation

The document is a technical survey on equipment and techniques for testing and parameterization of soft soil for vehicular applications, funded by the ISTVS research grant. The work is organized into four tasks from 2015 to 2018, focusing on literature reviews, resource compilation, database creation, and proposed standard modifications. Currently, a comprehensive literature survey is being conducted to collect relevant soil data, with the aim of delivering informative resources to the ISTVS community.

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Sep, 2016 - 1 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory A Technical Survey on Equipment and Techniques for Testing and Parametrization of Soft Soil for Vehicular Applications Virginia Tech: Mr. Rui He, Prof. Corina Sandu University of Pretoria: Mr. Glenn Guthrie, Prof. Schalk Els 8th American Regional conference of ISTVS, Troy, MI, USA
Sep, 2016 - 2 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Context  Work funded by the first ISTVS research grant “Systematic Testing and Parameterization of Soft Soil for Vehicular Applications”, co-PIs Corina Sandu, Virginia Tech and Schalk Els, University of Pretoria  Work Goals • Task 1: Perform literature survey for equipment and techniques used to characterize soft soil (year 1: 2015-2016) • Task 2: Compile a list of resources (equipment, facilities, capabilities, and expertise available within the community (year 2: 2016-2017) • Task 3: Build a soil properties database from literature and any other source available to serve the ISTVS community (year 3: 2017-2018) • Task 4: Propose additions and changes for the ISTVS standards for testing and parameterization of soft soil (2018)
Sep, 2016 - 3 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Context  Work on-going for Task 1. Currently performing comprehensive literature survey to find research and soil data that is already available in the literature.  Data is being systematically collected, analyzed, and the relevant information fed into tables and databases.  Longer document with research work will be made available to the ISTVS community; illustrative examples of on-going work are presented today
Sep, 2016 - 4 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Approach and Content for Task 1  Soil properties and testing • Determine common physical soil properties and corresponding measurement techniques • Summarize empirical models to assess vehicle mobility, parameters required and corresponding measurement techniques • Theoretical model parameters and corresponding measurement techniques  Compressive stress and deformation  Shear stress and deformation  For each item: • Brief description (if available from current ISTVS standards) • Table containing information gathered from the literature • References
Sep, 2016 - 5 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory  Definition • ISTVS 1977 standard [1]  Typical Measuring Instruments • Bulk density soil sampling kit • High accuracy scale Physical Properties Bulk Density Bulk density soil sampling kit, AMS / : the mass of the sample after it has been dried to constant weight : volume of the sample d s s W V W V   Unit volume of soil divided into its components
Sep, 2016 - 6 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Physical Properties Bulk Density Table Bulk density (Dry density) If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Yes /d sW V  Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Soil Type References Gamma attenuation method Two-probe density gauge Sandy loam [3] Gamma attenuation method Two-probe density gauge Sand, loamy sand, sandy loam [4] Direct measurement Core sampler Sandy loam, sand, Loamy sand [4] Direct measurement Core sampler Clay loam [6] Sand replacement method Sand pouring cylinder Sand [5]
Sep, 2016 - 7 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Water Content  Definition • ISTVS 1977 standards [1]  Typical Measurement Methods • Thermogravimetric measurement (reference method)  Measure the weight of a wet sample before and after oven drying at 105℃ for 24 h.  Provide calibration of other soil water content sensors.  Typical Measuring Instruments • High accuracy scale 100 : mass of water present in the sample : mass of sample after it has been dried to constant weight w s w s W w W W W  
Sep, 2016 - 8 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Water Content Water Content (Moisture Content) If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Yes 100w s W w W   Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Soil Type References Thermogravimetric measurement High accuracy scale All types [7] Dielectric measurement Dielectric sensor All types [8] Resistivity measurement Electrode N/A [9] Neutron scattering technique Soil moisture neutron probe Sand, silt loam, silty clay loam, sandy loam, clay loam, clay [10] Measurement of soil thermal properties Temperature sensors, heated needle, heat-pulse sensors Sandy loam, sand [11] Acoustic wave methods Transmitter Sandy clay loam, loam, silt loam, silt, silty clay, sandy clay, clay loam, silty clay loam, clay [12]
Sep, 2016 - 9 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory  Definition [13]:  Typical Measuring Instruments • Pycnometer • Digital weighing scale  Typical Measurement Methods • Pycnometer method (ASTM, 1958, p. 80; u.S. Dep. Agric., 1954, p. 122) Specific Gravity Specific gravity sample and pycnometer [( ) ( )] : weight of pycnometer plus soil sample corrected to oven-dry water content : weight of pycnometer filled with air : weight of pycnometer filled with soil and water : weig s a s s a sw w s a sw w W W G W W W W W W W W      ht of pycnometer filled with water at temperature observed
Sep, 2016 - 10 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Specific Gravity Specific Gravity If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No No [( ) ( )] : weight of pycnometer plus soil sample corrected to oven-dry water content : weight of pycnometer filled with air : weight of pycnometer filled with soil and water : weig s a s s a sw w s a sw w W W G W W W W W W W W      ht of pycnometer filled with water at temperature observed [13] Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Soil Type References Pycnometer method Pycnometer Clay [5], [14], [15] Pycnometer method Pycnometer Pycnometer method Ultra-Pycnometer Loam, clay loam, clay, silty clay, clay, [16]
Sep, 2016 - 11 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory  Definition [17] • Based on particle size distribution curve  Typical Measurement Methods • Sieving • Pipette • Hydrometer  Typical Measuring Instruments • Drying trays, wooden rolling pin, etc. • Beakers, centrifuges, etc. • Standard hydrometer, electric stirrer, etc. Average Grain Size Schematic diagram of ASTM 152 H-type hydrometer [18] 50 :Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 50%D
