Consultancy process

1. Part I:
Consultation and Consultants,
Collaboration and Collaborators

2. Chapter I:
Introduction and Overview

3. Consultation Defined
• Consultation is a process in which a human
services professional assists a consultee
with a work-related (or caretaking-related)
problem with a client system, with the goal
of helping both the consultee and the client
system in some specific way.

4. Consultation Defined
• Consultation deals
exclusively with the
consultee’s work-
related or care-
giving related
problems.
• The consultant and
consultee work
together in solving
the problems
defined by
consultation.

5. .
• Role of human service
professional
• Problem-solving
process
• Triadic in nature
• Helping relationship
• Internal or external
• Voluntary for all
parties
• Relationship of peers
• Collaborative
• Temporary
• Remedial or
developmental

6. Consultative Relationship
• The relationship between the consultee
and consultant is one of peers, of two
equals. Though the two roles are equal
in terms of power, it is the consultee
who has the greatest need within the
consultative relationship.

7. Consultation and Consultants
• Who are consultants?
• Who are consultees?
• Who is the client system?

8. Consultants and Consultees
• Priority can be
given to either
consultee or
client system
depending on the
approach used by
the consultant
• The consultant
provides indirect
service to the
client system by
providing direct
service to the
consultee

9. Rights of Consultation
Participants
• Participation in consultation is
voluntary for all parties involved
• Consultees are free to do whatever
they wish with the consultant’s
they wish with consultant’s
suggestions and recommendations

10. Length of Consultation
• Though the consultation
relationship is temporary, the
length of consultation may range
from a single session to weekly
sessions for more than a year.

11. Triad of Consultation
Consultee
Client System
Consultant
Figure 1.2 The triadic relationship in consultation

12. Collaboration Defined
• Collaboration is very similar to consultation
in that it follows the same problem-solving
process
• Collaboration involves the interactive
exchange of resources, interdependence,
and a focus on decision making.

13. Collaboration cont’d
• Collaboration is a service in which the
helper accepts responsibility for the mental
health aspects of a case.

14. Client System
Collaborator
# 2
Collaborator
# 1
The Relationships of the Parties in Collaboration
Figure 1.3 The Relationships of the Parties in Collaboration

15. Mental Health Consultation and Mental Health
Collaboration Contrasted on Key Dimensions
Dimensions Mental Health Consultation Mental Health Collaboration
Location of consultant’s
home base
External to the organization Internal to the organization
Type of psychological
service
Generally indirect, with little
or no client contact
Combines indirect and direct
services, and includes client
contact
Consultant-consultee
relationship
Assumes a coordinate and
nonhieracrhical relationship
Acknowledges status and
role differences within the
organization and thus the
liklihood of a hierarchical
relationship
Consultee participation Assumes voluntary
participation
Assumes voluntary
participation, but
acknowledges the possibility
of forced participation
Interpersonal working
arrangement
Often dyadic, involving
consultant and consultee
Generally team-based,
involving several
collaborators

16. Confidentiality of
communications within
relationship
Assumes confidentiality to
exist with limits of
confidentiality (if any)
specified during initial
contracting
Does not automatically
assume confidentiality, given
organization realities and
pragmatic need to share
relevant information among
team members
Consultee freedom to accept or
reject consultant advice
Yes Not assumed to be true, as a
collaborator’s expertise is his
or her specialty area is
generally deferred to by team
Consultant responsibility for
case/program outcome
No Shares equal responsibility
for overall outcome, and
primary responsibility for
mental health aspects of case
or program
From: Caplan, G.R., Caplan, R.B., and Erchul, W.P. (1994). Caplan mental health consultation:
Historical background and current status. Consulting Psychology Journal, 1994, p.7. By permission
of publisher.

17. A Distinguishing Difference
Between
Consultation and Collaboration
• In consultation, the consultee retains
responsibility for the outcome, is considered
to be the determiner of the suitability of
possible interventions, and is responsible
for adequate implementation of the
intervention (i.e., ensuring treatment
integrity) (Zins & Erchul, 1995).

