3. EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
PRINCIPLES OF LAW SERIES
Professor Paul Dobson
Visiting Professor at Anglia Polytechnic University
Professor Nigel Gravells
Professor of English Law, Nottingham University
Professor Phillip Kenny
Professor and Head of the Law School, Northumbria University
Professor Richard Kidner
Professor at the Law Department, University of Wales, Aberystwyth
In order to ensure that the material presented by each title maintains the
necessary balance between thoroughness in content and accessibility in
arrangement, each title in the series has been read and approved by an
independent specialist under the aegis of the Editorial Board. The Editorial
Board oversees the development of the series as a whole, ensuring a
conformity in all these vital aspects.
4. Mike Molan BA, LLM, Barrister
Head of the Law Division, South Bank University
Denis Lanser LLB, Dip Crim
Lecturer in Law, Staffordshire University
Professor Duncan Bloy BA, LLM, PGCE,
Academic Director, Forté-IRI, Singapore
Cavendish
Publishing
Limited
CP
London • Sydney
Bloy and Parry’s
Principles of Criminal Law
Fourth Edition
6. v
PREFACE
The three years since the publication of the third edition of this book has seen
a significant amount of government activity in the areas of criminal justice, but
very little by way of legislative reform of the substantive criminal law. In this
period, the Crime Sentences Act 1997, the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 and
the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 have all made appearances
to varying degrees of critical acclaim. The legislation that may yet prove to
have the most impact on the substantive law is the Human Rights Act 1998,
with the majority of provisions having come into effect on 2 October 2000.
This book therefore endeavours to reflect judicial decision making in this
period, together with proposals for reform of the criminal law contained in
various publications, such as the Law Commission, Consultation Paper on Fraud
and Deception (1999) and the Home Office, Consultation Paper on Reforming the
Law on Involuntary Manslaughter (2000), and raises the question of whether or
not the nation needs a criminal code. It does not focus on the procedural or
sentencing areas of the criminal law as these are rarely, if ever, dealt with in
detail as part of a university level criminal law syllabus.
Duncan Bloy would like to thank his co-authors who have undertaken the
vast majority of the work associated with the revision of the text. He also
wishes to thank Cara Annett at Cavendish Publishing for her forbearance over
the last few months.
Mike Molan and Denis Lanser would like to extend their thanks to Cara
Annett and Sonny Leong at Cavendish Publishing for encouraging their
involvement in this fourth edition. Mike would like to thank Alison for taking
care of business so that he had the time to do the writing and Denis would like
to thank Melanie for all her support and assistance.
We have stated the law as at 1 October 2000.
Mike Molan
Denis Lanser
Duncan Bloy
October 2000
7.
8. vii
Preface v
Table of Cases xix
Table of Statutes xxxix
Table of Abbreviations xlv
1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF
CRIMINAL LAW 1
1.1 COVERAGE OF THE BOOK 1
1.2 A CRIMINAL LAW FOR THE NEW MILLENNIUM 1
1.3 JUDICIAL LAW MAKING 3
1.4 THE ROLE OF THE HOUSE OF LORDS AS THE FINAL