Sep, 2016 - 12 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Average Grain Size Average Grain Size If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No No 50 :Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 50% [17] D Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Soil Type References Pipette method Beakers, centrifuges, etc. Clay, sand [18], [19] Hydrometer method Standard hydrometer, electric stirrer, etc. Silty clay, silt clay loam, sandy clay [18], [20], [21] Laser-diffraction techniques Laser diffraction particle-size analyzer Clay, silty clay, silty clay loam, clay loam, sandy clay loam, silt loam [18], [22] X-ray attenuation SediGraph Silt loam [18], [23] Particle counting Electrical sensing zone (ESZ) instrument Silt loam, silt clay loam, clay loam [18], [24]
Sep, 2016 - 13 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory  Definition [1] • Based on particle size distribution curve  Typical Measurement Methods • The same as that for average grain size  Typical Measuring Instruments • The same as that for average grain size Coefficient of Uniformity 60 10 60 10 : Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 60% : Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 10% c D U D D D  A sample particle size distribution curve [17]
Sep, 2016 - 14 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Coefficient of Uniformity Coefficient of Uniformity If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Yes 60 10 60 10 : Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 60% : Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 10% c D U D D D  Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Soil Type References The same as that for Average Grain Size The same as that for Average Grain Size The same as that for Average Grain Size The same as that for Average Grain Size
Sep, 2016 - 15 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Empirical Models Model Name If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Expression/Definition References Mobility Index for tracked vehicle No contact pressure factor weight factor Mobility Index = bogie factor -clearance factor track factor grouser factor engine factor transmission factor         [2] Vehicle Cone index of tracked vehicle for one pass Yes 1 39.2 VCI 7.0 0.2MI ( ) MI 5.6     [2] Vehicle Cone index of tracked vehicle for 50 pass Yes 50 125.79 VCI 19.27 0.43MI ( ) MI 7.08     [2] Soil-tire Numeric No 1/2 3/2 CI 1 1 ( / 2 ) ( ) CI c s cs bd N W h b d G bd N W h bd N W                [2]
Sep, 2016 - 16 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Empirical Models Parameter Name If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Expression/Definition References Cone index (CI) Yes Penetration resistance force per unit base area for static penetrometer [1], [2], [26] Remolding index (RI): Yes The ratio of the cone index of a soil after remolding to that before remolding [1] Rating cone index (RCI): Yes RCI RI CI  [1] Penetration resistance (pressure) No Penetration resistance force per unit base area [28] Penetration resistance (force) No The force applied to the penetrometer by the soil causing the penetrometer to decelerate from its initial velocity to zero velocity for hammer type dynamic penetrometer [26] Ramm pressure No ( ) /Ramm Whn p W Q A z    [25]  Typical Testing Methods • Penetration test  Cone penetrometer  Empirical Parameters Determined • Cone Index (CI) • Remolding Index (RI) • Rating Cone Index (RCI) US Army Corps of Engineers Cone Penetrometer
Sep, 2016 - 17 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Empirical Models Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Parameter Determined Soil Type References Penetration test Rammsonde cone penetrometer Ramm pressure Snow [25] Penetration test Dynamic cone penetrometer Penetration resistance (force) Clay loam [26] Penetration test Cone penetrometer Penetration resistance (pressure) All types [27] Penetration test Penetrometer –shearometer Penetration resistance (epressure) Sandy clay loam [28] Penetration test Cone penetrometer CI Sandy loam [29] Penetration test Vane-cone penetrometer CI Snow [30]
Sep, 2016 - 18 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Compressive Stress Model Name If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Expression/Definition References Reece’s model No , n r r c z p k k ck k b b          [31] Bernstein’s model No n p kz [31] Bekker’s model Yes ,n ck p kz k k b    [1] N2M model No 0 1 1 1 expm m m m m m C s s z p z B B C B                  [34] Wong’s model for muskeg No 2 4 /m hp kz m z D  [35] Repetitive loading model No ( ), +u u u u o u up p k z z k k A z    [35]
Sep, 2016 - 19 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Compressive Stress Sinkage plate of three shapes and sizes [38] Tractor-mounted Bevameter [38]  Typical Testing Methods • Bevameter test  Selection of plate size or plate shape is based on the tire and track to be simulated.  Theoretical Parameters Determined • Bekker’s pressure-sinkage parameters, 𝑛, 𝑘 𝑐 and 𝑘∅ • Reece’s pressure-sinkage parameters, 𝑛, 𝑘′ 𝑐 and 𝑘′∅ • Unloading or reloading function parameters, 𝑘 𝑜 and 𝐴 𝑢
Sep, 2016 - 20 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Compressive Stress Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Parameter Determined Soil Type References Sinkage test Penetration-shear device, combined [1], sinkage plates Parameters of Reece’s model, n , rk ; parameters of Bernstein’s model, n , k Loam [31] Penetration test Rammsonde cone, bevameter, Rammsonde cone on bevameter Parameters of Bekker’s model, n , k , k , ck Snow [25] Sinkage test PNFI Bcvameter N/A N/A [32] Sinkage test Portable soil plate penetrometer N/A Loam [33] Sinkage test Grenoble Sinkage equipment with circular plate powered by hydraulic ram Parameters of N2M model, m , mC , ms , and 0s Silty sand, sand, silt [34]
Sep, 2016 - 21 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Compressive Stress Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Parameter Determined Soil Type References Sinkage test Vehicle-mounted bevameter, portable automatic data-processing system Parameters of Wong’s model for muskeg, k and mm ; Parameters of repetitive loading model, uk , ok and uA Muskeg [35] Sinkage test Bevameter Parameters of Bekker’s model, n , k , ck Sand, silt [36] Sinkage test Tractor-mounted bevameter Parameters of Bekker’s model, n , k , ck Loam [38]
Sep, 2016 - 22 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress  Shear Stress and Deformation Models • Mohr-coulomb criterion • Shear stress-shear displacement relationship  Typical Testing Methods • Direct shear test • Tri-axial compression test • Unconfined compression test • Vane shear test • Bevameter test
