My policy term paper for Transformation through Sustained Agricultural and Rural Development: Policies and Institutions, which focused on Cambodia, smallholder farmers, rice, climate change, aid dependence, governance, and land laws

1. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
1
How Land Laws Are Currently Affecting Food Security for Smallholder Farmers in
Cambodia, and with the onset of Climate Change, Will Land Laws Undermine their Food
Security by 2050?
Introduction
This three-part series discusses how Land Laws in Cambodia are affecting food security for
smallholder farmers, and how climate change will exacerbate the conditions by 2050. This third
essay focuses on:
1) The adverse effects of climate change on rice production, and thus food consumption;
2) The political economy of Cambodia that has resulted in increased food insecurity for
smallholder farmers;
3) Policy recommendations for achieving food security by 2050, despite the increasing
uncertainties caused by climate change; and
4) Monitoring and evaluation indicators to ensure good governance and food security.
History: Food Security and Land Laws in Cambodia
FOOD SECURITY
Rural Cambodians, and especially smallholders, are more at risk for food insecurity because they
face additional constraints in their efforts to produce edible food from crops (CARD 2008).
Refer to Paper 2 for Key Cambodia Facts, the Causal Factors that have Resulted in Food
Insecurity, and examples of constraints that make smallholders extremely vulnerable. Many
smallholders demand land as a source of livelihood, household reproduction, and identity (Beban
and Sovachana 2014), and current Land Law policies allow for land grabbing by agro-industrial
businesses from smallholder farmers, leaving smallholders landless and food insecure.
For the purpose of this paper, the Global Hunger Index (GHI),
will measure food security (IFPRI 2015). This indicator reflects
four dimensions: undernourishment, child wasting, child
stunting, and child mortality (IFPRI 2015). Although
Cambodia’s GHI has improved since 2005, it is still one of the
highest among its neighboring countries, and is considered a
‘serious’ level (IFPRI 2015). Furthermore, Beban and
Sovachana (2014) measured food insecurity as the number of
months per year participants lacked rice to eat, and found, on
average, both men and women lacked sufficient rice 3.25
months out of the year.
LAND LAWS
Cambodia’s tragic history with the Khmer Rouge (KR) in 1975 resulted in the destruction of all
records of private property rights. The second paper in this series describes the current land
grabbing situation and the evolution of Land Laws.
In 2012, the Prime Minister signed a moratorium on Economic Land Concessions (ELCs) as an
attempt to resolve land disputes. However, the number of Social Land Concessions (SLCs)
Global Hunger Index for SE Asia
2015 2005
Lao PDR 28.5 36.9
Myanmar 23.5 37.4
Cambodia 22.6 29.8
Indonesia 22.1 26.5
Philippines 20.1 22.1
Vietnam 14.7 24.6
Thailand 11.9 13.6
Malaysia 10.3 14.6
Source: IFPRI, 2015

2. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
2
granted to government officials, military officers, and wealthy citizens have mysteriously
increased five-fold since then (Lipes 2014). In 2012 alone, the Royal Government of Cambodia
(RGC) granted 38 extra SLCs compared to 2011 (CCHR 2013). No complete list1
of reliable data
of ELCs or land deals exist, nor the bidding process, land investment, or decision-making criteria
because of the government’s lack of transparency (CCHR 2013). Many land disputes never make
it to the courts because smallholder farmers lack the knowledge or financial resources to further
their complaints (MoP 2007). Finally, the government can only intervene in land dispute cases
between individuals and companies, therefore protection of smallholder farmers is minimal and
ineffective (Lipes 2014).
Status of Land Grabbing: USAID reports that since the 1980s, the wealthy one percent of the
population has owned 20-30 percent of land (Calavan et al. 2004). Then in 2007, the Ministry of
Planning (MoP) suggested that the wealthier one fifth of Cambodians control up to 70% of
available land (MoP 2007). According to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries
(MAFF), the government signed 114 contracts with agribusinesses in 1996-2012, totaling
1,215,867 hectares (MAFF 2013), which is 30.6%2
of the total arable land in Cambodia. Further,
in 2015, combined data from the Ministry of Environment (MoE) and MAFF indicated a total of
230 companies with grants for a total land area of 1,934,896 hectares (48.8% of arable land)
(Open Development 2015), even though the NGO, LICADHO, reports 2,157,744 hectares
(54.4% of arable land) of ELCs granted in August 2012. From 2012-2015 alone, the government
profited $80 million from previously leased ELCs (Open Development 2015). It seems that
reporting is somewhat convoluted, however the point remains that the government continues to
profit from ELCs despite the moratorium signed in 2012.