APPELLATE COURT 5
1.5 THE PURPOSE OF THE CRIMINAL LAW 7
1.6 A WAY FORWARD – CODIFICATION OF THE LAW? 9
1.7 THE DECISION TO CRIMINALISE CONDUCT 12
1.8 THE DEFINITION OF A CRIME 14
1.9 CLASSIFICATION OF OFFENCES: EXPLANATION OF TERMS 15
1.10 RIGHTS TO APPEAL 17
1.11 BURDEN OF PROOF AND STANDARD OF PROOF 18
1.12 THE TRIAL AND THE ROLE OF THE JUDGE AND JURY 19
1.13 APPROACHING THE STUDY OF CRIMINAL LAW 19
1.14 KEEPING UP TO DATE WITH THE LAW 21
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1 23
CONTENTS
9. Bloy and Parry’s Principles of Criminal Law
viii
2 ACTUS REUS 25
2.1 INTRODUCTION 25
2.2 CIRCUMSTANCES REQUIRED BY THE DEFINITION OF
THE CRIME 26
2.2.1 Result and conduct crimes 27
2.2.2 Justification 27
2.2.3 The actus reus must always be voluntary 28
2.2.4 State of affairs cases 28
2.3 NON-INSANE AUTOMATISM 30
2.3.1 Self-induced automatism 34
2.3.2 Reform 35
2.4 CAUSATION 36
2.4.1 Reform 44
2.5 OMISSIONS 45
2.5.1 Duty of volunteer carers 48
2.5.2 Duty of medical practitioners 49
2.6 THE CONTINUOUS ACT THEORY 51
2.7 REFORM 52
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2 55
3 THE MENTAL ELEMENT – MENS REA 57
3.1 INTRODUCTION 57
3.2 MOTIVE 58
3.3 INTENTION 60
3.3.1 Where a consequence is wanted for its own sake 61
3.3.2 Consequences foreseen but not wanted 61
10. Contents
ix
3.4 RECKLESSNESS 76
3.4.1 Ruling out the risk 83
3.4.2 The future of recklessness 85
3.4.3 Reform 87
3.5 OTHER KEY WORDS 88
3.6 TRANSFERRED MALICE 89
3.6.1 Reform 92
3.7 COINCIDENCE OF ACTUS REUS AND MENS REA 92
3.8 STRICT LIABILITY 95
3.8.1 The justification for strict liability 105
3.8.2 Proposals for reform 107
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 3 109
4 PARTICIPATION IN CRIME 111
4.1 INTRODUCTION 111
4.2 PROCURE 113
4.3 COUNSEL 115
4.4 AID AND ABET 115
4.5 INNOCENT AGENCY 116
4.5.1 ‘Principal’ acquitted 116
4.6 ACTUS REUS 118
4.7 MENS REA 121
4.8 KNOWLEDGE OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES 122
4.9 JOINT ENTERPRISES 125
4.10 WITHDRAWAL FROM A JOINT ENTERPRISE 131
4.11 LIABILITY FOR DIFFERENT OFFENCES 134
11. Bloy and Parry’s Principles of Criminal Law
x
4.12 DRAFT CRIMINAL CODE BILL 135
4.13 VICARIOUS LIABILITY 135
4.13.1 Defences 137
4.13.2 Corporate liability 138
4.13.3 The principle of identification 139
4.13.4 Distinction between vicarious liability and the
identification principle 141
4.13.5 Conclusion 141
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4 143
5 PRELIMINARY OR INCHOATE OFFENCES 145
5.1 INCITEMENT 145
5.1.1 Suggestion or encouragement 146
5.1.2 General or particular 146
5.1.3 The act must amount to a crime 147
5.1.4 Inciting incitement 147
5.1.5 Mens rea 148
5.1.6 Impossibility 150
5.2 DRAFT CRIMINAL CODE 152
5.3 CONSPIRACY 152
5.3.1 Limitations imposed by law 155
5.4 STATUTORY CONSPIRACY 157
5.4.1 If the agreement is carried out in accordance
with their intentions 158
5.4.2 The conditional intention argument 161
5.5 COMMON LAW CONSPIRACY 162
5.5.1 Conspiracy to corrupt public morals or outrage
public decency 162
5.5.2 Conspiracy to outrage public decency 164
5.5.3 Conspiracy to defraud 165
5.5.4 Mens rea for conspiracy to defraud 167
5.6 THIRD PARTIES 168
12. Contents
xi
5.7 IMPOSSIBILITY 171
5.8 JURISDICTION 171
5.8.1 Jurisdiction over conspiracies to commit offences
outside the jurisdiction 171
5.8.2 Agreement abroad to commit an offence within
the jurisdiction 173
5.9 ATTEMPT 175
