geological subsurface mapping of pakistan

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NAME:
FAHEEM UD DIN KHAN
SUBJECT:
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR.ARIAN KHAN
SUBMITTED ON:
9-07-2019
BALOCHISTAN UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY,ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
SCIENCES(BUITEMS)

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Geological subsurface maps of Pakistan
Sub surface Minerals:
Pakistan contains Pre-Cambrian to Recent rocks with different tectonometallic and sedimentary
basins. The Chagai-Raskoh magmatic arc and Indus Suture areas are the richest metallogenic
zones in Pakistan. Pakistan has high potential of minerals like indigenous iron, are being utilized and
some are being exported but most of the commodities are waiting for their utilization. Cement raw
materials are common, so the installation of more cement industries especially in Daman of
Sulaiman Range can help a great for the country economy by exporting. Further water resources are
two much and water is going into sea after creating flood and loss in the agricultural lands and
population, so small and large dams are necessary due to population increasing. To overcome
energy crises the small diversion dams are vital. The first and huge gypsum deposits of Pakistan are
found in Sulaiman foldbelt of Balochistan but not utilizing for well development of provinces and
Pakistan. Most of the coal in Pakistan is lignitic but not being exploited. Only metallic coal is being
mined and used. So there is a need to develop technology to mix lignitic and metallic coal. Pakistan
is rich in energy and natural resources like coal, solar, wind, biomass, terrestrial and marine water
but deficient in development.

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Subsurface water reserviors:
Satellites up in space looking at how much water we have underground, in rivers or in the
atmosphere are providing routine observations that can help policymakers and on-the-ground
managers make informed decisions," said Faisal Hossain, associate professor of civil and
environmental engineering at the University of Washington. "From offering improved flood
forecasting to indicating areas where groundwater resources are threatened, freely available satellite
data can be an invaluable resource, particularly in developing countries."

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Subsruface seismicwave zones:
On the basis seismic waves different ares are in different zones
like mountanious rerigions are in the red zones and mild zone while the plain areas are
in the normal or safe zone.
Geological map of Pakistan:
All detils are shown in this map.each and every thing id described in this map

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Sub surface Maping
Definition:
SubsurfaceMap can be defined as a geological map depicting geologic data
orfeaturesbelowthe Earth's surface;espeially a plan of mine workings, orastructure-
contour mapof a petroleum reservoir oran underground ore deposit,coalseam,or key bed.
Types of Subsurface mapping:
Following are the types of sub surfacemapping.
 Contour maps
 Geological cross section
 Isopach
 Isochore
Some of these maps are thickness maps. Such as isopach,isochore etc.
An isopach map is a line that connects points ofequaltrue thickness(i.e.measured perpendicularto
bedding).In otherwords, Anisopachmap displayslines of equal thickness in a layer wherethe
thicknesses are measuredperpendicular to the layer boundaries.Isopach maps are also referred
to as TrueStratigraphic Thickness (TST) maps.
An isochore map is a line that connects points of equal verticalthickness.Inother words,An
isochoremap displayslines of equal thickness in a layer wherethe thicknesses are measured
vertically.Isochoremaps ingeologyarealsoreferred to as True Vertical Thickness(TVT)maps.

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3. Structural Maps and Sections:
Structuralgeologyplaysanimportantroleinmineralandhydrocarbonexploration,and
potentialhazardidentification andmonitoring.Structuralmapping is the identification
and characterization of structuralexpression.Structuresincludefaults,folds,synclines
andanticlinesandlineaments.Understandingstructuresisthekeytointerpreting
crustalmovements that have shaped the present terrain. Structures can indicate
potentiallocationsofoilandgasreservesbycharacterizingboththeunderlyingsubsurface
geometry of rock units and the amount of crustaldeformation andstress
experienced in a certain locale. Detailed examination of structurecan be obtained
bygeophysicaltechniquessuchasseismicsurveying.
4. GEOLOGICAL CROSS-SECTIONS
:They representthe geologic data as maps but in the vertical view. There are
severaltypes ofcross-sections butthe mostcommon in Petroleum Geology are as
follows:
CorrelationCross-Sections: They arethe firstfigures to be drawn in the first
phaseofexploratory drilling and they enable the geologist to decide stratigraphic
equivalencesbetween the wells.
Structural Cross-Sections:
They show the present structuralaltitudes of rocks in relationto sea level as a
horizontaldatum.
Stratigraphic Cross Section:
They show the correlation of strata with respectto one ofthem selected as a
horizontaldatum.
5. Facies Map
In geology, a facies is a body of rock with specified characteristics, which canbe
anyobservableattributeofrockssuchastheiroverallappearance,composition,orcondition
offormation,andthechangesthatmayoccurin thoseattributes over a geographic area.
Itis the sumtotal characteristics of a rockincludingitschemical,physical,andbiological
featuresthatdistinguishesitfromadjacent rock.Therefore,amapshowingthedistribution
ofdifferenttypesofrockattributesor facies occurring within a designated geologic
unit is called facia maps.

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Methods for Mapping Subsurface:
These methods include:
 Shallow seismic survey.
 Ground penetrating radar.
 Electrical resistivity tomography.
 Low frequency EM.
Shallow seismic survey:
Because seismic waves commonly propagate efficiently as they interact with the
internal structureof the Earth, they providehigh-resolution noninvasivemethods
for studying the planet's interior. Since S-waves do not pass through liquids, the
liquid corecauses a "shadow" on the side of the planet opposite the earthquake
whereno direct S-waves areobserved. In addition, P-waves travelmuch slower
through the outer corethan the mantle.
Processing readings frommany seismometers using seismic tomography,
seismologists havemapped the mantle of the earth to a resolution of several
hundred kilometers. This has enabled scientists to identify convection cells and
other large-scalefeatures such as the large low-shear-velocity provinces near
the core–mantle boundary.

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Ground penetrating radar:
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysicalmethod that
uses radar pulses to image the subsurface. This nondestructivemethod
uses electromagnetic radiation in the microwaveband and detects the reflected
signals fromsubsurfacestructures. GPRcan haveapplications in a variety of
media, including rock, soil, ice, fresh water, pavements and structures. In theright
conditions, practitioners can use GPR to detect subsurfaceobjects, changes in
material properties, and voids and cracks.
Electrical resistivity tomography:
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) or electrical
resistivity imaging(ERI) is a geophysical technique for imaging sub-surface structures
from electrical resistivity measurements made at the surface, or by electrodes in one or
more boreholes. If the electrodes are suspended in the boreholes, deeper sections can
be investigated. It is closely related to the medical imaging technique electrical
impedance tomography (EIT), and mathematically is the same inverse problem. In
contrast to medical EIT, however, ERT is essentially a direct current method. A related
geophysical method, induced polarization (or spectral induced polarization), measures
the transient response and aims to determine the subsurface chargeability properties.

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VERY LOWFREQUENCY EM (VLF) :
Governments with naval forces haveestablished a grid
of tall, high – powered transmitters, with power up to 1000 watts, thatbroadcast
a signal field in the 15 to 28 kHz frequency range. These broadcastfields
propagatethousands of miles over the Earth’s surfaceand are essentially uniform
in the atmosphere. Due to their power the signals penetrate into the ground to
depths of several hundred feet. Because of the high material properties contrast
at the ground/air interface, the signals are refracted down into the ground at
steep angles. Since the Earth is relatively less homogeneous than the atmosphere,
the EM flux crowds into zones of higher conductivity and rarefies in zones of
higher resistivity.