Climate Change Projections and Impacts
Climate change poses additional problems for the food security of smallholder farmers. Most
smallholder farmers rely on the monsoon season, May-October, to provide enough water to flood
seasonal lakes and streams in order to irrigate their crops. In 2004, 84.4% of harvested land used
traditional rain-fed farming practices of rice (Yu and Fan 2010). However, climate change
induced water scarcity caused by drought; extreme weather events, flooding, and land
degradation are affecting crop yields (MoE 2006) and the ability of smallholder farmers to have
any sort of income (CARD 2008).
PROJECTIONS
Temperature: Regional climate change projections over the Mekong River Basin suggest an
increasing trend in mean temperature for the period 1960-2099, and a rapid increase after 2030
(Thoeun 2015). In addition, Oxford University projects mean annual temperature increases by
0.7-2.7o
C by the 2060s and 1.4-4.3o
C by the 2090s (Thoeun 2015).
1
The 2012 ELC moratorium ended government records of land concession sales to companies. The records do not
account for the SLCs sold to wealthy Cambodians, and there are no government records of land disputes because the
elite technically, legally acquired the land.
2
Average arable land 1997-2013: 3,969,000 ha (FAOSTAT 2016)

3. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
3
Precipitation: Regional models indicate an increasing trend in mean annual rainfall for the period
2010 to 2050, mostly occurring during the wet season, and slightly offset by a decrease in the dry
season rainfall, followed by a decreasing trend from 2070-2099 (Thoeun 2015).
Fig. 1: Projected temperature and precipitation variability 1960-2099.
Source: Thoeun, 2015
IMPACTS
Increased temperatures cause abiotic stress and enhanced respiratory rates, which reduces
duration of growth and grain filling time of rice crops (Wassmann et al. 2009). This results in
lower yield and lower quality rice grain (Wassmann et al. 2009). Furthermore, floods have
accounted for 70% of rice production losses between 1998 and 2002, and the occurrence of
drought and floods are one of the main contributors to poverty in Cambodia (MoE 2006). For
example, the severe floods from 2000-2002 resulted in 438 casualties and damages amounting to
$205 million (MoE 2006). Lower yielding or flood-damaged crops have implications on the
available food to consume. In a regional climate change study on food consumption, using

4. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
4
caloric intake as a measure for food availability, SE Asia is projected to have a 4.3% decline in
kcals per day in 2050 (Nelson et al. 2009).
There are still uncertainties in forecasting High Impact Weather (HIW) events, and accurate
forecasts are not yet available in Cambodia for government use (MoE 2006). Currently, villagers
downstream rely on word of mouth from upstream areas to ready themselves for floods. The
information that does exists about water levels leaves farmers unsure of how to interpret the
information and is typically found in public areas, thus inaccessible to smallholders (MoE 2006).
Political Economy of Cambodia
Although there are numerous areas of weakness in Cambodia’s governance system that affect
achieving food security for smallholder farmers, this paper will focus primarily on aid
dependence and corruption.
Between the periods of 1993-2003, two problems with foreign aid emerged. First, the scale of aid
was roughly $600 million each year, which wildly distorted the economy (Ear 2007). In an audit
of the 2003 budget, the government spent $761.1 million (Kimsong and Wasson 2005), mostly
sourced from donors’ aid. Organizations took over funding for education, health care, social
welfare, and rural development, meanwhile the government was financially in control of defense
and security (Ear 2007). Since donor agencies took over most of the government’s
responsibilities for basic services, this left the government with minimal responsibilities towards
its citizens (Ear 2007). Second, most Cambodian scholars began working for foreign
organizations, which weakened state capacity. These problems inhibit a lack of political
willpower and poor leadership from the government, and an urgent need to redistribute aid to
improve governance (Ear 2007).