18. Chapter II:
Consultants, Consultees,
and Collaborators

19. Skill Areas for Consultants
and Collaborators
• Interpersonal skills
• Communication skills
• Problem-solving skills
• Skills in working with organizations

20. Skill Areas for Consultants and
Collaborators cont’d
• Group skills
• Skills in dealing with cultural diversity
• Ethical and professional behavior skills

21. Roles of the Consultant:
The consultant can take on a variety of roles
depending on several factors:
• Nature of the
problem
• Purpose and
desired outcomes
of consultation
• Skills of the
consultant
• Skills of the
consultee

22. Common Consultation and
Collaboration Roles
Directive
*
Advocacy
Expert
Trainer/Educator
Collaborator
Fact Finder
Process Specialist
*
Non-directive

23. Internal/External
Consultants
• A consultant can either be separate
from or part of the system in which
consultation is to occur.

24. Research in
Consultation and Collaboration
• Consultation research suggests that
consultation has efficacy even though
consultation practice has outpaced its body
of research.

25. Research cont’d
• The research on collaboration is very
limited

26. Chapter III:
Entry Stage

27. Stage I: Entry
• Phase One: Exploring Organizational
Needs
• Phase Two: Contracting
• Phase Three: Physically Entering the
System
• Phase Four: Psychologically Entering
the System

28. Phase One:
Exploring Organizational Needs
To Consult or Not to Consult
• Why am I here?
• Who are you?
• What is likely to happen?
• What will be the result?
• What can go wrong?

29. Phase Two: Contracting
Reason for
contracting:
• To clearly define
expectations of
both consultant
and consultee
Elements of a
contract:
• goals
• time frame
• responsibility of
consultant & agency
• boundaries
• review and
evaluation

30. Phase Three: Physically
Entering the System
• Moving into “work space”
• Getting to know employees of organization
• Adapt to organization’s schedule
• Have those affected by consultation
informed about the consultant’s role

31. Phase Four: Psychologically
Entering the System
• The gradual acceptance of the consultant by
members of the organization in which
consultation is being performed
• Consider the process level (how
organization functions) and personal
interaction (how people within an
organization function)

32. During Phase Four a Consultant
Should. . .
• Create trustworthiness by. . .
–Demonstrating understanding
–Using power appropriately
–Respecting confidentiality
–Exhibiting credibility

33. Multicultural Implications:
Entry Stage
• Be aware of other’s value systems
• Use effective communication and
interpersonal skill
• Determine comfort level in dealing with any
cultural or ethnic issues related to the
problem
• Be aware of how cultural differences may
impact the outcome of consultation

34. Application of Multicultural
Implications for Entry
• Certain minority cultural groups may be
concerned about the interpersonal
orientation of a consultant who is from a
majority culture; whereas, a consultee from
a majority culture may be more interested in
the assistance-value of a consultant

35. Chapter IV:
Diagnosis Stage

36. Stage II: Diagnosis
• Phase One: Gathering Information
• Phase Two: Defining the Problem
• Phase Three: Setting Goals
• Phase Four: Generating Possible
Interventions

37. Phase One: Gathering
Information
• Deciding to proceed
• Selecting dimension
• Deciding who will be involved in data
collection
• Selecting the data collection methods

38. Types of Data
• Genetic data
• Current descriptive data
• Process data
• Interpretive data
• Consultee-client system relationship data
• Client system behavior data

39. Means of Collecting Data
• Interviews
• Surveys
• Questionnaires
• Observation
• Documents/Records

40. Phase Two: Defining the
Problem
• How many factors affect the problem?
• How has the problem developed over
time?
• What past events are causing the
current problem?
• How are future expectations related?