Sep, 2016 - 23 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress Shear Model Name If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Expression/Definition Soil type References Mohr-Coulomb Criterion Yes tanc    All types assuming soil as plastic medium [1] Janosi-Hanomoto model for shear stress-shear displacement profile without a hump No / ( tan )(1 e )j K c       Loose sand, saturated clay, dry fresh snow, and most of the disturbed soils. [2] Wong’s model for shear stress-shear displacement profile with a hump No (1 / ) ( tan )( / )e wj K wc j K      Organic terrain (muskeg) with a mat of living vegetation on the surface and saturated peat beneath [2] Wong’s model for shear stress-shear displacement profile with a hump No   (1 / ) ( / ) ( tan ) [1 1/ ( (1 1/ )) 1 e ] 1 ew w r r j K j K c K K e             Compact sand, silt and loam, and frozen snow [2]
Sep, 2016 - 24 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress  Direct Shear Test • In-situ & laboratory test • Shearing speed between 0.05~2mm/min • Small shearing speed and shear displacement in comparison to that with vehicles  Parameters Determined • Cohesion, 𝑐 • Angle of friction, 𝜑 • Shear deformation modulus, 𝐾 Schematic of a direct shear box apparatus [56]
Sep, 2016 - 25 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress  Tri-axial Compression Test • Laboratory test • Three test regimes: consolidated undrained (CU), consolidated drained (CD), and unconsolidated undrained (UU) • Not applicable to soft cohesive soil that will fail under its own weight  Parameters Determined • Cohesion, 𝑐 • Angle of soil friction, 𝜑 Schematic of triaxial compression test apparatus. [57] Theoretical Models - Shear Stress
Sep, 2016 - 26 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress  Unconfined Compression Test • Laboratory test • Undrained test • A special case of the tri-axial compression test, with later or confining pressure being zero • Aimed at fully saturated soil with zero angle of soil friction, e.g. Clay soil  Parameters Determined • Cohesion, 𝑐 Unconfined compression load frame / test system, Geocomp
Sep, 2016 - 27 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress  Vane Shear Test • In-situ & laboratory test • Aimed at undrained, saturated clay. • Not suitable for the cases where the shear strengths in the horizontal and vertical directions are hugely different.  Parameters Determined • Cohesion, 𝑐 Schematic of a shear vane. [17]
Sep, 2016 - 28 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Test and Parameters Determined  Bevameter Test • In-situ test • Torsional/translational shear test • Selection of the size of shear annulus, grouser number and grouser height depends on the size and grouser feature of the track to be simulated  Parameters Determined Schematic of a bevameter [37] 𝑐 𝜑 𝐾 𝐾 𝑤 𝐾𝑟 Cohesion Angle of soil friction Shear deformation modulus The shear displacement where the peak shear stress occurs The ratio of the residual stress to the peak shear stress
Sep, 2016 - 29 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Parameter Determined Soil Type References Direct shear test Modified direct shear box Friction angle,  Sand [39], [40] Direct shear test Modified direct shear apparatus Cohesion, c , and friction angle,  Clay loam [6], [41], [44] Direct shear test Direct shear testing machine Shear deformation modulus, K Loam [42] Direct shear test Direct shear box Cohesion, c , friction angle,  , and shear deformation modulus, K Mojave Martian Simulant (MMS) [43] Triaxial test Triaxial test apparatus. Friction angle,  Sand [45], [47] Triaxial test Triaxial test apparatus. Cohesion, c , and friction angle,  Clay [45], [46], [47] Unconfined compression test Unconfined compression test apparatus. Cohesion, c Clay [49], [50], [51]
Sep, 2016 - 30 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Parameter Determined Soil Type References Vane shear test Miniature vane shear Cohesion, c Clay [52] Vane shear test Shear vane Cohesion, c Sandy clay, loam, clay, sandy loam [53] Vane shear test Shear vane Cohesion, c Clay loam, clay, silt clay loam [54] Torsional shear test Bevameter Cohesion, c , friction angle,  , and shear deformation modulus, K Loam [55] Torsional shear test Bevameter, grouser Cohesion, c , and friction angle,  Sand, silt [36] Translational shear test Penetration-shear device, combined [1], grouser plates Cohesion, c , friction angle,  , and shear deformation modulus, K Loam [31]
Sep, 2016 - 31 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Closing Remarks  Thanks to ISTVS for providing the opportunity to conduct this joint research  The study is still in the early stages and the process of gathering information is ongoing  We are soliciting input from the community regarding test equipment and soil data Future Work  Task 2. Compile a list of resources (equipment, facilities, capabilities, and expertise available within the community)  Prepare a full report/conference/journal review paper with findings
Sep, 2016 - 32 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory References 1. "International society for terrain-vehicle systems standards." Journal of Terramechanics, vol. 14, no. 3, 1977., pp. 153- 182.doi:10.1016/0022-4898(77)90013-1. 2. Wong, J. Y. Theory of ground vehicles, Wiley, Hoboken, N.J, 2008. 3. Meek BD, Rechel ER, Carter LM, DeTar WR. Bulk density of a sandy loam: traffic, tillage, and irrigation-method effects. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 1992;56(2):562-5. 4. Rawitz, E., H. Etkin, and A. Hazan. "Calibration and field testing of a two-probe gamma gauge." Soil Science Society of America Journal 46.3 (1982): 461-465. 5. Scott, Charles Robin. An introduction to soil mechanics and foundations. Springer, 2013. 6. Keller, Thomas, et al. "Measuring the Dynamic Soil Response During Repeated Wheeling Using Seismic Methods." Vadose Zone Journal 12.3 (2013). 7. Hanson, Blaine. "Field Estimation of Soil Water Content: A Practical Guide to Methods, Instrumentation and Sensor Technology." Vadose Zone Journal 8.3 (2009): 628-628. 8. Roth, K., R. Schulin, H. Flühler, and W. Attinger (1990), Calibration of time domain reflectometry for water content measurement using a composite dielectric approach, Water Resour. Res., 26(10), 2267–2273, doi:10.1029/WR026i010p02267. 9. Weimer, Frank. "A Method of Measuring Earth Resistivity." US Bur. Standards Sei. Paper 258 (1916). 10. Evett, Steven, et al. "Neutron scattering, capacitance, and TDR soil water content measurements compared on four continents." 17th World Congress of Soil Science. 2002. 11. Young, Michael H., Gaylon Sanford Campbell, and Jun Yin. "Correcting dual-probe heat-pulse readings for changes in ambient temperature." Vadose Zone Journal 7.1 (2008): 22-30. 12. Adamo, Francesco, et al. "An acoustic method for soil moisture measurement." IEEE transactions on instrumentation and measurement 53.4 (2004): 891-898.