Additionally, aid dependence in Cambodia worsens bureaucratic quality and the rule of law, and
increases corruption (Ear 2007). An estimated $120-500 million per year went towards corrupt
actions (Ear 2007). According to USAID/Cambodia’s assessment on corruption (2004),
numerous diversions of financial resources occur from small facilitation payments. To name a
few: to speed up illegal grants of logging concessions or secure service delivery; police and other
officials demanding small bribes, students paying unofficial daily fees to supplement teachers or
administrators’ salaries, and/or additional fees to access public health services (Calavan et al.
2004). The public perceives corruption as the leading problem with governance (Ear 2007), and
rates it as the most severe cause of human insecurity (Beban and Sovachana 2014). Currently,
between 30 and 40% of the central government’s $4.3 billion budget (Meng 2015) depends on
donor aid (U.S. Dept. of State 2016).
Without the government’s financial or legal support, smallholder farmers must rely on
alternative measures to achieve food security. This entails a reliance on wage labor or migration
to urban areas for work (Beban and Sovachana 2014). The Cambodian Rural Urban Migration
Project (CRUMP) reported Phnom Penh’s population grew at an annual rate of 8% between 1998
and 2008, from 567,860 to 1,237,600 residents, and 87% of the surveyed sample indicated it was
for work-related reasons (MoP 2012).

5. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
5
Source: MoP, 2012
My Position on Cambodia’s Situation
Cambodia missed the Asian Green Revolution (AGR) from 1965-1990 because of political
turmoil, but was able to increase paddy rice production through extensive farming since their
first rice exports in 1995 (IRRI 2015). Since 2011, Cambodia’s rice exports increased 215%,
which currently makes the country the world’s fastest growing rice exporter (Workman 2016).
22 22.7 23.6 22.5
15.7 16
33 32.1
25.3 24.5
29.9
26.3
32 32.4
38.4 39.5 40.9
44.8
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Percent
Years
Primary Sources of Income in Cambodia (in %)
Agriculture Non Agriculture Wage and Salary
Cambodia Rice Exports and Consumption (thousand metric tons)
Trade Year 2011/2012 2012/2013 2013/2014*
2014/2015 2015/2016*
Exports 900 1,075 1,000 1,150 900
Consumption &
Residual
3,400 3,550 3,650 3,600 3,600
*Decline in exports follow same trend as neighboring countries
Source: USDA, 2016

6. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
6
By the year 2018, the RGC wants to transform the country into a demand-driven export market
and reach the status of an upper middle-income country (RGC 2014). Refer to Paper 1 to read
about the government’s National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP), Triangle Strategy, and its
inclusive achievements. During the period 1994-2006, Cambodia achieved macroeconomic
stability and considerable economic progress, with an annual average economic growth rate of
8.4% (RGC 2014). However, the country’s long history of political instability, an unstable
economy, and lack of political willpower resulted in the current state of corruption, which
hinders the country’s full potential to grow.
An example of an economic consequence of Cambodia’s corruption is the 2014 withdrawal of
the European Union (EU) importing sugar from Cambodia because of accusations against the
Phnom Penh Sugar plantation, owned by Senator Ly Yong Phat and his wife, Kim Heang
(Zsombor 2014). The sugar plantation is encroaching on farms and community forests of over
1,500 families (Zsombor 2014). After an investigation in 2012, EU cut imports from $42 million
in 2013 to $2 million in 2014 (-94.8%) (Crothers 2016).
Finally, the government is simply not investing enough money or resources into agriculture or
smallholders. During the AGR, on average, most countries spent 15.4% of their total budget on
agriculture, which resulted in small farms being more efficient producers than expansive farms
(Hazell 2009). In 2013, the RGC spent less than 1.0% of its national budget on agriculture
(Beban and Sovachana 2014).
Policy Recommendations
USE THE PRO-POOR MODEL
 The pro-poor model includes a rural-orientated development strategy that raises
productivity and income for smallholders (Timmer 2015). This includes a
technology package that is easily adoptable for farms of all sizes, modern input and
credit systems that are affordable to smallholder farmers, public extension systems
Paddy Rice Production in Cambodia, 1993-2014
Source: FAOSTAT, 2015

7. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
7
that prioritize farmers; and product markets and price support policies that ensure
stable, profitable prices (Hazell 2009).