5.10 ACTUS REUS 176
5.11 MENS REA 180
5.12 IMPOSSIBILITY 184
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5 187
6 HOMICIDE 191
6.1 MURDER 191
6.1.1 Who may be killed? 192
6.1.2 When does death occur? 196
6.2 CAUSATION 196
6.3 ACTUS REUS OF MURDER 197
6.4 MENS REA OF MURDER 198
6.4.1 Intention to cause grievous bodily harm 198
6.5 MANSLAUGHTER 201
6.6 VOLUNTARY MANSLAUGHTER 201
6.6.1 Provocation 202
6.6.2 The judge rules on the evidence 203
6.6.3 Sudden and temporary loss of self-control 206
6.6.4 Provocative behaviour of a third party 208
6.6.5 The objective factor 209
6.6.6 Self-induced provocation 216
13. Bloy and Parry’s Principles of Criminal Law
xii
6.6.7 Degree of retaliation 216
6.6.8 Draft Criminal Code 217
6.7 DIMINISHED RESPONSIBILITY 217
6.7.1 Intoxication and diminished responsibility 219
6.7.2 Provocation and diminished responsibility 221
6.7.3 Draft Criminal Code 222
6.7.4 Suicide pacts 223
6.8 INVOLUNTARY MANSLAUGHTER 223
6.8.1 Unlawful act manslaughter 223
6.8.2 Omissions 227
6.8.3 Dangerous character 228
6.8.4 Reckless and gross negligence manslaughter 229
6.8.5 The Law Commission’s report on involuntary
manslaughter (1996) 235
6.8.6 Corporate killing 238
6.9 INFANTICIDE 242
6.10 CHILD DESTRUCTION 243
6.10.1 Draft Criminal Code 245
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 6 247
7 GENERAL DEFENCES 249
7.1 INSANITY 250
7.1.1 Prior to the trial 250
7.1.2 At the trial 252
7.1.3 M’Naghten Rules 252
7.1.4 The nature and quality of the act 253
7.1.5 Draft Criminal Code 254
7.1.6 The burden of proof in respect of insanity 255
7.2 INFANCY 256
7.2.1 Terminology and trial 256
7.2.2 Under 10 years of age 258
7.2.3 Over 10 years of age 258
14. Contents
xiii
7.3 INTOXICATION 260
7.3.1 Specific and basic intent crimes 262
7.3.2 Dangerous and non-dangerous drugs 266
7.3.3 Application of the law 268
7.3.4 Intoxication and mistake 269
7.3.5 Statutory as opposed to a common law defence 271
7.3.6 The Law Commission 271
7.4 MISTAKE 273
7.5 DURESS BY THREATS 275
7.5.1 The extent of the defence 276
7.5.2 The extent of the duress 277
7.5.3 Threats by death or serious bodily harm 280
7.5.4 Limitations to the defence 283
7.6 DURESS OF CIRCUMSTANCES 284
7.6.1 Necessity 286
7.6.2 Civil cases 287
7.6.3 Types of necessity 287
7.7 SELF-DEFENCE AND PREVENTION OF CRIME 290
7.7.1 Mistake and self-defence 290
7.7.2 What is reasonable force 291
7.7.3 The Human Rights Act 1998 and self-defence 293
7.8 DRAFT CRIMINAL LAW BILL 294
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 7 295
8 OFFENCES AGAINST PROPERTY: THEFT 297
8.1 INTRODUCTION 297
8.2 PROPERTY 297
8.3 APPROPRIATION 300
8.3.1 Consent or authorisation by the owner 302
8.3.2 Outline of the Gomez case 303
15. Bloy and Parry’s Principles of Criminal Law
xiv
8.3.3 The deep division of opinion on the consent/
authorisation issue 304
8.3.4 The decision in Gomez 306
8.3.5 Further developments 307
8.3.6 The ‘company cases’ 310
8.3.7 Appropriation where no possession or
control is acquired 311
8.3.8 ‘Innocent’ appropriation 314
8.3.9 Continuing appropriation? 314
8.3.10 Property belonging to the defendant 315
8.3.11 Conclusion 316
8.4 BELONGING TO ANOTHER 317
8.4.1 Control 318
8.4.2 Abandoned property 319
8.4.3 Trust property 320
8.4.4 Obligation to retain and deal 320
8.4.5 Mistake and obligation to make restoration 324
8.5 MENS REA: DISHONESTY 326
8.5.1 The approach to the assessment of dishonesty 327
