learn about oneself

1. 2. OPERANT CONDITIONING
 The proponent of the Operant conditioning
theory was Dr. Burrhus Frederic Skinner.
 His work was based on Edward Thorndike’s
(1898) law of effect.
 According to this principle, behaviour that is
followed by pleasant consequences is likely to
be repeated, and behaviour followed by
unpleasant consequences is less likely to be
repeated.

2. CON’T
 Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of
Effect - Reinforcement.
 Behaviour which is reinforced tends to be repeated
(i.e., strengthened); behaviour which is not
reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e.,
weakened).

3. CON’T
 Skinner showed how positive reinforcement
worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box.
 The box contained a lever on the side, and as the
rat moved about the box, it would accidentally
knock the lever.
 Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into
a container next to the lever.

4. CON’T
 The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever
after a few times of being put in the box.
 The consequence of receiving food if they pressed
the lever ensured that they would repeat the action
again and again.

5. SKINNER BOX

6. Terms used in operant conditioning
REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT
 Is the process of
applying a
consequence that
increases the
likelihood of a
behaviour occuring.
 Is a term used in to
refer to any change
that occurs after a
behavior that reduces
the likelihood that
that behavior will
occur again in the
future

7.  Positive Reinforcement:
 Means giving something to the subject when they
perform the desired action so they associate the action
with the reward and do it more often.
 Example: A father gives his daughter ice cream
(reinforcing stimulus) for cleaning up toys (behavior).

8.  Negative Reinforcement:
 A response or behavior is strengthened by stopping,
removing, or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive
stimulus.1
 Aversive stimulus:
 is an unpleasant event that is intended to decrease the
probability of a behavior when it is presented as a
consequence (i.e., punishment).

10. More examples
 Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather
on sunscreen (the behavior) to avoid getting
sunburned (removal of the aversive stimulus).
 You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen (the
behavior) to avoid getting into a fight with your
roommate (removal of the aversive stimulus).
 On Monday morning, you leave the house early (the
behavior) to avoid getting stuck in traffic and being
late for work (removal of an aversive stimulus)..

11.  Can you identify the negative reinforcer in each of
these examples? Sunburn, a fight with your roommate
and being late for work are all negative outcomes that
were avoided by performing a specific behavior. By
eliminating these undesirable outcomes, the
preventative behaviors become more likely to occur
again in the future.

12. PUNISHMENT
 refers to any change that occurs after a behavior that
reduces the likelihood that that behavior will occur
again in the future.
 While positive and negative reinforcement s are used
to increase behaviors, punishment is focused on
reducing or eliminating unwanted behaviors.

13.  Punishment is often mistakenly confused
with negative reinforcement.
 Remember, reinforcement always increases the
chances that a behavior will occur and punishment
always decreases the chances that a behavior will
occur.

14. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT
 Also known as "punishment
by application.“
 Positive punishment involves
presenting an aversive
stimulus after a behavior has
occurred. For example, when
a student talks out of turn in
the middle of class, the
teacher might scold the child
for interrupting her
 Also known as "punishment
by removal." Negative
punishment involves taking
away a desirable stimulus
after a behavior has occurred.
For example, when the
student from the previous
example talks out of turn
again, the teacher promptly
tells the child that he will
have to miss recess because of
his behavior.

17. EXAMPLES OF REINFORCEMENT AND
PUNISHMENT
 After each example, we'll see how the terminology can fit
into this chart as to whether a stimulus is being presented
or removed, and whether the subsequent
behavior increased or decreased.
 For our first example, we have a student who is working
diligently on her schoolwork.
 As a consequence, the teacher could show his
appreciation for her hard work by providing positive
feedback.
 In return, the student continues to work hard.
 In that example, we had a stimulus being presented, which
caused behavior to increase.
 Therefore, we would call this positive reinforcement.

18. CON’T
 For our second example, we again have a good student who
is working diligently on her coursework.
 As a consequence, he could remove some of her work, such
as dropping a quiz or removing a homework assignment.
 This would make her happy and want to continue to work
hard.
 In this example, a stimulus was removed.
 That was the quiz or the homework assignment that was
being removed in order to cause the student's good
behavior to increase, which would be negative
reinforcement.

19. CON’T
 For our third example, we have a student who has
fallen asleep during class.
 As a consequence, the teacher may get upset and
verbally scold the student to wake him up.
 The misbehavior of sleeping would then stop, and the
student will start to focus on classwork again.
 In this instance, a stimulus was being presented, the
verbal scolding, in order for the misbehavior to
decrease.
 So we would call this, positive punishment.

20. CON’T
 In our last example, we have a student who's using
their cell phone during class.
 As a consequence for this misbehavior, the teacher
could go over to the student's desk and confiscate the
cell phone.
 The student's misbehavior would decrease, and they
could focus on their work again.
 So due to a stimulus being removed, the misbehavior
decreased, which would be negative punishment.

21. CONSTRUCTIVISM
 Constructivism is a learning theory found in
psychology which explains how people might acquire
knowledge and learn.
 The theory suggests that humans construct knowledge
and meaning from their experiences.