The pro-poor model requires a price-policy approach with high price incentives to create
rural purchasing power (Timmer 2015). If implemented in conjunction with long term
investments (see section below), the model will lead to economic growth (Timmer 2015).
For example, Indonesia used the pro-poor model to reduce poverty substantially (Tsakok
2011). Their GNP per capita was $50 in 1967 and rose to $1,420 in 2006 because of the
government’s investment in rural areas (Tsakok 2011). Currently, the only pro-poor
based intervention outlined in the NSDP is for health financing (RGC 2014).
INCREASE GOVERNMENT TRANSPARENCY THROUGH INDEPENDENT
MONITORING MECHANISMS
 The RGC needs to respond to independent assessments of corruption. The
government must monitor actions and commit to precise notification procedures,
have open discussions of food trade policies, and create knowledge platforms that
collect, analyze, and diffuse information across the value chain (World Bank 2012).
Allowing an independent governing body to assess and monitor the government will
increase transparency and reduce corruption (Hazell 2009). In 2004, USAID/Cambodia
realized that, “corruption has become a part of everyday life…it has reached ‘pandemic’
proportions,” (Calavan et al. 2004). The organization assessed the corruption and
provided recommendations, but the RGC did not respond.
The RGC can improve its governance by increasing accountability through supervision
and citizen participation (Soksreng 2007), as well as through predictability, by applying
rules and policies in a consistent format (Soksreng 2007). Many human rights NGOs are
writing open letters3
to international government officials to demand an end to human
rights violations related to land disputes. These letters put the government and their
corrupt actions in the international spotlight, and outreach uses public pressure to change
the government’s behavior. An example of a successful effort is the Clean Sugar
Campaign, which started in 2011. In 2012, after numerous letters to the EU, the European
Parliament passed an urgent resolution to investigate the human right abuses related to
ELCs, which then led to a reduction in sugar imports from Cambodia (Boycott Blood
Sugar, 2016).
GUARANTEE LAND TENURE SECURITY FOR SMALLHOLDERS
 The government needs to re-define their Land Laws to provide rights to smallholder
farmers without ambiguous language that allows loopholes or exploitation of the
Laws. Completing a full cadastral and land measurement survey is necessary to
register the land for smallholder farmers and transfer land titles (Trzinski and
Upham 2014).
The RGC needs to address the broken land ownership system that favors the wealthy
minority in Cambodia (Tsakok 2011). In 2002, the World Bank invested $33.9 million to
map and register land in the Land Management and Administration Project (Trzinski and
Upham 2014). However, critics of the program argue there were no provisions for
3
Four NGOs, FIDH, ADHOC, LICADHO, LDH teamed together and wrote an open letter to French President
Hollande on 10/23/15, and a letter to US Senator Kerry on 1/26/2016

8. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
8
independent monitoring and a lack of transparency (Beban and Sovechana 2014); and
yet, a complete map still does not exist and there is a gap between measurement and
titling (Beban and Sovechana 2014). In addition, working groups need to detail target
groups who will benefit from land tenure, create a beneficiary selection process,
restitution, land acquisition mechanisms, and provide a plan to increase access to land for
smallholders and their land tenure security (Binswanger-Mkhize et al. 2010). It is
important for the government to be extremely clear in their goals so questions do not
arise later (Binswanger-Mkhize et al. 2010). Setting up technical working groups or
commissions to find facts, produce initial recommendations, and building consensus
throughout the country will achieve clear-cut goals and prevent conflict later
(Binswanger-Mkhize et al. 2010).
LONG TERM INVESTMENTS
 Long-term investments in rural development through Village Development
Committees (VDCs) will educate farmers about new technologies, empower
smallholder farmers with roles and duties, and provide resources to improve
villages.
As smallholders settle into their new plots, long-term investments in education and
technology, such as irrigation and milling machinery, will allow farmers to increase
processing, storage, and trade (Hazell 2009). In addition, accessibility to lucrative
markets will need to be developed (Tsakok 2011). Furthermore, rural roads provide
farmers access to the markets, which increases a farmers’ cash income and ability to
purchase food (Christiaensen 2012). Finally, farmers need incentives to invest in their
land to use climate-resilient methods and sustainably, intensively farm. This will
eventually lead to the creation of new labor in non-agricultural sectors (Tsakok 2011).