8.5.2 The twofold test 328
8.5.3 Criticisms of the twofold test 328
8.5.4 Section 2(1)(a) of the TA 1968 330
8.5.5 Section 2(1)(b) of the TA 1968 330
8.5.6 Section 2(1)(c) of the TA 1968 330
8.5.7 Section 2(2) of the TA 1968 330
8.5.8 Conclusion 331
8.6 INTENTION TO DEPRIVE PERMANENTLY 331
8.6.1 Section 6(1) of the TA 1968 332
8.6.2 Section 6(2) of the TA 1968 334
8.7 CONCLUSION 334
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 8 335
16. Contents
xv
9 OFFENCES AGAINST PROPERTY: OTHER
OFFENCES UNDER THE THEFT ACTS 1968
AND 1978 AND CRIMINAL DAMAGE 337
9.1 ROBBERY (s 8 of the TA 1968) 337
9.1.1 Force 337
9.1.2 Immediately before or at the time of stealing 338
9.1.3 Mens rea 339
9.2 BURGLARY (s 9 of the TA 1968) 339
9.2.1 Building 340
9.2.2 Entry 341
9.2.3 Trespasser 343
9.2.4 The ulterior offences 344
9.3 AGGRAVATED BURGLARY (s 10 of the TA 1968) 345
9.4 TAKING A MOTOR VEHICLE OR OTHER CONVEYANCE
WITHOUT AUTHORITY (s 12 of the TA 1968) 347
9.4.1 Mens rea 350
9.5 AGGRAVATED VEHICLE-TAKING 350
9.6 BLACKMAIL (s 21 of the TA 1968) 352
9.6.1 The demand 352
9.6.2 Menaces 353
9.6.3 Unwarranted 354
9.7 HANDLING STOLEN GOODS (s 22 of the TA 1968) 355
9.7.1 Stolen goods 355
9.7.2 Otherwise than in the course of stealing 357
9.7.3 The forms of handling 358
9.7.4 Receiving 358
9.7.5 Undertaking or assisting 359
9.7.6 Mens rea 360
17. Bloy and Parry’s Principles of Criminal Law
xvi
9.8 DECEPTION OFFENCES 361
9.8.1 Implied representations 363
9.8.2 Guarantee and credit cards 365
9.8.3 Deception must cause the obtaining 366
9.8.4 Dishonesty 368
9.8.5 Obtaining property by deception 369
9.8.6 Obtaining a money transfer 371
9.8.7 Obtaining a pecuniary advantage by deception 372
9.8.8 Obtaining services by deception 374
9.8.9 Evasion of liability by deception 376
9.9 MAKING OFF WITHOUT PAYMENT (s 3 of the TA 1978) 377
9.9.1 Actus reus 378
9.9.2 Consent 379
9.10 GOING EQUIPPED TO BURGLE, STEAL OR CHEAT
(s 25 of the TA 1968) 379
9.10.1 Away from his place of abode 380
9.10.2 Any article 380
9.10.3 With him 381
9.10.4 Cheating 381
9.10.5 Knowledge 382
9.11 CRIMINAL DAMAGE 383
9.11.1 Property need not be destroyed 383
9.11.2 Definition of property 384
9.11.3 The damaged property must belong to another 385
9.11.4 Intention or recklessness as to causing damage 385
9.11.5 Lawful excuse 386
9.11.6 Destroying or damaging property with intent to
endanger life 388
9.11.7 Other sections 390
9.12 REFORM OF THEFT ACT OFFENCES 391
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9 393
18. Contents
xvii
10 NON-FATAL OFFENCES AGAINST THE PERSON 395
10.1 INTRODUCTION 395
10.2 ASSAULT AND BATTERY 395
10.2.1 Assault 397
10.2.2 Mens rea for assault 400
10.3 BATTERY 400
10.3.1 Mens rea for battery 401
10.3.2 Consent 401
10.3.3 Public interest 403
10.4 ASSAULT OCCASIONING ACTUAL BODILY HARM
(s 47 of the OAPA 1861): FURTHER THOUGHTS 407
10.5 WOUNDING AND GRIEVOUS BODILY HARM 408
10.5.1 Wound 408
10.5.2 Grievous bodily harm 409
10.5.3 Inflict and cause 409
10.5.4 Maliciously 411
10.5.5 Ancillary offences 412
10.6 REFORM OF NON-SEXUAL ASSAULTS 413
10.7 SEXUAL OFFENCES 416
10.7.1 Rape 416
10.7.2 Actus reus 417
10.7.3 Consent 418
10.7.4 Mens rea 420
10.8 INDECENT ASSAULT 420
10.9 OTHER OFFENCES 422
19. Bloy and Parry’s Principles of Criminal Law
xviii
10.10REFORM OF SEXUAL OFFENCES 424
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 10 425
Further Reading 429
Index 435