Sep, 2016 - 33 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory References 13. Blake, G. R., and K. H. Hartge. "Particle density." Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 1—Physical and Mineralogical Methods methodsofsoilan1 (1986): 377-382. 14. ASTM D5550-14, Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Gas Pycnometer, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014, www.astm.org 15. Webb, Paul A. "Volume and density determinations for particle technologists." Micromeritics Instrument Corp 2.16 (2001): 01. 16. Arnepalli, D. N., et al. "Comparison of methods for determining specific-surface area of fine-grained soils." Geotechnical and Geological Engineering 26.2 (2008): 121-132. 17. Muro, Tatsuro, and Jonathan O'Brien. Terramechanics: land locomotion mechanics. CRC Press, 2006. 18. Gee, Glendon W., and Dani Or. "2.4 Particle-size analysis." Methods of soil analysis. Part 4 (2002): 255-293. 19. Beuselinck, Laurent, et al. "Grain-size analysis by laser diffractometry: comparison with the sieve-pipette method." Catena 32.3 (1998): 193-208. 20. ASTM D422-63(2007)e2, Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils (Withdrawn 2016), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2007, www.astm.org 21. Aydin, Adnan, Baoping Wen, and Nurdan S. Duzgoren-Aydin. "A comparative study of particle size analyses by sieve- hydrometer and laser diffraction methods." (2002): 1-9. 22. Eshel, G., et al. "Critical evaluation of the use of laser diffraction for particle-size distribution analysis." Soil Science Society of America Journal 68.3 (2004): 736-743. 23. Coates, Glen F., and Carol A. Hulse. "A comparison of four methods of size analysis of fine-grained sediments." New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 28.2 (1985): 369-380. 24. Grout, Hélène, Ana M. Tarquis, and Mark R. Wiesner. "Multifractal analysis of particle size distributions in soil." Environmental science & technology 32.9 (1998): 1176-1182. 25. Wong, J. Y., and G. J. Irwin. "Measurement and characterization of the pressure-sinkage data for snow obtained using a Rammsonde." Journal of terramechanics 29.2 (1992): 265-280.
Sep, 2016 - 34 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory References 26. Herrick, Jeffrey E., and Tim L. Jones. "A dynamic cone penetrometer for measuring soil penetration resistance." Soil Science Society of America Journal 66.4 (2002): 1320-1324. 27. Dexter, A. R., E. A. Czyż, and O. P. Gaţe. "A method for prediction of soil penetration resistance." Soil and Tillage Research 93.2 (2007): 412-419. 28. Boon, N. E., et al. "A tractor-mounted, automated soil penetrometer–shearometer unit for mapping soil mechanical properties." Biosystems engineering 90.4 (2005): 381-396. 29. Wiermann, C., et al. "Effect of various dynamic loads on stress and strain behavior of a Norfolk sandy loam." Soil and Tillage Research 50.2 (1999): 127-135. 30. Irwin, Gerald J. The Development of Snow Properties and Its Effect on Trafficability. No. DREO-TN-80-8. DEFENCE RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT OTTAWA (ONTARIO), 1980. 31. Upadhyaya, S. K., D. Wulfsohn, and J. Mehlschau. "An instrumented device to obtain traction related parameters." Journal of Terramechanics, vol. 30, no. 1, 1993., pp. 1-20.doi:10.1016/0022-4898(93)90027-U. 32. Golob, T. B. "Development of a terrain strength measuring system." Journal of Terramechanics 18.2 (1981): 109-118. 33. Dawidowski, J. B., J. E. Morrison Jr, and M. Snieg. "Measurement of soil layer strength with plate sinkage and uniaxial confined methods." Transactions of the ASAE 44.5 (2001): 1059. 34. Gotteland, Ph, and O. Benoit. "Sinkage tests for mobility study, modelling and experimental validation." Journal of terramechanics 43.4 (2006): 451-467. 35. Wong, J. Y., J. R. Radforth, and J. Preston-Thomas. "Some further studies on the mechanical properties of muskeg in relation to vehicle mobility." Journal of Terramechanics 19.2 (1982): 107-127. 36. Apfelbeck, Maximilian, et al. "A systematic approach to reliably characterize soils based on Bevameter testing." Journal of Terramechanics 48.5 (2011): 360-371. 37. Bekker, Mieczyslaw Gregory. "Introduction to terrain-vehicle systems." (1969). 38. Massah, Jafar, and Sara Noorolahi. "Design, development and performance evaluation of a tractor-mounted bevameter." Soil and Tillage Research 110.1 (2010): 161-166. 39. Lutenegger, Alan J., and Amy B. Cerato. "Specimen size and scale effects of direct shear box tests of sands." (2006): 1- 10.
Sep, 2016 - 35 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory References 40. Guo, Peijun. "Modified direct shear test for anisotropic strength of sand." Journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering 134.9 (2008): 1311-1318. 41. Gan, J. K. M., D. G. Fredlund, and H_ Rahardjo. "Determination of the shear strength parameters of an unsaturated soil using the direct shear test." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 25.3 (1988): 500-510. 42. Godbole, Ravi, Ralph Alcock, and Daniel Hettiaratchi. "The prediction of tractive performance on soil surfaces." Journal of Terramechanics 30.6 (1993): 443-459. 43. Smith, William Clarke. Modeling of Wheel-Soil Interaction for Small Ground Vehicles Operating on Granular Soil. Diss. US Army, 2014. 44. Godbole, Ravi, Ralph Alcock, and Daniel Hettiaratchi. "The prediction of tractive performance on soil surfaces." Journal of Terramechanics 30.6 (1993): 443-459. 45. Baker, R. "Nonlinear Mohr envelopes based on triaxial data." Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 130.5 (2004): 498-506. 46. Rahardjo, Harianto, Ong Boo Heng, and Leong Eng Choon. "Shear strength of a compacted residual soil from consolidated drained and constant water content triaxial tests." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 41.3 (2004): 421-436. 47. Peterson, Richard W. "Interpretation of triaxial compression test results on partially saturated soils." Advanced Triaxial Testing of Soil and Rock. ASTM International, 1988. 48. Wang, Qiong, and Poul V. Lade. "Shear banding in true triaxial tests and its effect on failure in sand." Journal of Engineering Mechanics 127.8 (2001): 754-761. 49. Kamei, Takeshi, and Kimitoshi Iwasaki. "Evaluation of Undrained Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils Using a Flat Dilatometer." SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS Vol. 35, No. 2, 111-116, Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, June 1995.