Thus far, the VDCs have held 423 courses on development plans, restored canals,
donated livestock, and provided essential materials (RGC 2013), and the RGC plans to
increase training VDCs in order to: create village development plans, use scientific
knowledge appropriately, and adapt to climate change (RGC 2013). Money for these
trainings will come from public investments, such as ministries, institutions and agencies,
NGOs, development partners and more (RGC 2013).
INVEST IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION PROJECTS
 The country needs more community-based initiatives to adapt to climate
variability. Developments for sustainable community irrigation systems (MoE
2006), an early warning system for floods, integrated soil and water management
(World Development 2006), and weather indexed insurance (World Bank 2012)
can protect smallholders from climate change.
The government must make significant investments in these high priority areas to
reduce the impacts of climate change on smallholder farmers now and into 2050.
These projects will cost roughly $65.5 million over the course of three years (MoE
2006), but the results will have considerable impacts on adapting to climate
variability. The RGC claims people are the focus of 2016, listing priority sectors as
the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport; The Ministry of Labor and Vocational
Training; and the Ministry of Health (Meng 2015). However, efforts to improve
livelihoods will not be valid if a climate change induced HIW events kill hundreds of

9. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
9
people and destroys crops. The government needs to increase their budget4
for the
MoE, or NGOs need to personally fund and work with the Ministry to maximize
results, scale up projects, and reduce repetition of pilot projects. Moreover,
community-based, integrated soil and water management practices can double
productivity compared to rain-fed practices (World Development 2006) and empower
individuals. Finally, weather-indexed insurance can be useful for farmers if
precipitation falls below or above a set threshold that would lead to low yields (World
Bank 2012). This would provide a safety net for farmers that had a smaller yield.
Monitoring and Evaluation
Cambodia’s institutional environment needs to transform in order to reduce corrupt land
grabbing, increase land tenure, and improve food security for smallholders. In addition,
adaptation to climate change is necessary in order to sustain food security of farmers into the
year 2050. These changes will require a monitoring and evaluation procedure to ensure timely
policy responses to developments in order to inform policymakers of the most effective
measures.
Currently, the major actors involved in M&E are the office of the Prime Minister, Ministry of
Planning, Ministry of Economy and Finance, and other supporting actors (RGC 2013). This is an
issue in itself; the government needs to increase independent accountability institutions to
increase transparency (Soksreng 2007). Once civil society, the private sector, and the
marginalized are involved, the following indicators listed in the table below will evaluate my
policy recommendations.
4
In 2016, these ministries will receive roughly 5.2 percent of GDP (Meng 2015).
5
These numbers are my own rough estimation from scaling up small projects unless referenced otherwise
6
The International Center for Not-for-Profit Law, 2016
7
Less CSOs result in less excessive funding and repetitious projects, this gives organizations more advantage
against the government.
8
CCHR, 2013
9
CCHR, 2013
10
Touch and Neef, 2015
Indicators for Monitoring My Policy Recommendations
Recommendation
Category
Indicator 2013 2050 Goal5
Independent
Monitoring
Number of civil society
organizations that have leverage in
government decisions
1,3506
5007
Number of policies/procedures with
consistent application of rules
N/A (total possible)
Land Tenure Number of land titles 380,0008
700,000
Resolved land disputes cases 40 (2011)9
29310
(total possible as of

10. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
10
Conclusion
Most smallholder farmers do not own land titles, and current Land Laws allow interested
investors the legal right to evict farmers from their homes. When smallholders are displaced
from their homes, their livelihoods are affected, and thus, their food insecurity. However, even
with guaranteed tenure, the onset of climate change will affect rice productivity, now, and into
the future. Although the RGC has accomplished many development achievements in the past 25
years, land insecurity sprouts a new era of conflict for Cambodians and the Royal Government.
The RGC needs to use the pro-poor model, invest in long-term rural developments and
adaptation projects, and revise the Land Laws to guarantee tenure. Bottom line, the government
must increase transparency and reduce corruption.
The next topical areas to assess are:
 What organizations, institutions, or political powers have enough influence to demand
transparency from the RGC?
 What strategy will effectively stop corruption in Cambodia?
 How can climate change adaptation become a priority to the RGC?
 How will the suggested improvements directly/indirectly benefit smallholder
farmers?