41. Phase Three: Setting Goals
• The process of shaping, a
movement toward concreteness
and specificity from a broader,
more general perspective

42. Goal Setting Steps
• Specify objective
• How will objective
be measured?
• Specify target
• Specify time span
• Prioritize goals
• Rate goals
• Determine
coordination
requirements

43. Phase Four: Generating
Possible Interventions
• Intervention- a force that attempts to
modify some outcome. In
consultation, interventions are actions
or activities that, when put together in
a systematic manner, make up a plan to
achieve a goal

44. Multicultural Implications:
Diagnosis Stage
• Be aware of differences in gathering
data
• Be aware of perceptions of what needs
to be accomplished held by consultee
• Cultural differences can play a role in
the interventions proposed

45. Application of Multicultural
Implications for Diagnosis
• Consultee from a high context culture may
prefer interviewing and observation;
whereas, those from a low context culture
may prefer surveys or document research
• Some cultural groups may see the focus of
diagnosis as being the group, and some may
see the focus as being the individual

46. Chapter V:
Implementation Stage

47. Stage III: Implementation
• Phase One: Choosing an Intervention
• Phase Two: Formulating a Plan
• Phase Three: Implementing the Plan
• Phase Four: Evaluating the Plan

48. Phase One: Choosing an
Intervention
• Select one or two interventions that have a
high probability of being successful
• Take advantage of decision consultation

49. Types of Interventions
• Individual Interventions
• Dyadic and Triadic Interventions
• Interventions for use between groups
• Interventions for the entire
organization

50. Phase Two: Formulating the
Plan
• Plan- a detailed step-by-step method,
formulated before hand, for doing
something.
• Considerations-
– What (objective)
– Where (locale of implementation)
– When (time frame)
– How (methods, procedures, sequence)
– Who (who is responsible for what)

51. Phase Three: Implementing
the Plan
• Help consultee be flexible
• Reassure and prepare consultee
• Offer technical assistance during this time
• Exercise caution toward dependency

52. Phase Four: Evaluating the
Plan
• Evaluation- the collection of
data/information about the
implementation to determine its
effectiveness in meeting the specified
goal
– implementation evaluation
– outcome evaluation

53. Techniques used in outcome
evaluation
• Individualized goal attainment measures
• Standardized outcome assessment devices
• Consumer satisfaction survey

54. Multicultural Implications:
Implementation Stage
• Cultural differences can impact the perception of
the type of intervention selected and these
differences should be taken into account when
selecting and implementing an intervention
• The question of responsibility during
implementation may be based on cultural
differences
• During evaluation it is important to have
multicultural input

55. Application for Multicultural
Implications during
Implementation
• Some cultural groups choose to focus on
using groups rather than focusing on time
factors
• Some cultural groups may see the efficiency
of the plan as most beneficial during
evaluation; whereas, other groups may
evaluate the social impact of the plan

56. Chapter VI:
Disengagement Stage

57. Stage IV: Disengagement
• Phase One: Evaluating the Process of
Consultation
• Phase Two: Planning Post-consultation
Matters
• Phase Three: Reducing Involvement and
Following-up
• Phase Four: Terminating

58. Phase One: Evaluating
Process
• Determine process and effects of
consultation
• Assess accountability and
improvements in service
• Add knowledge to the field of
consultation

59. Types of Evaluation
• Summative
– the evaluation of outcomes or products
• Formative
– evaluation of the process of consultation
– perform evaluations at the end of each
phase of consultation

60. Phase Two: Planning Post-
Consultation Matters
• Review planning process:
– determining objectives
– establish procedures
– defining steps
– assigning responsibility
– testing for feasibility, cost effectiveness
and capabilities

61. Phase Three: Reducing
Involvement and Following-up
• Reducing
Involvement-
• gradual reduction in
consultants contact
with consultee and
organization, which
prevents abrupt
termination
• Follow-up-
• the process of
periodically checking
how well the results of
consultation are being
maintained over time
and how the
organization is
performing post-
consultation efforts

62. Phase Four: Terminating
• Terminating provides closure in a formal
and ritualistic manner
– leave consultee satisfied in process and
accomplishments
– tie up unresolved issues before leaving
– beware of the issues of dependence and
depression

63. Multicultural Implications:
Disengagement Stage
• Be aware of the cultural social needs of
consultee involving the time factor involved
with disengagement
• Dependency during follow-up phase may be
influenced by cultural factors