Sep, 2016 - 36 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory References 50. Sun, De'an, et al. "Development of a new in-situ direct shear test." (2001): 92-102. 51. Schmid, Werner E. The determination of soil properties in situ by an impact penetrometer. No. SCIENTIFIC-1. PRINCETON UNIV NJ DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, 1966. 52. Bolton, M. D., M. W. Gui, and R. Phillips. "Review of miniature soil probes for model tests." Proceedings of the 11th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference. South East Asian Geotechnical Society, 1993. 53. Okello, A. "A review of soil strength measurement techniques for prediction of terrain vehicle performance." Journal of agricultural engineering research 50 (1991): 129-155. 54. Sridharan, A., and K. Prakash. "Mechanisms controlling the undrained shear strength behaviour of clays." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 36.6 (1999): 1030-1038. 55. Park, W. Y., et al. "Prediction of the tractive performance of a flexible tracked vehicle." Journal of Terramechanics 45.1 (2008): 13-23. 56. Wijeyesekera, Devapriya Chitral, Alvin John Lim Meng Siang, and Ahmad Shukri Bin Yahaya. "Advanced Statistical Analysis for Relationships between Particle Morphology (Size and Shape) and Shear (Static and Dynamic) Characteristics of Sands." International Journal of Geosciences 4.10 (2013):

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ISTVS Research Grants Program 1st Award Progress Presentation

  • 1.
    Sep, 2016 -1 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory A Technical Survey on Equipment and Techniques for Testing and Parametrization of Soft Soil for Vehicular Applications Virginia Tech: Mr. Rui He, Prof. Corina Sandu University of Pretoria: Mr. Glenn Guthrie, Prof. Schalk Els 8th American Regional conference of ISTVS, Troy, MI, USA
  • 2.
    Sep, 2016 -2 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Context  Work funded by the first ISTVS research grant “Systematic Testing and Parameterization of Soft Soil for Vehicular Applications”, co-PIs Corina Sandu, Virginia Tech and Schalk Els, University of Pretoria  Work Goals • Task 1: Perform literature survey for equipment and techniques used to characterize soft soil (year 1: 2015-2016) • Task 2: Compile a list of resources (equipment, facilities, capabilities, and expertise available within the community (year 2: 2016-2017) • Task 3: Build a soil properties database from literature and any other source available to serve the ISTVS community (year 3: 2017-2018) • Task 4: Propose additions and changes for the ISTVS standards for testing and parameterization of soft soil (2018)
  • 3.
    Sep, 2016 -3 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Context  Work on-going for Task 1. Currently performing comprehensive literature survey to find research and soil data that is already available in the literature.  Data is being systematically collected, analyzed, and the relevant information fed into tables and databases.  Longer document with research work will be made available to the ISTVS community; illustrative examples of on-going work are presented today
  • 4.
    Sep, 2016 -4 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Approach and Content for Task 1  Soil properties and testing • Determine common physical soil properties and corresponding measurement techniques • Summarize empirical models to assess vehicle mobility, parameters required and corresponding measurement techniques • Theoretical model parameters and corresponding measurement techniques  Compressive stress and deformation  Shear stress and deformation  For each item: • Brief description (if available from current ISTVS standards) • Table containing information gathered from the literature • References
  • 5.
    Sep, 2016 -5 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory  Definition • ISTVS 1977 standard [1]  Typical Measuring Instruments • Bulk density soil sampling kit • High accuracy scale Physical Properties Bulk Density Bulk density soil sampling kit, AMS / : the mass of the sample after it has been dried to constant weight : volume of the sample d s s W V W V   Unit volume of soil divided into its components
  • 6.
    Sep, 2016 -6 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Physical Properties Bulk Density Table Bulk density (Dry density) If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Yes /d sW V  Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Soil Type References Gamma attenuation method Two-probe density gauge Sandy loam [3] Gamma attenuation method Two-probe density gauge Sand, loamy sand, sandy loam [4] Direct measurement Core sampler Sandy loam, sand, Loamy sand [4] Direct measurement Core sampler Clay loam [6] Sand replacement method Sand pouring cylinder Sand [5]
  • 7.
    Sep, 2016 -7 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Water Content  Definition • ISTVS 1977 standards [1]  Typical Measurement Methods • Thermogravimetric measurement (reference method)  Measure the weight of a wet sample before and after oven drying at 105℃ for 24 h.  Provide calibration of other soil water content sensors.  Typical Measuring Instruments • High accuracy scale 100 : mass of water present in the sample : mass of sample after it has been dried to constant weight w s w s W w W W W  
  • 8.
    Sep, 2016 -8 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Water Content Water Content (Moisture Content) If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Yes 100w s W w W   Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Soil Type References Thermogravimetric measurement High accuracy scale All types [7] Dielectric measurement Dielectric sensor All types [8] Resistivity measurement Electrode N/A [9] Neutron scattering technique Soil moisture neutron probe Sand, silt loam, silty clay loam, sandy loam, clay loam, clay [10] Measurement of soil thermal properties Temperature sensors, heated needle, heat-pulse sensors Sandy loam, sand [11] Acoustic wave methods Transmitter Sandy clay loam, loam, silt loam, silt, silty clay, sandy clay, clay loam, silty clay loam, clay [12]
  • 9.