11
All values in this section are from RGC, 2013
12
IWMI and CGIAR, 2013
13
GEF, 2012
14
IFPRI, 2015
15
IFPRI, 2009 (2000 and 2050 value)
2014)
Long Term (next 35
years) Investments11
Rehabilitation of rural roads (km) 26,900 40,000 (total possible)
New roads (km) 125 15,000
Literacy rate (age 15-24) 91.5 100
Number of villages given training
for Village Development Plan
1,610 15,000
Number of household consumers
with electricity
1,125,679 8,000,000
Climate Change Number of hectares (ha) with access
to community irrigation systems
(wet + dry season)
1.12 million12
2 million
Number of trained employees who
can install, maintain, and operate
EWS
513
26
Food Security Global Hunger Index 22.6 (2015)14
5.0
Daily calorie per capita consumption
(kcal)15
2,696 (2000) 3,277

11. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
11
References
Beban, Alice, and Pou Sovachana. Human Security & Land Rights in Cambodia. Report. 2014: 14-55. Accessed
February 16, 2016. http://www.cicp.org.kh/userfiles/file/Publications/HSLR-report-Final-3-29-2015.pdf.
Binswanger-Mkhize, H. P., C. Bourguignon, and R. Van Den Brink. Agricultural Land Redistribution: Toward
Greater Consensus. Danvers: Clearance Center, 2009. Accessed April 28, 2016.
Boycott Blood Sugar. Clean Sugar Campaign. Website. 2016. Accessed September 22, 2016.
Calavan, M. M., Briquets, S. D., and J. O’Brien. Cambodian Corruption Assessment. USAID/Cambodia, August 19,
2004. Accessed April 20, 2016.
Cambodian Center for Human Rights [CCHR]. Cambodia: Land in Conflict. Report. December 2013. Accessed
April 28, 2016. http://cchrcambodia.org/admin/media/report/report/english/CCHR Report Cambodia Land in
Conflict an Overview of the Land Situation ENG.pdf.
Cambodian Development and Research Institute. International Food and Policy Research Institute. Cambodia’s
Agricultural Strategy: Future Development Options for the Rice Sector. By Bingxin Yu and Xinshen Diao. March
2011. Accessed February 12, 2016. http://www.cdri.org.kh/webdata/download/sr/agriStrategy9e.pdf.
Council for Agricultural and Rural Development [CARD], Strategic Framework for Food Security and Nutrition in
Cambodia 2008-2012 (SFFSN). Report. May 2008: 1-63. Accessed March 22, 2016.
http://www.gafspfund.org/sites/gafspfund.org/files/Documents/Cambodia_4_of_16_STRATEGY_Food_Security_a
nd_Nutrition_Strategy_0.pdf.
Christiaensen, Luc. The Role of Agriculture in Modernizing Society. Food Farms and Fields in China 2030.
Discussion Papers. May 2012. Accessed April 28, 2016.
Crothers, Lauren. "EU Turns Back on Cambodian Sugar Exports." Anadolu Agency, March 15, 2016. Accessed
April 27, 2016. http://aa.com.tr/en/world/eu-turns-back-on-cambodian-sugar-exports/537790.
Denning, Glenn. "Fostering International Collaboration for Food Security and Sustainable Development: A Personal
Perspective of M. S. Swaminathan's Vision, Impact, and Legacy for Humanity." Current Science 109, no. 3 (August
10, 2015): 447-55. Accessed February 12, 2016.
Ear, Sophal. “The Political Economy of Aid and Governance in Cambodia.” Asian Journal of Political Science, 15,
no. 1, (April 2007): 68-96. Accessed April 25, 2016.
FAO. Country Fact Sheet on Food and Agriculture Policy Trends: Cambodia. Report. April 2014. Accessed
February 16, 2016. http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/009/i3761e/i3761e.pdf.
FAO. Foreign Agricultural Investment Country Profile Cambodia. Report. 2011. Accessed February 12, 2016.
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/tcsp/docs/Cambodia_Profile_Final.pdf.
FAO. "Production Crops, Paddy Rice Production" FAOSTAT. 2015. Accessed April 27, 2016.
http://faostat3.fao.org/compare/E.
Food Security Portal: Cambodia. 2012. Accessed February 16, 2016. http://www.foodsecurityportal.org/cambodia.