64. Application of Multicultural
Implications for
Disengagement
• Some consultees may require a longer
follow-up period before termination as
a result of degree of dependency or
importance of relationships

65. Chapter VII:
Ethical, Professional, and
Legal Issues

66. Ethics Defined
• Standards of moral and professional
conduct
• Code of ethics--a written ethical guideline
followed by professionals
– discourages inappropriate practice
– protects recipient of services
– promotes exemplary behavior

67. Making Ethical Judgements
• Identify problem
• Identify potential
issues
• Review ethical
guidelines
• Consult colleagues
• Consider courses of
action
• Consider
consequences for
various decisions
• Determine best course
of action

68. Values
• Those beliefs and principles held by a
person which have been formed by his/her
life experiences
• Consultant should know what his/her values
are
• Consultant should not expect other to hold
the same values
• Consultant should be aware of specific
values held by cultural and ethnic groups

69. Competence
• Providing services and accepting jobs for
which one is qualified
– maintain high levels of professionalism
– know one’s professional limitations
– know when to decline and refer
– avoid situations in which personal concerns
could affect professional performance

70. Consultant-Consultee-Client
Relationship
• Work-related focus
• Dual relationships
• Freedom of choice

71. Rights of Consultee
• Confidentiality--protecting the identities of
parties involved in consultation
• Informed Consent--to inform consultees
about the nature and goals of consultation,
their right to privacy, the voluntary nature
of participation and the complete freedom
they have in following suggestions made by
the consultant

72. The Consultant and the Group
• Consulting with groups with caseloads
• Consulting with training groups

73. Intervention Areas Involving
Ethical Issues
• Individual vs. systems-level
• Use of assessment data
• Empirical validity of interventions

74. Ethical Issues in
Organizational Consultation
• Typical ethical issues exacerbated by
complexity or organization
• Aspirational ethics
• Virtue ethics

75. Consulting Over the Internet
• Relationship development
• Confidentiality
• Location-specific factors

76. Legal Issues: Malpractice
Behaviors often leading to legal
entanglements:
• Misrepresenting one’s training
• Failing to respect integrity and privacy
• Using improper diagnosis and assessment
• Collecting fees improperly
• Libel and slander
• Breech of contract
• Failing to keep adequate records
• Failing to provide informed consent
• Providing poor advice

77. Part III:
Models of Consultation
and Collaboration

78. Chapter VIII
The Pragmatic Issues of Working
within an Organization

79. Pragmatic Issues
A. Recent changes in society and
organizations
B. The influence of organizational theory
C. Organizational change

80. Pragmatic issues cont’d
C. Dealing with organizational culture
D. Issues in assessment in organizations
E. Culturally sensitive organization
F. Time constraints

81. Basic Societal Change
Affecting New Workers
•Diminishing % of young people entering workforce
•New workers less skilled than previous generations
•Over 33% of new workers are from minority groups
•Women make up at least 60% of new workers

82. Organizational Changes
Affecting the Workplace
•Increased complexity and diversification
•Managers of agencies/organizations more familiar with
organizational change concepts
•Organizations/agencies more concerned with ethics
•Greater competition among all types of organizations

83. Organizational Theory
defined
*The study of the structures and processes of
organizations and the behavior of groups and
individuals within them (Pugh, 1967).

84. The Bureaucratic Model
•Designed by Max Weber as the ideal of organizational
effectiveness.
•“Means to ends” in nature
•Each unit under direct control of higher unit
•Organizations meant to be efficient, effective, and
equitable.