    Sep, 2016 -9 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory  Definition [13]:  Typical Measuring Instruments • Pycnometer • Digital weighing scale  Typical Measurement Methods • Pycnometer method (ASTM, 1958, p. 80; u.S. Dep. Agric., 1954, p. 122) Specific Gravity Specific gravity sample and pycnometer [( ) ( )] : weight of pycnometer plus soil sample corrected to oven-dry water content : weight of pycnometer filled with air : weight of pycnometer filled with soil and water : weig s a s s a sw w s a sw w W W G W W W W W W W W      ht of pycnometer filled with water at temperature observed
  • 10.
    Sep, 2016 -10 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Specific Gravity Specific Gravity If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No No [( ) ( )] : weight of pycnometer plus soil sample corrected to oven-dry water content : weight of pycnometer filled with air : weight of pycnometer filled with soil and water : weig s a s s a sw w s a sw w W W G W W W W W W W W      ht of pycnometer filled with water at temperature observed [13] Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Soil Type References Pycnometer method Pycnometer Clay [5], [14], [15] Pycnometer method Pycnometer Pycnometer method Ultra-Pycnometer Loam, clay loam, clay, silty clay, clay, [16]
  • 11.
    Sep, 2016 -11 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory  Definition [17] • Based on particle size distribution curve  Typical Measurement Methods • Sieving • Pipette • Hydrometer  Typical Measuring Instruments • Drying trays, wooden rolling pin, etc. • Beakers, centrifuges, etc. • Standard hydrometer, electric stirrer, etc. Average Grain Size Schematic diagram of ASTM 152 H-type hydrometer [18] 50 :Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 50%D
  • 12.
    Sep, 2016 -12 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Average Grain Size Average Grain Size If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No No 50 :Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 50% [17] D Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Soil Type References Pipette method Beakers, centrifuges, etc. Clay, sand [18], [19] Hydrometer method Standard hydrometer, electric stirrer, etc. Silty clay, silt clay loam, sandy clay [18], [20], [21] Laser-diffraction techniques Laser diffraction particle-size analyzer Clay, silty clay, silty clay loam, clay loam, sandy clay loam, silt loam [18], [22] X-ray attenuation SediGraph Silt loam [18], [23] Particle counting Electrical sensing zone (ESZ) instrument Silt loam, silt clay loam, clay loam [18], [24]
  • 13.
    Sep, 2016 -13 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory  Definition [1] • Based on particle size distribution curve  Typical Measurement Methods • The same as that for average grain size  Typical Measuring Instruments • The same as that for average grain size Coefficient of Uniformity 60 10 60 10 : Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 60% : Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 10% c D U D D D  A sample particle size distribution curve [17]
  • 14.
    Sep, 2016 -14 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Coefficient of Uniformity Coefficient of Uniformity If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Yes 60 10 60 10 : Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 60% : Diameters of the soil particles that have a percentage finer by weight of 10% c D U D D D  Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Soil Type References The same as that for Average Grain Size The same as that for Average Grain Size The same as that for Average Grain Size The same as that for Average Grain Size
  • 15.
    Sep, 2016 -15 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Empirical Models Model Name If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Expression/Definition References Mobility Index for tracked vehicle No contact pressure factor weight factor Mobility Index = bogie factor -clearance factor track factor grouser factor engine factor transmission factor         [2] Vehicle Cone index of tracked vehicle for one pass Yes 1 39.2 VCI 7.0 0.2MI ( ) MI 5.6     [2] Vehicle Cone index of tracked vehicle for 50 pass Yes 50 125.79 VCI 19.27 0.43MI ( ) MI 7.08     [2] Soil-tire Numeric No 1/2 3/2 CI 1 1 ( / 2 ) ( ) CI c s cs bd N W h b d G bd N W h bd N W                [2]
  • 16.
    Sep, 2016 -16 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Empirical Models Parameter Name If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Expression/Definition References Cone index (CI) Yes Penetration resistance force per unit base area for static penetrometer [1], [2], [26] Remolding index (RI): Yes The ratio of the cone index of a soil after remolding to that before remolding [1] Rating cone index (RCI): Yes RCI RI CI  [1] Penetration resistance (pressure) No Penetration resistance force per unit base area [28] Penetration resistance (force) No The force applied to the penetrometer by the soil causing the penetrometer to decelerate from its initial velocity to zero velocity for hammer type dynamic penetrometer [26] Ramm pressure No ( ) /Ramm Whn p W Q A z    [25]  Typical Testing Methods • Penetration test  Cone penetrometer  Empirical Parameters Determined • Cone Index (CI) • Remolding Index (RI) • Rating Cone Index (RCI) US Army Corps of Engineers Cone Penetrometer
  • 17.
    Sep, 2016 -17 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Empirical Models Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Parameter Determined Soil Type References Penetration test Rammsonde cone penetrometer Ramm pressure Snow [25] Penetration test Dynamic cone penetrometer Penetration resistance (force) Clay loam [26] Penetration test Cone penetrometer Penetration resistance (pressure) All types [27] Penetration test Penetrometer –shearometer Penetration resistance (epressure) Sandy clay loam [28] Penetration test Cone penetrometer CI Sandy loam [29] Penetration test Vane-cone penetrometer CI Snow [30]
  • 18.
    Sep, 2016 -18 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Compressive Stress Model Name If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Expression/Definition References Reece’s model No , n r r c z p k k ck k b b          [31] Bernstein’s model No n p kz [31] Bekker’s model Yes ,n ck p kz k k b    [1] N2M model No 0 1 1 1 expm m m m m m C s s z p z B B C B                  [34] Wong’s model for muskeg No 2 4 /m hp kz m z D  [35] Repetitive loading model No ( ), +u u u u o u up p k z z k k A z    [35]
  • 19.
    Sep, 2016 -19 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Compressive Stress Sinkage plate of three shapes and sizes [38] Tractor-mounted Bevameter [38]  Typical Testing Methods • Bevameter test  Selection of plate size or plate shape is based on the tire and track to be simulated.  Theoretical Parameters Determined • Bekker’s pressure-sinkage parameters, 𝑛, 𝑘 𝑐 and 𝑘∅ • Reece’s pressure-sinkage parameters, 𝑛, 𝑘′ 𝑐 and 𝑘′∅ • Unloading or reloading function parameters, 𝑘 𝑜 and 𝐴 𝑢
  • 20.