22. Principles of constructivism
 1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than passively
absorbed.
 - Learners build new knowledge upon the foundation
of previous learning.
 2. Learning is an active process
 - learners construct meaning only through active
engagement with the world (such as experiments or
real-world problem solving).

23.  Information may be passively received, but
understanding cannot be.
 For it must come from making meaningful
connections between prior knowledge, new
knowledge, and the processes involved in learning.

24.  3. All knowledge is socially constructed
 Learning is a social activity - it is something we do
together, in interaction with each other, rather than an
abstract concept.
 All teaching and learning is a matter of sharing and
negotiating socially constituted knowledge.

25.  4. All knowledge is personal
 Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view,
based on existing knowledge and values.
 This means that same lesson, teaching or activity may
result in different learning by each pupil, as their
subjective interpretations differ.

26.  5. Learning exists in the mind
 knowledge can only exist within the human mind, and
that it does not have to match any real world reality
 Learners will be constantly trying to develop their own
individual mental model of the real world from their
perceptions of that world.

27.  As they perceive each new experience, learners will
continually update their own mental models to reflect
the new information, and will, therefore, construct
their own interpretation of reality.

28. MAIN CATEGORIES OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM
 1. COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM by Jean Piaget
 Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is
something that is actively constructed by learners
based on their existing cognitive structures.
 Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of
cognitive development.

29.  Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in
assimilating new information to existing knowledge,
and enabling them to make the appropriate
modifications to their existing intellectual framework
to accommodate that information.

30.  Assimilation is a cognitive process that manages how we
take in new information and incorporate that new
information into our existing knowledge. (blending of
previous information with new knowledge)
 For example, when a young child learns the word dog for
the family pet, he eventually begins to identify every
similar-looking canine as a dog. The child has extended his
learning, or assimilated, the concept of dog to include all
similar 4-footed friends.

31.  Accommodation refers to describing what occurs
when new information or experiences cause you to
modify your existing schemas. Rather than make the
new information fit into an existing schema, you
change the schema in order to accommodate the new
information.

32.  2. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM by Lev Vygotsky
 Learning is a collaborative process, and knowledge
develops from individuals' interactions with their culture
and society.
 Every function in the child's cultural development appears
twice:
 first, on the social level and,
 later on, on the individual level;
 first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the
child (intrapsychological).

33.  3. Radical Constructivism
 All knowledge is constructed rather than perceived
through senses.
 Learners construct new knowledge on the foundations of
their existing knowledge.
 However, it states that the knowledge individuals create
tells us nothing about reality, and only helps us to function
in your environment.
 Thus, knowledge is invented not discovered.

34. Features of a constructivist
classroom
 1) Knowledge will be shared between teachers and
students.
 2) Teachers and students will share authority.
 3) The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.
 4) Learning groups will consist of small numbers of
heterogeneous students.

35. Traditional
Classroom
Constructivist
Classroom
Strict adherence to a fixed
curriculum is highly valued.
Pursuit of student questions
and interests is valued.
Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive,
building on what the
student already knows.
Teacher-centered. Student-centered.
Teachers disseminate information
to students; students are recipients
of knowledge (passive learning).
Teachers have a dialogue
with students, helping
students construct their
own knowledge (active
learning).
Teacher's role is directive, rooted in
authority.
Teacher's role is interactive,
rooted in negotiation.
Students work primarily alone
(competitive).
Students work primarily in
groups (cooperative).

36. Pedagogical goals of constructivist learning
environments
 1) To provide experience with the knowledge construction
process (students determine how they will learn).
 2) To provide experience in and appreciation for multiple
perspectives (evaluation of alternative solutions).
 3) To embed learning in realistic contexts (authentic tasks).
 4) To encourage ownership and a voice in the learning
process (student centered learning).

37.  5) To embed learning in social experience
(collaboration).
 6) To encourage the use of multiple modes of
representation, (video, audio text, etc.)
 7) To encourage awareness of the knowledge
construction process (reflection, metacognition).

38. EXPERIENTAL THEORY
 Experiential learning involves learning from
experience.
 The theory was proposed by psychologist David Kolb
 This type of learning can be defined as "the process
whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience.
 Knowledge results from the combinations of grasping
and transforming the experience."

39.  Experiential learning theory differs from cognitive and
behavioral theories in that cognitive theories
emphasize the role of mental processes while
behavioral theories ignore the possible role of
subjective experience in the learning process.
 It emphasizes how experiences, including cognition,
environmental factors, and emotions, influence the
learning process.

40. Experiential Model Theory
 In the experiential model, Kolb described two different
ways of grasping experience:
 Concrete Experience
 Abstract Conceptualization
 He also identified two ways
of transforming experience:
 Reflective Observation
 Active Experimentation

41.  Concrete experience provides information that serves
as a basis for reflection.
 From these reflections, we assimilate the information
and form abstract concepts.
 People then use these concepts to develop new
theories about the world, which they then actively test.

42.  For example, let's imagine that you are going to learn how
to drive a car.
 Some people might choose to begin learning via reflection
by observing other people as they drive.
 Another person might prefer to start more abstractly, by
reading and analyzing a driving instruction book.
 Yet another person might decide to just jump right in and
get behind the seat of a car to practice driving on a test
course.