85. Open Systems
Organizational Theory
Two types of systems: closed and open
*Closed systems are not affected by their
environments: they have a finite amount of energy,
and when that energy is used up, the system runs
down.
*Open systems have permeable boundaries and can
obtain energy from and send energy back to the
environment.
*Organizations can be viewed as open systems

86. Four components to the
systems theory
•A framework (pattern of activities)
•Goals
•Methods and operations
•People

87. Basic assumptions of the
systems theory
•Organizations are open systems; subject to internal and
external influences
•Considers organizations a totality
•Interdependence among its parts
•Assumes that an organization is more than a sum of its
parts
•Organizational behavior is seen an dynamic & cyclical

88. 9 Characteristics of Systems
•Importation of energy
•The throughput
•The output
•Systems are cycles and events
•Negative entropy
•Information input, negative feedback, and the
coding process
•The steady state and dynamic homeostasis
•Differentiation
•Equifinality

89. 5 subsystems within an
organization
•The technological or production subsystem
•The support subsystem
•The maintenance subsystem
•The adaptive subsystem
•The managerial subsystem

90. Approaches to
organizational change
•Empirical-rational approach
•Normative-reeducative approach
•Power-coercive approach
•Top-down approach
•Bottom-up approach
•Shared approach

91. Cultural attributes of a
successful organization
•Uniqueness in their philosophy
•A focus by management on maintaining the philosophy
•Deliberate attempts to integrate the philosophy
throughout the organization
•Involvement by all staff in communicating and
reinforcing an organization-wide view of events and
decisions

92. Culturally Sensitive Organization
• Views diversity as a value added
opportunity
• Is proactive in responding to the constant
diversity-related, economic, political and
social conditions
• Effectively provides services cross-
culturally

93. Chapter IX:
Mental Health Consultation
and Collaboration

94. Basic Characteristics of
Mental Health Consultation
• Method used by professionals in respect to a lay
client or program for clients
• Problem is mental health related
• Consultant had no professional responsibility for
the outcome of the case
• Consultee can accept or decline the suggestions of
the consultant
• The relationship between consultant and consultee
is to coordinate

95. Basic Characteristics of Mental
Health Consultation (cont.)
• The consultant is external
• Consultation often takes place in a short set of
interviews
• Consultants use a problem, response method
during consultation, not predetermined answers
• The goals of consultation are to help consultee
improve their handling or understanding of the
current work difficulty and to increase the
capacity to deal with future problems

96. Basic Characteristics of Mental
Health Consultation (cont.)
• Consultation continues indefinitely
• The aim of consultation is to improve job
performance
• Consultation does not focus on personal problems
or feelings of the consultee
• Consultation is a professional function of a
specialist
• M.H.C. is a method of communication between a
mental health specialist and other professionals

97. Psychodynamic Approach
• Fosters the concept that our behavior is a
product of unconscious motivation and that
most of our personal issues result from early
childhood experiences, resulting in conflicts
that affect our behavior and cause use
problems

98. Transfer Effect
• The concept that what is learned in one
situation should be useable in similar, future
situations

99. “One-Downsmanship”
• A valuable relationship building technique
that a consultant can use to ensure that the
relationship remains on equal footing

100. Types of Mental Health
Consultation
• Client-centered case
• Consultee-centered case
• Program-centered administrative
• Consultee-centered administrative

101. The Client-Centered Case
Process
• The focus is a client’s case that is giving the
consultee difficulty
• Consultant functions as expert
• The consultee acts as a link between client
and consultant as well as a professional
collaborator

102. Application for Client-
Centered Process
• Create a list of questions about both the
client’s and consultee’s situations and
options
• Answer those questions by gathering
information from the consultee
• Write a report for the consultee outlining
observations and recommendations

103. Consultee-Centered Case
Process
• The goal is improvement of consultee’s
ability to work on a particular case and
cases in the future
• Consultant plays the roles of detective,
expert, and educator

104. Application for Consultee-
Centered Process
• Determine what reason the consultee is
having a problem:
– Lack of knowledge
– Lack of skill
– Lack of self-confidence
– Lack of professional objectivity

105. Lack of Objectivity
• Simple identification--identifies with the client
• Transference--Transfers onto the client feeling
and attitudes from key relationships in the past
• Characterological distortions--Personality
problem that interferes with effective delivery of
human services
• Theme interference--A special type of transference
in which the consultee experiences an
unexplainable “block” in progressing on a case