    Sep, 2016 -20 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Compressive Stress Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Parameter Determined Soil Type References Sinkage test Penetration-shear device, combined [1], sinkage plates Parameters of Reece’s model, n , rk ; parameters of Bernstein’s model, n , k Loam [31] Penetration test Rammsonde cone, bevameter, Rammsonde cone on bevameter Parameters of Bekker’s model, n , k , k , ck Snow [25] Sinkage test PNFI Bcvameter N/A N/A [32] Sinkage test Portable soil plate penetrometer N/A Loam [33] Sinkage test Grenoble Sinkage equipment with circular plate powered by hydraulic ram Parameters of N2M model, m , mC , ms , and 0s Silty sand, sand, silt [34]
  • 21.
    Sep, 2016 -21 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Compressive Stress Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Parameter Determined Soil Type References Sinkage test Vehicle-mounted bevameter, portable automatic data-processing system Parameters of Wong’s model for muskeg, k and mm ; Parameters of repetitive loading model, uk , ok and uA Muskeg [35] Sinkage test Bevameter Parameters of Bekker’s model, n , k , ck Sand, silt [36] Sinkage test Tractor-mounted bevameter Parameters of Bekker’s model, n , k , ck Loam [38]
  • 22.
    Sep, 2016 -22 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress  Shear Stress and Deformation Models • Mohr-coulomb criterion • Shear stress-shear displacement relationship  Typical Testing Methods • Direct shear test • Tri-axial compression test • Unconfined compression test • Vane shear test • Bevameter test
  • 23.
    Sep, 2016 -23 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress Shear Model Name If defined in 1977 ISTVS standard Yes/No Expression/Definition Soil type References Mohr-Coulomb Criterion Yes tanc    All types assuming soil as plastic medium [1] Janosi-Hanomoto model for shear stress-shear displacement profile without a hump No / ( tan )(1 e )j K c       Loose sand, saturated clay, dry fresh snow, and most of the disturbed soils. [2] Wong’s model for shear stress-shear displacement profile with a hump No (1 / ) ( tan )( / )e wj K wc j K      Organic terrain (muskeg) with a mat of living vegetation on the surface and saturated peat beneath [2] Wong’s model for shear stress-shear displacement profile with a hump No   (1 / ) ( / ) ( tan ) [1 1/ ( (1 1/ )) 1 e ] 1 ew w r r j K j K c K K e             Compact sand, silt and loam, and frozen snow [2]
  • 24.
    Sep, 2016 -24 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress  Direct Shear Test • In-situ & laboratory test • Shearing speed between 0.05~2mm/min • Small shearing speed and shear displacement in comparison to that with vehicles  Parameters Determined • Cohesion, 𝑐 • Angle of friction, 𝜑 • Shear deformation modulus, 𝐾 Schematic of a direct shear box apparatus [56]
  • 25.
    Sep, 2016 -25 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress  Tri-axial Compression Test • Laboratory test • Three test regimes: consolidated undrained (CU), consolidated drained (CD), and unconsolidated undrained (UU) • Not applicable to soft cohesive soil that will fail under its own weight  Parameters Determined • Cohesion, 𝑐 • Angle of soil friction, 𝜑 Schematic of triaxial compression test apparatus. [57] Theoretical Models - Shear Stress
  • 26.
    Sep, 2016 -26 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress  Unconfined Compression Test • Laboratory test • Undrained test • A special case of the tri-axial compression test, with later or confining pressure being zero • Aimed at fully saturated soil with zero angle of soil friction, e.g. Clay soil  Parameters Determined • Cohesion, 𝑐 Unconfined compression load frame / test system, Geocomp
  • 27.
    Sep, 2016 -27 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress  Vane Shear Test • In-situ & laboratory test • Aimed at undrained, saturated clay. • Not suitable for the cases where the shear strengths in the horizontal and vertical directions are hugely different.  Parameters Determined • Cohesion, 𝑐 Schematic of a shear vane. [17]
  • 28.
    Sep, 2016 -28 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Test and Parameters Determined  Bevameter Test • In-situ test • Torsional/translational shear test • Selection of the size of shear annulus, grouser number and grouser height depends on the size and grouser feature of the track to be simulated  Parameters Determined Schematic of a bevameter [37] 𝑐 𝜑 𝐾 𝐾 𝑤 𝐾𝑟 Cohesion Angle of soil friction Shear deformation modulus The shear displacement where the peak shear stress occurs The ratio of the residual stress to the peak shear stress
  • 29.
    Sep, 2016 -29 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Parameter Determined Soil Type References Direct shear test Modified direct shear box Friction angle,  Sand [39], [40] Direct shear test Modified direct shear apparatus Cohesion, c , and friction angle,  Clay loam [6], [41], [44] Direct shear test Direct shear testing machine Shear deformation modulus, K Loam [42] Direct shear test Direct shear box Cohesion, c , friction angle,  , and shear deformation modulus, K Mojave Martian Simulant (MMS) [43] Triaxial test Triaxial test apparatus. Friction angle,  Sand [45], [47] Triaxial test Triaxial test apparatus. Cohesion, c , and friction angle,  Clay [45], [46], [47] Unconfined compression test Unconfined compression test apparatus. Cohesion, c Clay [49], [50], [51]
  • 30.
    Sep, 2016 -30 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Theoretical Models - Shear Stress Experimental Methodology Measuring Instruments Parameter Determined Soil Type References Vane shear test Miniature vane shear Cohesion, c Clay [52] Vane shear test Shear vane Cohesion, c Sandy clay, loam, clay, sandy loam [53] Vane shear test Shear vane Cohesion, c Clay loam, clay, silt clay loam [54] Torsional shear test Bevameter Cohesion, c , friction angle,  , and shear deformation modulus, K Loam [55] Torsional shear test Bevameter, grouser Cohesion, c , and friction angle,  Sand, silt [36] Translational shear test Penetration-shear device, combined [1], grouser plates Cohesion, c , friction angle,  , and shear deformation modulus, K Loam [31]
  • 31.