Global Agriculture & Food Security Program [GAFSP]. Policy Document on the Promotion of Paddy Rice
Production and Export of Milled Rice. Report. 2009. Accessed February 12, 2016.
http://www.gafspfund.org/sites/gafspfund.org/files/Documents/Cambodia_10_of_16_STRATEGY_SNEC-
Rice%20Export%20Policy_0.pdf

12. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
12
Global Environmental Fund [GEF]. Strengthening Climate Information and Early Warning Systems in Cambodia to
Support Climate Resilient Development and Adaptation to Climate Change. Project Identification Form. December
27, 2012. Accessed April 28, 2016. http://www.adaptation-undp.org/sites/default/files/downloads/cambodia-
ldcf.pdf.
Hazell, Peter B.R. The Asian Green Revolution. Discussion Paper. November 2009. Accessed April 28, 2016.
International Center for Not-for-Profit Law. “At a Glance.” NGO Law Monitor: Cambodia. 2016. Accessed April
28, 2016. http://www.icnl.org/research/monitor/cambodia.html
International Food Policy Research Institute [IFPRI]. "Cambodia." 2015 Global Hunger Index. 2015. Accessed
April 27, 2016. http://ghi.ifpri.org/countries/KHM/.
International Rice Research Institute. Cambodia and IRRI. Phnom Penh: International Rice Research Institute, 2015.
Accessed February 12, 2016. http://irri.org/resources/publications/brochures/cambodia-and-irri.
International Water Management Institute [IWMI] and CGIAR. Agricultural Water Management Planning in
Cambodia. Issue brief no. 1. June 2013. Accessed April 28, 2016.
http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/issue_briefs/cambodia/issue_brief_01-awm_planning_in_cambodia.pdf.
Kimsong, Kay, and Erik Wasson. "Nat’l Assembly Approves Audit of 2003 Budget Nat’l Assembly Approves Audit
of 2003 Budget." The Cambodia Daily, October 26, 2005. Accessed April 27, 2016.
https://www.cambodiadaily.com/archives/natl-assembly-approves-audit-of-2003-budget-63954/.
Lipes, Joshua. "New Cambodian Land Disputes Despite Moratorium on Key Concessions." Translated by Samean
Yun. Compiled by Keo Nimol. Radio Free Asia: Cambodia, January 30, 2014. Accessed April 5, 2016.
http://www.rfa.org/english/news/cambodia/disputes-01302014194318.html.
Meng, Siv. "Minister of Economy and Finance Talks 2016 Budget." The Phnom Penh Post, December 4, 2015.
Accessed April 28, 2016. http://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/minister-economy-and-finance-talks-2016-
budget.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries [MAFF]. "Economic Land Concessions." Overview. 2013.
Accessed April 27, 2016. http://www.elc.maff.gov.kh/.
Ministry of Environment [MoE]. “National Adaptation Program of Action to Climate Change.” Report. 2006.
Accessed April 28, 2016.
MoE. The Cambodian Government's Achievements and Future Direction in Sustainable Development. Phnom Penh,
2012. Accessed February 12, 2016. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1022cambodia.pdf
Ministry of Planning [MoP]. Cambodia Human Development Report: Expanding Choices for Rural People. Report.
2007. Accessed April 26, 2016.
http://www.mop.gov.kh/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=xbJTEoNgXOc%3D&tabid=193&mid=613
MoP. Migration in Cambodia: Report on the Cambodian Rural Urban Migration Project (CRUMP). Report. August
2012. Accessed April 28, 2016.
http://www.mop.gov.kh/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=LrGGcGoNsXY=&tabid=213&mid=687.
Neef, A., Touch, S., and J. Chiengthong. “The Politics and Ethics of Land Concessions in Rural Cambodia.” Journal
of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 26, no. 6 (2013): 1085-1103. Accessed March 20, 2016.
Nelson, G. C., Rosegrant, M. W., Koo, J., Robertson, R. Sulser, T., Zhu, T., Ringler, C., Msangi, S. Palazzo, A.,
Batka, M., Magalhaes, M., Valmonte-Santos, R., Ewing, M., and David Lee. “Climate Change Impact on
Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation.” 2009. Accessed April 28, 2016.

13. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
13
Open Development. "Economic Land Concessions." Briefings. October 1, 2015. Accessed April 27, 2016.
http://www.opendevelopmentcambodia.net/briefing/economic-land-concessions-elcs/#ref-33477-20.
Royal Government of Cambodia [RGC]. National Strategic Development Plan 2014-2018. Publication. 2013.
SITHI. "Reported Land Conflict Map." 2011. Accessed April 5, 2016.
http://sithi.org/temp.php?url=land_case/land_case_new.php.
Soksreng, TE. “Good Governance in Cambodia: Exploring the Link between Governance and Poverty Reduction.”
Yokohama Journal of Social Sciences 25, no. 6 (2007): 1346-0242.
Thoeun, H. C. “Observed and Projected Changes in Temperature and Rainfall in Cambodia.” Weather and Climate
Extremes 7, (2015): 61-71.
Tsakok, Isabelle. Success in Agricultural Transformation: What It Means and What Makes It Happen. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
Timmer, Peter. Food Security and Scarcity Why Ending Hunger Is So Hard. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 2015.
Timmer, P. C. “The Macro Dimensions of Food Security: Economic Growth, Equitable Distribution, and Food Price
Stability.” Journal of Food Policy 25, no. 3 (2000): 238-295. Accessed March 24, 2016.
Touch, S., and A. Neef. Resistance to Land Grabbing and Displacement in Rural Cambodia. Conference paper. May
2015: 1-11. Accessed March 24, 2016.
http://www.iss.nl/fileadmin/ASSETS/iss/Research_and_projects/Research_networks/LDPI/CMCP_16-
_Touch_and_Neef.pdf.
United Nations. CAMBODIA Summary of Country Visit – 18 -22 May 2009. Summary Report. 2009. Accessed
February 16, 2016. http://un-foodsecurity.org/sites/default/files/CAMBODIAsummarynote.pdf.
USAID. USAID Country Profile Property Rights and Resource Governance Cambodia. Report. May 2011: 1-3.
Accessed March 30, 2016 http://www.usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-
reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Cambodia_Profile.pdf.
United States Department of Agriculture [USDA]. "Rice: World Markets and Trade." USDA Foreign Agricultural
Service. April 2016. Accessed April 25, 2016.
U.S. Department of State. "U.S. Relations with Cambodia." Diplomacy in Action. February 12, 2016. Accessed
April 27, 2016. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2732.htm.
Wassmann, R., Jagadish, S. V. K., Sumfleth, K., Pathak, H., Howell, G., Ismail, A., Serraj, R., Redona, E., Singh R.
K., and S. Heuer. “Regional Vulnerability of Climate Change Impacts on Asian Rice Production and Scope for
Adaptation.” Advances in Agronomy 102, (2009), 91-133.
Workman, D. "Rice Exports by Country." World's Top Exports. April 14, 2016. Accessed April 25, 2016.
http://www.worldstopexports.com/rice-exports-country/.
Worldbank. Africa Can Help Feed Africa. Report. October 2012. Accessed April 28, 2016.
World Bank. "Cambodia." World Bank Open Data. Accessed April 05, 2016.
http://data.worldbank.org/country/cambodia.

14. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
14
World Bank. "Poverty Has Fallen, Yet Many Cambodians Are Still at Risk of Slipping Back into Poverty, New
Report Finds." The World Bank. February 20, 2014. Accessed February 16, 2016.
http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2014/02/20/poverty-has-fallen-yet-many-cambodians-are-still-at-
risk-of-slipping-back-into-poverty.
World Development Report. “Equity and Development.” Washington DC: World Bank (2006). Accessed April 28,
2016. http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2005/09/20/000112742_20050920110826/Render
ed/PDF/322040World0Development0Report02006.pdf
Yu, Bingxin, and Shenggen Fan. "Rice Production Response in Cambodia." Agricultural Economics 42, no. 3
(2010): 437-50. Accessed February 12, 2016.
Zsombor, Peter. "Sugar Firm Offers Defense after Call for Probe of EU Trade Links." The Cambodia Daily,
February 6, 2014. Accessed April 27, 2016. https://www.cambodiadaily.com/archives/sugar-firm-offers-defense-
after-call-for-probe-of-eu-trade-links-51545/.