106. Program-Centered
Administrative Consultation
Process
• Assessment of mental health aspects of some
program or internal functioning of the
organization
• Consultant should be knowledgeable and
experienced in organizational theory and practice,
program development, fiscal policy,
administrative procedures and personal
management
• Administrator acts as principle consultee

107. Application for Program-
Centered Administrative
Process
• Scanning--a general overview of the
organization and its functions
• Gather and interpret additional data
• Consultant makes interim recommendations
• Formal report of recommendations for both
short-term and long-term goals and methods
of implementation

108. The Consultee-Centered
Administrative Consultation
Process
• The consultant works with an organization’s
administrative-level personnel to help solve
problems in personal management or
implementation of organizational policy
• The administrator has the job of helping the
consultant decide whether additional forms of
consultation are required, whether there are to be
other consultees and how involved they are to be
in the consultation process

109. Application of Consultee-
Centered Administrative
Consultation Process
• Beginnings follow the same methods as
other consultation processes
• Determine who consultees will be
• Study the organization’s social system
and identify problems and issues

110. Ecological Perspective
• Provides consultants with a way of making
changes within a given system
• Helps individuals contribute significantly
• Helps people adapt to the setting in which
something is expected of them
• Resources of the organization are an important
part of facilitating change during consultation
• Prevention is the key goal
• Considers how persons, settings and events can
become resources for positive developments with
an organization

111. Mental health collaboration
contrasted with mental health
consultation

112. Multicultural Aspects
• Client-centered allows for minimal
disclosure on the part of the consultee
• Consultee-case suitable for consultees
wanting assistance from a knowledgeable
authority figure
• Increased breadth and flexibility allow fro
sensitivity to cultural variables

113. Chapter X:
Behavioral Consultation and
Collaboration

114. Behavioral Consultation
Defined
• A relationship whereby services consistent
with a behavioral orientation are provided
either indirectly to a client or system or
directly by training consultees to enhance
their skills with clients and/or systems

115. Characteristics of
Behavioral Consultation
• Use of indirect service delivery models
• Reliance on behavioral technology
principles
• Diversity of intervention goals
• Changes aimed at various targets in
different settings

116. Key Concepts in Behavioral
Consultation
• Scientific View of Behavior
• Emphasis on current influences on behavior
• Principles of behavior change

117. The Consultation Process
• Behavioral case consultation
• Behavioral technology training
• Behavioral systems consultation

118. Behavioral Case
Consultation
• A consultant provides direct, behavior-
based service to a consultee concerning the
management of a client or group of clients
assigned to the consultee
• Consultants use a system problem-solving
process to assist consultee with their clients

119. Verbalization Technology
• Control of the consultant’s and consultee’s
verbalizations by the consultant for full
benefit and effectiveness for the
consultation process to occur
• Four Aspects:
– message source
– message content
– message process
– message control

120. Four Stages of Problem
Identification for Behavioral
Case Consultation
• Problem identification stage
• Problem analysis
• Plan (treatment) implementation stage
• Problem (treatment) evaluation stage

121. Behavioral Technology
Training
• Used when consultees seek to increase
general usage of behavioral technology
principles when working with clients
• Often used in schools

122. The Training
• The consultant trains consultees in general
behavior principles or specific behavioral
technology skills
• Can be formal or informal
• Individual or group
• Education/training model (chap. 9) is
similar to this training

123. Behavioral Systems
Consultation
• Behavioral technology principles are
applied to a social system
• The consultant uses principles to analyze
and change interactions among various sub-
systems of a larger social system
or between two or
more interactive
systems

124. The Consultant’s Function
and Roles
• An expert in behavioral systems
consultation, systems theory, and behavioral
ecology
• Guides consultee through a systematic
problem-solving process
• Consultation relationship is collaborative

125. Implications for
Consultation
• Behavioral systems consultation assumes
that all or part of a system is experiencing
functional difficulty
• Consultation consists of the following:
– system definition
– system assessment
– system intervention
– system evaluation

126. Conjoint Behavioral Consultation
• Uses parents and teachers as conjoint
consultees
• Designed to bridge the gap between the
school and the home and maximize the
spread of effects form one setting to another