    Sep, 2016 -31 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory Closing Remarks  Thanks to ISTVS for providing the opportunity to conduct this joint research  The study is still in the early stages and the process of gathering information is ongoing  We are soliciting input from the community regarding test equipment and soil data Future Work  Task 2. Compile a list of resources (equipment, facilities, capabilities, and expertise available within the community)  Prepare a full report/conference/journal review paper with findings
  • 32.
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    Sep, 2016 -34 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory References 26. Herrick, Jeffrey E., and Tim L. Jones. "A dynamic cone penetrometer for measuring soil penetration resistance." Soil Science Society of America Journal 66.4 (2002): 1320-1324. 27. Dexter, A. R., E. A. Czyż, and O. P. Gaţe. "A method for prediction of soil penetration resistance." Soil and Tillage Research 93.2 (2007): 412-419. 28. Boon, N. E., et al. "A tractor-mounted, automated soil penetrometer–shearometer unit for mapping soil mechanical properties." Biosystems engineering 90.4 (2005): 381-396. 29. Wiermann, C., et al. "Effect of various dynamic loads on stress and strain behavior of a Norfolk sandy loam." Soil and Tillage Research 50.2 (1999): 127-135. 30. Irwin, Gerald J. The Development of Snow Properties and Its Effect on Trafficability. No. DREO-TN-80-8. DEFENCE RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT OTTAWA (ONTARIO), 1980. 31. Upadhyaya, S. K., D. Wulfsohn, and J. Mehlschau. "An instrumented device to obtain traction related parameters." Journal of Terramechanics, vol. 30, no. 1, 1993., pp. 1-20.doi:10.1016/0022-4898(93)90027-U. 32. Golob, T. B. "Development of a terrain strength measuring system." Journal of Terramechanics 18.2 (1981): 109-118. 33. Dawidowski, J. B., J. E. Morrison Jr, and M. Snieg. "Measurement of soil layer strength with plate sinkage and uniaxial confined methods." Transactions of the ASAE 44.5 (2001): 1059. 34. Gotteland, Ph, and O. Benoit. "Sinkage tests for mobility study, modelling and experimental validation." Journal of terramechanics 43.4 (2006): 451-467. 35. Wong, J. Y., J. R. Radforth, and J. Preston-Thomas. "Some further studies on the mechanical properties of muskeg in relation to vehicle mobility." Journal of Terramechanics 19.2 (1982): 107-127. 36. Apfelbeck, Maximilian, et al. "A systematic approach to reliably characterize soils based on Bevameter testing." Journal of Terramechanics 48.5 (2011): 360-371. 37. Bekker, Mieczyslaw Gregory. "Introduction to terrain-vehicle systems." (1969). 38. Massah, Jafar, and Sara Noorolahi. "Design, development and performance evaluation of a tractor-mounted bevameter." Soil and Tillage Research 110.1 (2010): 161-166. 39. Lutenegger, Alan J., and Amy B. Cerato. "Specimen size and scale effects of direct shear box tests of sands." (2006): 1- 10.
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    Sep, 2016 -35 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory References 40. Guo, Peijun. "Modified direct shear test for anisotropic strength of sand." Journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering 134.9 (2008): 1311-1318. 41. Gan, J. K. M., D. G. Fredlund, and H_ Rahardjo. "Determination of the shear strength parameters of an unsaturated soil using the direct shear test." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 25.3 (1988): 500-510. 42. Godbole, Ravi, Ralph Alcock, and Daniel Hettiaratchi. "The prediction of tractive performance on soil surfaces." Journal of Terramechanics 30.6 (1993): 443-459. 43. Smith, William Clarke. Modeling of Wheel-Soil Interaction for Small Ground Vehicles Operating on Granular Soil. Diss. US Army, 2014. 44. Godbole, Ravi, Ralph Alcock, and Daniel Hettiaratchi. "The prediction of tractive performance on soil surfaces." Journal of Terramechanics 30.6 (1993): 443-459. 45. Baker, R. "Nonlinear Mohr envelopes based on triaxial data." Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 130.5 (2004): 498-506. 46. Rahardjo, Harianto, Ong Boo Heng, and Leong Eng Choon. "Shear strength of a compacted residual soil from consolidated drained and constant water content triaxial tests." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 41.3 (2004): 421-436. 47. Peterson, Richard W. "Interpretation of triaxial compression test results on partially saturated soils." Advanced Triaxial Testing of Soil and Rock. ASTM International, 1988. 48. Wang, Qiong, and Poul V. Lade. "Shear banding in true triaxial tests and its effect on failure in sand." Journal of Engineering Mechanics 127.8 (2001): 754-761. 49. Kamei, Takeshi, and Kimitoshi Iwasaki. "Evaluation of Undrained Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils Using a Flat Dilatometer." SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS Vol. 35, No. 2, 111-116, Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, June 1995.
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    Sep, 2016 -36 Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory References 50. Sun, De'an, et al. "Development of a new in-situ direct shear test." (2001): 92-102. 51. Schmid, Werner E. The determination of soil properties in situ by an impact penetrometer. No. SCIENTIFIC-1. PRINCETON UNIV NJ DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, 1966. 52. Bolton, M. D., M. W. Gui, and R. Phillips. "Review of miniature soil probes for model tests." Proceedings of the 11th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference. South East Asian Geotechnical Society, 1993. 53. Okello, A. "A review of soil strength measurement techniques for prediction of terrain vehicle performance." Journal of agricultural engineering research 50 (1991): 129-155. 54. Sridharan, A., and K. Prakash. "Mechanisms controlling the undrained shear strength behaviour of clays." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 36.6 (1999): 1030-1038. 55. Park, W. Y., et al. "Prediction of the tractive performance of a flexible tracked vehicle." Journal of Terramechanics 45.1 (2008): 13-23. 56. Wijeyesekera, Devapriya Chitral, Alvin John Lim Meng Siang, and Ahmad Shukri Bin Yahaya. "Advanced Statistical Analysis for Relationships between Particle Morphology (Size and Shape) and Shear (Static and Dynamic) Characteristics of Sands." International Journal of Geosciences 4.10 (2013):