127. Collaboration from a Behavioral
Perspective
• The use of behavioral collaboration can be
increased by organizations making effective
use of behavioral technology training

128. Multicultural Aspects Related to
Behavioral Consultation
• Appealing to cultural groups that do not
freely express feelings
• Valuable to cultural groups that want
concrete and predictable outcomes

129. Chapter XI:
Organizational Consultation and
Collaboration

130. Organizational Consultation
Defined
• The process in which a professional
provides assistance of a technical,
diagnostic/prescriptive, or facilitative nature
to an individual or group from that
organization to enhance the organization’s
ability to deal with change and maintain or
enhance its effectiveness in some
designated way.

131. Key Concepts in
Organizational Consultation
• The organization as client
• Process is as important
as content

132. Edgar Schein’s Model of
Consultation
• Purchase of Expertise
– Education/Training consultation
– Program Consultation
• The Doctor/Patient Model
• The Process Model

133. The Purchase of Expertise
Model
• The consultee knows what the problem is,
what needs to be done to solve the problem
and who can help solve it
• The consultant comes in as an expert to
simply solve the problem

134. Education/Training
Consultation
• The most frequently used purchase of
expertise consultation
• The consultant provides education/training
services in any number of areas and settings

135. Critical Skills for
Education/Training
Consultation
• Assessing training needs
• Developing and stating measurable
objectives
• Understanding the learning and change
process
• Designing a learning experience
• Planning and designing educational events

136. Critical Skills for Educational/
Training Consultation
• Using heuristic laboratory methods
• Using multiple learning stimuli
• Functioning as a group teacher or trainer
• Helping others learn how to learn

137. Four Steps of
Educational/Training
Consultation
• Needs assessment
• Planning education/training activities
• Performing education/training
• Evaluation

138. Program Consultation
• A form of purchase expertise consultation
in which the organization in some way uses
the consultant to help plan a new program
or revise or deal with factors that affect an
existing program
• The goal is to provide an organization
technical assistance so that a given program
can be successful

139. The Doctor/Patient Model
• The consultee knows something is wrong,
but does not know what is wrong.
• The consultant is given the power to make a
diagnosis and prescribe a solution
• The goal is to define the problem and
recommend realistic interventions

140. Critical Skills for the
Doctor/Patient Model
• Diagnostic skills
• Prescriptive skills
• In-depth knowledge of organizational theory
• Ability to “read” organizations
• Data collection skills
• Date interpretation skills
• Human relations skills

141. The Process Model
• The consultant’s expertise should include
skills to involve the consultee in defining
the problem, to form a team with the
consultee and to ensure that the consultation
process focuses on the consultee’s needs
• The consultant makes the consultee a more
effective problem solver

142. Seven Steps to Process
Consultation
• Making initial contact
• Defining the relationship
• Selecting a setting and method of work
• Gathering data/making diagnosis
• Intervening
• Reducing involvement
• Terminating

143. More on Process
Consultation
• Prevention is the key goal
• Process consultation considers how persons,
settings and events can become resources
for positive developments within an
organization

144. Collaboration from an
Organizational Perspective
• Aim is same as organizational consultation:
the enhanced functioning of the
organization
• The emergence of the internal consultant
role has created many opportunities for
collaboration in organizations

145. Multicultural Aspects Related to
Organizational Consultation
• Cultural groups that prefer structured,
expert-based consultation will find the
purchase of expertise model attractive
• Cultural groups preferring assistance in
problem definition will find the
doctor/patient model attractive
• Cultural groups for which the relationship is
essential will prefer the process model

146. Chapter XII:
School Based Consultation
and Collaboration

147. School Based Consultation
and Collaboration
• Consultation and collaboration are effective
in providing psychological services in the
schools
• As the mental health and instructional needs
of students have become of increasing
concern, interest in consultation and
collaboration has increased commensurately

148. School Based Consultation
and Collaboration cont’d
• School-based consultation can be focused
on primary prevention, secondary
prevention or tertiary prevention

149. School Based Consultation
and Collaboration cont’d
• The manner in which consultation and
collaboration take place in schools varies
according to the model being employed

150. Consulting and Collaborating with
School Administrators
• The school’s leadership is a powerful force
in determining the extent to which
consultation and collaboration are
considered acceptable services
• Administrators have priorities and pressures
for which they may actively seek
consultation

151. Organizational Development
Consultation
• School administrator + school-based
consultant
• A way of making carefully planned,
predictable change in a school
• The goal is to enhance the school’s
effectiveness by helping school personnel
understand and effectively act on problems
and move toward self-renewal

152. Consulting and Collaborating with
Teachers
• School-based consultants assist teachers
with both academically and behavioral
challenged children as well as those with
lesser concerns
• School consultation and collaboration can
be effective and efficient ways to help
teachers enhance their professional skills

153. Alderian Consultation:
Consultation with teachers
• Four Basic Assumptions:
– teachers cannot take responsibility for student
behavior
– teachers should be more involved with
encouragement than with praise
– teachers cannot always prevent failure on the
part of the student
– teachers need to try to meet affective and
cognitive needs of students

154. C-Group
Forces of the group:
• Consultation
• Collaboration
• Clarification
• Caring
• Confrontation
• Communication
• Cohesion
• Commitment
• Change
• Concern
• Confidentiality

155. C-Group cont’d
– The group consist of four to six teachers and
the consultant
– It meets once a week
– Six to eight sessions
– Teacher presents problems with individual
student and group discusses them

156. Instructional Consultation
• A collaborative process in which a problem
is identified and interventions are selected
and made

157. Steps of Instructional
Consultation
• Establishing collaborative relationship
• Identifying problem
• Observing classroom
• Assessing curriculum-based learning
• Planning instructional intervention
• Terminating

158. Consulting and Collaborating with
Parents/Guardians/Extended
Families
• Schools are consciously attempting to assist
children and increase parental/guardian
involvement in the school
• There is no “one” eclectic model of parent
consultaion or collaboration

159. Parent Case Consultation
• Can be Alderian, behavior, or mental health
• The goal is to promote increased positive
involvement by parents in the school life of
their child and improve family relationships

160. Parent Education
• A variation of the education/training
consultation model (chap. 9)
– Parent effectiveness training
– Alderian approaches
– Behavioral approaches

161. Home School Collaboration
• Goal is to create effective partnerships
between school-based professionals and
parents to enhance student learning
• In collaborating with parents, school-based
professionals ensure that parents are true
partners, are viewed as experts on their
children, and have some responsibility for
the outcomes.

162. Cross-Cultural Considerations
When Working with Parents
• Culture directly influences the family in a
significant manner
• Consultants can ensure that schools remove
barriers for non-mainstream parents
• Consultants will want to exercise caution in
making any kind of generalizations
regarding any characteristics of a given
culture

163. Interagency Collaboration
Rationale:
• The problems of children with social and/or
educational problems effect all aspects of a
child’s life such as the home and school.

164. Interagency cont’d
• The shared responsibility for the case shifts
the focus from what the school can do to
what the community should do to provide
services

165. Pragmatic Issues of School-
Based Consultation
• Ethical issues
• Working with other school-based
consultants
• Systems view of the school

166. More Pragmatic Issue for
S-B Consultation
• Develop a framework for prevention and
intervention
• Time constraints

167. Multicultural School Consultation
• Ethnic and linguistic minority children
constitute the most rapidly growing segment
of the youth population in the U.S.
• Consultants take into account both
individual differences and cultural issues so
as not to overemphasize cultural variables

168. School Consultation in the 21st
Century
Consultation and collaboration will:
• Focus more on positively impacting all
students
• Develop culturally sensitive interventions
• Engage in system-level initiatives
• Use data-driven decision making

169. Chapter XIII
Case Study Illustrations

170. Case Study Illustrations cont’d
• The purpose of this chapter is to assist you
to apply theory t practice and obtain a more
realistic picture of what transpires in
consultation.
• ACME Human Services Center
• Typescript of consultation and collaboration
sessions